Theories and Models of Learning for Educational Research and Practice.

This knowledge
base features learning theories that address how people learn. A resource useful for scholars of
various fields such as educational psychology, instructional design, and human-computer
interaction. Below is the index of learning theories, grouped in somewhat arbitrary categories.
Note that this website is an iterative project and these entries are a work in progress; please leave
comments with suggestions, corrections, and additional references.

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contribution to: info [at] learning-theories.com.

Paradigms:

 Behaviorism
 Cognitivism
 Constructivism
 Design-Based
 Humanism

Behaviorist Theories:

 Behaviorism Overview
 Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
 GOMS Model (Card, Moran, and Newell)
 Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
 Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Cognitivist Theories:

 Cognitivism Overview
 Assimilation Theory (Ausubel)
 Attribution Theory (Weiner)
 Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller)
 Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer)
 Component Display Theory
 Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)
 Gestalt Psychology (Tolman)
 Mental Models (Johnson-Laird)
 Schema Theory
 Stage Theory of Cognitive Development (Piaget)

Constructivist, Social, and Situational Theories:

 Constructivism Overview
 Case-Based Learning
 Cognitive Apprenticeship (Collins et al.)
  Communities of Practice (Lave and Wenger)
 Discovery Learning (Bruner)
 Goal Based Scenarios
 Social Development Theory (Vygtosky)
 Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
 Situated Learning (Lave)

Motivational and Humanist Theories:

 Humanism Overview
 ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller)
 Experiential Learning (Kolb)
 Facilitative Teaching (Rogers)
 Invitational Learning (Purkey)
 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)

Design Theories and Models (Prescriptive):

 Design-Based Research Overview

 ADDIE Model of Instructional Design
 ARCS Model of Motivational Design (Keller)
 Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)

Descriptive and Meta Theories:

 Activity Theory (Vygotsky, Leont’ev, Luria, Engstrom, etc.)

 Actor-Network Theory (Latour, Callon)
 Distributed Cognition (Hutchins)

Identity Theories:

 Erikson’s Stages of Development (Erikson)

 Identity Status Theory (Marcia)
 Self-Theories: Entity and Incremental Theory (Dweck)

Miscellaneous Learning Theories and Models:

 Affordance Theory (Gibson)

 Multiple Intelligences Theory (Gardne

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Summary: Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is an instructional method of hands-on, active
learning centered on the investigation and resolution of messy, real-world problems.

Originators: Late 1960s at the medical school at McMaster University in Canada.

Key Terms: open-ended problems, self-directed learners, teacher as facilitator, student as

problem solver

Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a pedagogical approach and curriculum design methodology

often used in higher education and K-12 settings.

The following are some of the defining characteristics of PBL:

 Learning is driven by challenging, open-ended problems with no one “right” answer

 Problems/cases are context specific
 Students work as self-directed, active investigators and problem-solvers in small
collaborative groups (typically of about five students)
 A key problem is identified and a solution is agreed upon and implemented
 Teachers adopt the role as facilitators of learning, guiding the learning process and
promoting an environment of inquiry

Rather than having a teacher provide facts and then testing students ability to recall these facts
via memorization, PBL attempts to get students to apply knowledge to new situations. Students
are faced with contextualized, ill-structured problems and are asked to investigate and discover
meaningful solutions.

Proponents of PBL believe that, as a strategy, it:

 develops critical thinking and creative skills

 improves problem-solving skills
 increases motivation
 helps students learn to transfer knowledge to new situations

History

PBL’s more recent influence can be traced to the late 1960s at the medical school at McMaster
University in Canada. Shortly thereafter, three other medical schools — the University of
Limburg at Maastricht (the Netherlands), the University of Newcastle (Australia), and the
University of New Mexico (United States) took on the McMaster model of problem-based
learning. Various adaptations were made and the model soon found its way to various other
disciplines — business, dentistry, health sciences, law, engineering, education, and so on.
Criticisms

One common criticism of PBL is that students cannot really know what might be important for
them to learn, especially in areas which they have no prior experience. Therefore teachers, as
faciliators, must be careful to assess and account for the prior knowledge that students bring to
the classroom.

Another criticism is that a teacher adopting a PBL approach may not be able to cover as much
material as a conventional lecture-based course. PBL can be very challenging to implement, as it
requires a lot of planning and hard work for the teacher. It can be difficult at first for the teacher
to “relinquish control” and become a facilitator, encouraging the students to ask the right
questions rather than handing them solutions.

