subject= Manual of Lab work

Submitted to= Engr Anum shabir

Submitted by= Asad Ur Rehman

Section = P-2 Group B.

Session = 2K17-2K21.

Roll number = 2k17-ELE 122.

Department= Electrical Engineering .

Experiment Title (s) of Experiment (s) scheduled CLO
1 Introduction to Power Transmission System 1

2 Study and analysis of three phase star connected resistive loads 1

3 Study and analysis of three phase star connected inductive loads 1

4 Study and analysis of three phase star connected capacitive loads 1

5 Study and analysis of three phase delta connected resistive loads 1

6 Study and analysis of three phase delta connected inductive loads 1

7 Study and analysis of three phase delta connected capacitive loads 1

8 Study and analysis of three phase RC series (Branch)in star connected 1

9 Study and analysis of three phase RL series (Branch)in star connected 1

10 Study and analysis of three phase RLC series (Branch)in star connected 1

Study and analysis of three phase RLC parallel (Branch)in star 1

11 connected

12 Study of comparison between HVAC & HVDC transmission 1

Study and analysis of comparison of High Voltage AC & Low Voltage 1

13 AC transmission

List of Experiments
 Experiment # 1

Objective: 
                   Introduction to Power Transmission System 

Theory: 
Introduction:
In early days, there was a little demand for electrical energy so that small power stations were
built to supply lighting and heating loads. However, the widespread use of electrical energy by
modern civilisation has necessitated to produce bulk electrical energy economically and
efficiently.
The increased demand of electrical energy can be met by building big power stations at
favourable places where fuel (coal or gas) or water energy is available in abundance. This has
shifted the site of power stations to places quite away from the consumers.
The electrical energy produced at the power stations has to be supplied to the consumers. There
is a large network of conductors between the power station and the consumers. This network
can be broadly divided into two parts viz., transmission and distribution.
Electric Supply System:
The conveyance of electric power from a power station to consumers’ premises is known
as electric supply system.
Main Components of Electric Supply System:
An electric supply system consists of three principal components viz., the power station, the
transmission lines, the distribution system and finally the utilization.

Power Generation Electric power is produced at the power stations which are
located at favourable places, generally quite away from the
consumers.
Power Transmission It is then transmitted over large distances to load centres with
the help of conductors known as transmission lines.

Power Distribution Finally, it is distributed to a large number of small and big

consumers through a distribution network

Power Utilization Then it is utilized by the consumers to run their loads

 Figure 1 Structure of Power System

Our main concern in this regard is the Power Transmission System.

Typical a.c. Power Supply Scheme:
The large network of conductors between the power station and the consumers can be broadly
divided into two parts viz., transmission system and distribution system.
Each part can be further sub-divided into two—
 Primary transmission
 Secondary transmission
 Primary distribution
 Secondary distribution.

Fig. 7.1.shows the layout of a typical a.c. power supply scheme by a single line diagram. It may
be noted that it is not necessary that all power schemes include all the stages shown in the
figure.
Reason of step up voltage in transmission: 
The primary reason to step up voltage in transmission is to increase efficiency of power
system. When we steps up the voltage through transformer the current steps down as the input
and output power of transformer remain same. When current steps down the I^2R losses and
size of conductor reduced. 
 Figure 2 Classification of Power System w.r.t. Voltage Levels

Classification with respect to Voltage Levels:

Generating station  G.S. represents the generating station where electric power is
produced by 3-phase alternators operating in parallel.

 The usual generation voltage is 11 kV.

 Primary transmission  Generally the primary transmission is carried at 66 kV, 132 kV,
220 kV or 400 kV.

 The electric power at 132 kV is transmitted by 3-phase, 3-wire

overhead system to the outskirts of the city.

 This forms the primary transmission.

Secondary  The primary transmission line terminates at the receiving station

transmission (RS) which usually lies at the outskirts of the city.
 At the receiving station, the voltage is reduced to 33kV by step-
down transformers.
 From this station, electric power is transmitted at 33kV by 3-
phase, 3-wire overhead system to various sub-stations (SS)
located at the strategic points in the city. This forms the
secondary transmission.
Primary distribution.  The secondary transmission line terminates at the sub-station
(SS) where voltage is reduced from 33 kV to 11kV, 3-phase, 3-
wire.
 The 11 kV lines run along the important road sides of the city.
This forms the primary distribution.
 It may be noted that big consumers (having demand more than
50 kW) are generally supplied power at 11 kV for further
handling with their own sub-stations.
Secondary distribution  The electric power from primary distribution line (11 kV) is
delivered to distribution sub-stations (DS).
 These sub-stations are located near the consumers’ localities and
step down the voltage to 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire for secondary
distribution.
 The voltage between any two phases is 400 V and between any
phase and neutral is 230 V.
 The single-phase residential lighting load is connected between
any one phase and neutral, whereas 3-phase, 400 V motor
load is connected across 3-phase lines directly.
Our main concern in this regard is the Power Transmission System.
Major Components of Power Transmission System:
In general the main components of an overhead lines are:

Component Name Purpose

Conductors They carry the electric power from sending end stations to the receiving
end stations.

The function of transmission line conductor system is to “transfer

electrical power between designated locations, within prescribed
performance”. 
 Supports They may be the poles or towers and keep the conductors at a suitable
level from the ground.

Insulators They are attached to the supports and insulate the conductors from the
ground.
Transmission line insulations havetwo functions: 
 To insulate energized components from earthed structures at
rated operating voltages and specified switching and lightning
impulses. 
 To support the conductor system up to ultimate mechanical load
limits and transfers the mechanical load to structure. 

Cross Arms They provide support to the insulators.

Miscellaneous They include phase plates, danger plates, lightning arrestors, anti
Items climbing wires etc.
Transmission line It has many functions as: 
earth  Provide an electrical path for lightning and fault current to earth. 
 Ensure the safety of people. 
 Provide an earth (i.e zero) potential reference to ground under
normal circuit conditions for the dissipation of leakage current. 

Types of Transmission:
There are two types of transmission of voltages: 
1. AC transmission 
2. DC transmission 
 
The electric power can be transmitted either by means of d.c. or a.c. Each system has its own
merits and demerits. It is, therefore, desirable to discuss the technical advantages and
disadvantages of the two systems for transmission of electric power.
D.C. transmission.
For some years past, the transmission of electric power by d.c. has been receiving the active
consideration of engineers due to its numerous advantages.
Advantages.
The high voltage d.c. transmission has the following advantages over high voltage a.c.
transmission :
(i) It requires only two conductors as compared to three for a.c. transmission.
(ii) There is no inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge problems in d.c.
transmission.
(iii) Due to the absence of inductance, the voltage drop in a d.c. transmission line is less than
the a.c. line for the same load and sending end voltage. For this reason, a d.c. transmission line
has better voltage regulation.
(iv) There is no skin effect in a d.c. system. Therefore, entire cross-section of the line conductor
is utilised.
(v) For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the insulation is less in case of d.c.
system than that in a.c. system. Therefore, a d.c. line requires