For more information, see:

 Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem Based Learning

 Barrows, H. S. & Tamblyn, R. M. (1980). Problem-based learning: An approach to
medical education. New York: Springer.
 Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn?
Educational Psychology Review, 16, 235-266.
 Hmelo-Silver, C. E. & Barrows, H. S. (2006). Goals and strategies of a problem-based
learning facilitator. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1. 21-39.
 Savery, J. R., and Duffy, T. M. (1995). Problem based learning: An instructional model
and its constructivist framework. Educational Technology, 35, 31-38.
 Schmidt HG: Foundations of problem-based learning: some explanatory notes. Medical
Education 27:422-432, 1993.
Lecture Method
The lecture method is the most widely used form of presentation. Every instructor should know
how to develop and present a lecture. They also should understand the advantages and
limitations of this method. Lectures are used for introduction of new subjects, summarizing
ideas, showing relationships between theory and practice, and reemphasizing main points. The
lecture method is adaptable to many different settings, including either small or large groups.
Lectures also may be used to introduce a unit of instruction or a complete training program.
Finally, lectures may be combined with other teaching methods to give added meaning and
direction.

The lecture method of teaching needs to be very flexible since it may be used in different ways.
For example, there are several types of lectures such as the illustrated talk where the speaker
relies heavily on visual aids to convey ideas to the listeners. With a briefing, the speaker
presents a concise array of facts to the listeners who normally do not expect elaboration of
supporting material. During a formal lecture, the speaker's purpose is to inform, to persuade, or
to entertain with little or no verbal participation by the students. When using a teaching lecture,
the instructor plans and delivers an oral presentation in a manner that allows some participation
by the students and helps direct them toward the desired learning outcomes.

Teaching Lecture
The teaching lecture is favored by aviation instructors because it allows some active participation
by the students. The instructor must determine the method to be used in developing the subject
matter. The instructor also should carefully consider the class size and the depth of the
presentation. As mentioned in Chapter 3, covering a subject in too much detail is as bad or worse
than sketchy coverage. Regardless of the method of development or depth of coverage, the
success of the teaching lecture depends upon the instructor's ability to communicate effectively
with the class.

In other methods of teaching such as demonstration- performance or guided discussion, the

instructor receives direct reaction from the students, either verbally or by some form of body
language. However, in the teaching lecture, the feedback is not nearly as obvious and is much
harder to interpret. In the teaching lecture, the instructor must develop a keen perception for
subtle responses from the class-facial expressions, manner of taking notes, and apparent interest
or disinterest in the lesson. The successful instructor will be able to interpret the meaning of
these reactions and adjust the lesson accordingly.

Preparing the Teaching Lecture

The competent instructor knows that careful preparation is one key to successful performance as
a classroom lecturer. This preparation should start well in advance of the presentation. The
following four steps should be followed in the planning phase of preparation:
 Establishing the objective and desired outcomes;
Researching the subject;
Organizing the material; and
Planning productive classroom activities.

In all stages of preparing for the teaching lecture, the instructor should support any point to be
covered with meaningful examples, comparisons, statistics, or testimony. The instructor should
consider that the student may neither believe nor understand any point without the use of
testimony from subject area experts or without meaningful examples, statistics, or comparisons.
While developing the lesson, the instructor also should strongly consider the use of examples and
personal experiences related to the subject of the lesson.

After completing the

preliminary planning and
writing of the lesson plan,
the instructor should
rehearse the lecture to build
self-confidence. Rehearsals,
or dry runs, help smooth out
the mechanics of using
notes, visual aids, and other
instructional devices. If
possible, the instructor
should have another
knowledgeable person,
preferably another instructor,
observe the practice sessions
and act as a critic. This
critique will help the
instructor judge the
adequacy of supporting
materials and visual aids, as
well as the presentation.

Suitable Language

In the teaching lecture, simple rather than complex words should be used whenever possible.
Good newspapers offer examples of the effective use of simple words. Picturesque slang and
free-and-easy colloquialisms, if they suit the subject, can add variety and vividness to a teaching
lecture. The instructtor should not, however, use substandard English. Errors in grammar and
vulgarisms detract from an instructor's dignity and reflect upon the intelligence of the students.

If the subject matter includes technical terms, the instructor should clearly define each one so
that no student is in doubt about its meaning. Whenever possible, the instructor should use
specific rather than general words. For example, the specific words, a leak in the fuel line, tell
more than the general term, mechanical defect.

Another way the instructor can add life to the lecture is to vary his or her tone of voice and pace
of speaking. In addition, using sentences of different length helps, since consistent use of short
sentences results in a choppy style. Unless long sentences are carefully constructed, they are
difficult to follow and can easily become tangled. To ensure clarity and variety, the instructor
should normally use sentences of short and medium length.

Types of Delivery

Lectures may include several different types of delivery. However, depending on the
requirements of any particular circumstances, a lecture is usually delivered in one of four ways:

Reading from a typed or written manuscript.

Reciting memorized material without the aid of a manuscript.
Speaking extemporaneously from an outline.
Speaking impromptu without preparation.

The teaching lecture is probably best delivered in an extemporaneous manner. The instructor
speaks from a mental or written outline, but does not read or memorize the material to be
presented. Because the exact words to express an idea are spontaneous, the lecture is more
personalized than one that is read or spoken from memory.

Since the instructor talks directly to the students, their reactions can be readily observed, and
adjustments can be made based on their responses. The instructor has better control of the
situation, can change the approach to meet any contingency, and can tailor each idea to suit the
responses of the students. For example, if the instructor realizes from puzzled expressions that a
number of students fail to grasp an idea, that point can be elaborated on until the reactions of the
students indicate they understand. The extemporaneous presentation reflects the instructor's
personal enthusiasm and is more flexible than other methods. For these reasons, it is likely to
hold the interest of the students.

Use of notes

An instructor who is thoroughly prepared or who has made the presentation before can usually
speak effectively without notes. If the lecture has been carefully prepared, and the instructor is
completely familiar with the outline, there should be no real difficulty.
 Notes used wisely can
ensure accuracy, jog the
memory, and dispel the fear
of forgetting. They are
essential for reporting
complicated information.
For an instructor who tends
to ramble, notes are a must
because they help keep the
lecture on track. The
instructor who requires
notes should use them
sparingly and
unobtrusively, but at the
same time should make no
effort to hide them from the
students. Notes may be
written legibly or typed, and
they should be placed
where they can be consulted
easily, or held, if the
instructor walks about the
room.

Formal Versus Informal Lectures

The lecture may be conducted in either a formal or an informal manner. The informal lecture
includes active student participation. The primary consideration in the lecture method, as in all
other teaching methods, is the achievement of desired learning outcomes. Learning is best
achieved if students participate actively in a friendly, relaxed atmosphere. Therefore, the use of
the informal lecture is encouraged. At the same time, it must be realized that a formal lecture is
still to be preferred on some subjects and occasions, such as lectures introducing new subject
matter.

The instructor can achieve active student participation in the informal lecture through the use of
questions. In this way, the students are encouraged to make contributions that supplement the
lecture. The instructor can use questions to determine the experience and background of the
students in order to tailor the lecture to their needs, and/or to add variety, stimulate interest, and
check student understanding. However, it is the instructor's responsibility to plan, organize,
develop, and present the major portion of a lesson.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Lecture

There are a number of advantages to lectures. For example, a lecture is a convenient way to
instruct large groups. If necessary, a public address system can be used to amplify the speaker's
voice. Lectures can be used to present information that would be difficult for the student to get in
other ways, particularly if the students do not have the time required for research, or if they do
not have access to reference material. Lectures also can usefully and successfully supplement
other teaching devices and methods. A brief introductory lecture can give direction and purpose
to a demonstration or prepare students for a discussion by telling them something about the
subject matter to be covered.

In a lecture, the instructor can present many ideas in a relatively short time. Facts and ideas that
have been logically organized can be concisely presented in rapid sequence. Lecturing is
unquestionably the most economical of all teaching methods in terms of the time required to
present a given amount of material.

The lecture is particularly suitable for introducing a new subject and for explaining the necessary
back- ground information. By using a lecture in this way, the instructor can offer students with
varied back- grounds a common understanding of essential principles and facts.

Although the lecture method can help the instructor meet special challenges, it does have several
drawbacks. Too often the lecture inhibits student participation and, as a consequence, many
students willingly let the instructor do all the work. Learning is an active process, and the lecture
method tends to foster passiveness and teacher-dependence on the part of the students. As a
teaching method, the lecture does not bring about maximum attainment of certain types of
learning outcomes. Motor skills, for example, can seldom be learned by listening to a lecture.
The only effective way students can perfect such skills is through hands-on practice.

The lecture does not easily allow the instructor to estimate the students' understanding as the
material is covered. Within a single period, the instructor may unwittingly present more
information than students can absorb, and the lecture method provides no accurate means of
checking student progress.

Many instructors find it difficult to hold the attention of all students in a lecture throughout the
class period. To achieve desired learning outcomes through the lecture method, an instructor
needs considerable skill in speaking. As indicated in Chapter 1, a student's rate of retention drops
off significantly after the first 10-15 minutes of a lecture and picks back up at the end. In
addition, the retention rate for a lecture is about five percent after 24 hours. In comparison, the
rate of retention for active learning goes up dramatically. An instructor who can introduce some
form of active student participation in the middle of a lecture will greatly increase retention. One
form of active learning that has been successfully used is cooperative or group learning.
Lecture Method
The lecture method is the most widely used form of presentation. Every instructor should know
how to develop and present a lecture. They also should understand the advantages and
limitations of this method. Lectures are used for introduction of new subjects, summarizing
ideas, showing relationships between theory and practice, and reemphasizing main points. The
lecture method is adaptable to many different settings, including either small or large groups.
Lectures also may be used to introduce a unit of instruction or a complete training program.
Finally, lectures may be combined with other teaching methods to give added meaning and
direction.

The lecture method of teaching needs to be very flexible since it may be used in different ways.
For example, there are several types of lectures such as the illustrated talk where the speaker
relies heavily on visual aids to convey ideas to the listeners. With a briefing, the speaker
presents a concise array of facts to the listeners who normally do not expect elaboration of
supporting material. During a formal lecture, the speaker's purpose is to inform, to persuade, or
to entertain with little or no verbal participation by the students. When using a teaching lecture,
the instructor plans and delivers an oral presentation in a manner that allows some participation
by the students and helps direct them toward the desired learning outcomes.

Teaching Lecture
The teaching lecture is favored by aviation instructors because it allows some active participation
by the students. The instructor must determine the method to be used in developing the subject
matter. The instructor also should carefully consider the class size and the depth of the
presentation. As mentioned in Chapter 3, covering a subject in too much detail is as bad or worse
than sketchy coverage. Regardless of the method of development or depth of coverage, the
success of the teaching lecture depends upon the instructor's ability to communicate effectively
with the class.

In other methods of teaching such as demonstration- performance or guided discussion, the

instructor receives direct reaction from the students, either verbally or by some form of body
language. However, in the teaching lecture, the feedback is not nearly as obvious and is much
harder to interpret. In the teaching lecture, the instructor must develop a keen perception for
subtle responses from the class-facial expressions, manner of taking notes, and apparent interest
or disinterest in the lesson. The successful instructor will be able to interpret the meaning of
these reactions and adjust the lesson accordingly.

Preparing the Teaching Lecture

The competent instructor knows that careful preparation is one key to successful performance as
a classroom lecturer. This preparation should start well in advance of the presentation. The
following four steps should be followed in the planning phase of preparation:
 Establishing the objective and desired outcomes;
Researching the subject;
Organizing the material; and
Planning productive classroom activities.

In all stages of preparing for the teaching lecture, the instructor should support any point to be
covered with meaningful examples, comparisons, statistics, or testimony. The instructor should
consider that the student may neither believe nor understand any point without the use of
testimony from subject area experts or without meaningful examples, statistics, or comparisons.
While developing the lesson, the instructor also should strongly consider the use of examples and
personal experiences related to the subject of the lesson.

After completing the

preliminary planning and
writing of the lesson plan,
the instructor should
rehearse the lecture to build
self-confidence. Rehearsals,
or dry runs, help smooth out
the mechanics of using
notes, visual aids, and other
instructional devices. If
possible, the instructor
should have another
knowledgeable person,
preferably another instructor,
observe the practice sessions
and act as a critic. This
critique will help the
instructor judge the
adequacy of supporting
materials and visual aids, as
well as the presentation.

Suitable Language

In the teaching lecture, simple rather than complex words should be used whenever possible.
Good newspapers offer examples of the effective use of simple words. Picturesque slang and
free-and-easy colloquialisms, if they suit the subject, can add variety and vividness to a teaching
lecture. The instructtor should not, however, use substandard English. Errors in grammar and
vulgarisms detract from an instructor's dignity and reflect upon the intelligence of the students.

If the subject matter includes technical terms, the instructor should clearly define each one so
that no student is in doubt about its meaning. Whenever possible, the instructor should use
specific rather than general words. For example, the specific words, a leak in the fuel line, tell
more than the general term, mechanical defect.

Another way the instructor can add life to the lecture is to vary his or her tone of voice and pace
of speaking. In addition, using sentences of different length helps, since consistent use of short
sentences results in a choppy style. Unless long sentences are carefully constructed, they are
difficult to follow and can easily become tangled. To ensure clarity and variety, the instructor
should normally use sentences of short and medium length.

Types of Delivery

Lectures may include several different types of delivery. However, depending on the
requirements of any particular circumstances, a lecture is usually delivered in one of four ways:

Reading from a typed or written manuscript.

Reciting memorized material without the aid of a manuscript.
Speaking extemporaneously from an outline.
Speaking impromptu without preparation.

The teaching lecture is probably best delivered in an extemporaneous manner. The instructor
speaks from a mental or written outline, but does not read or memorize the material to be
presented. Because the exact words to express an idea are spontaneous, the lecture is more
personalized than one that is read or spoken from memory.

Since the instructor talks directly to the students, their reactions can be readily observed, and
adjustments can be made based on their responses. The instructor has better control of the
situation, can change the approach to meet any contingency, and can tailor each idea to suit the
responses of the students. For example, if the instructor realizes from puzzled expressions that a
number of students fail to grasp an idea, that point can be elaborated on until the reactions of the
students indicate they understand. The extemporaneous presentation reflects the instructor's
personal enthusiasm and is more flexible than other methods. For these reasons, it is likely to
hold the interest of the students.

Use of notes

An instructor who is thoroughly prepared or who has made the presentation before can usually
speak effectively without notes. If the lecture has been carefully prepared, and the instructor is
completely familiar with the outline, there should be no real difficulty.
 Notes used wisely can
ensure accuracy, jog the
memory, and dispel the fear
of forgetting. They are
essential for reporting
complicated information.
For an instructor who tends
to ramble, notes are a must
because they help keep the
lecture on track. The
instructor who requires
notes should use them
sparingly and
unobtrusively, but at the
same time should make no
effort to hide them from the
students. Notes may be
written legibly or typed, and
they should be placed
where they can be consulted
easily, or held, if the
instructor walks about the
room.

Formal Versus Informal Lectures

The lecture may be conducted in either a formal or an informal manner. The informal lecture
includes active student participation. The primary consideration in the lecture method, as in all
other teaching methods, is the achievement of desired learning outcomes. Learning is best
achieved if students participate actively in a friendly, relaxed atmosphere. Therefore, the use of
the informal lecture is encouraged. At the same time, it must be realized that a formal lecture is
still to be preferred on some subjects and occasions, such as lectures introducing new subject
matter.

The instructor can achieve active student participation in the informal lecture through the use of
questions. In this way, the students are encouraged to make contributions that supplement the
lecture. The instructor can use questions to determine the experience and background of the
students in order to tailor the lecture to their needs, and/or to add variety, stimulate interest, and
check student understanding. However, it is the instructor's responsibility to plan, organize,
develop, and present the major portion of a lesson.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Lecture

There are a number of advantages to lectures. For example, a lecture is a convenient way to
instruct large groups. If necessary, a public address system can be used to amplify the speaker's
voice. Lectures can be used to present information that would be difficult for the student to get in
other ways, particularly if the students do not have the time required for research, or if they do
not have access to reference material. Lectures also can usefully and successfully supplement
other teaching devices and methods. A brief introductory lecture can give direction and purpose
to a demonstration or prepare students for a discussion by telling them something about the
subject matter to be covered.

In a lecture, the instructor can present many ideas in a relatively short time. Facts and ideas that
have been logically organized can be concisely presented in rapid sequence. Lecturing is
unquestionably the most economical of all teaching methods in terms of the time required to
present a given amount of material.

The lecture is particularly suitable for introducing a new subject and for explaining the necessary
back- ground information. By using a lecture in this way, the instructor can offer students with
varied back- grounds a common understanding of essential principles and facts.

Although the lecture method can help the instructor meet special challenges, it does have several
drawbacks. Too often the lecture inhibits student participation and, as a consequence, many
students willingly let the instructor do all the work. Learning is an active process, and the lecture
method tends to foster passiveness and teacher-dependence on the part of the students. As a
teaching method, the lecture does not bring about maximum attainment of certain types of
learning outcomes. Motor skills, for example, can seldom be learned by listening to a lecture.
The only effective way students can perfect such skills is through hands-on practice.

The lecture does not easily allow the instructor to estimate the students' understanding as the
material is covered. Within a single period, the instructor may unwittingly present more
information than students can absorb, and the lecture method provides no accurate means of
checking student progress.

Many instructors find it difficult to hold the attention of all students in a lecture throughout the
class period. To achieve desired learning outcomes through the lecture method, an instructor
needs considerable skill in speaking. As indicated in Chapter 1, a student's rate of retention drops
off significantly after the first 10-15 minutes of a lecture and picks back up at the end. In
addition, the retention rate for a lecture is about five percent after 24 hours. In comparison, the
rate of retention for active learning goes up dramatically. An instructor who can introduce some
form of active student participation in the middle of a lecture will greatly increase retention. One
form of active learning that has been successfully used is cooperative or group learning.

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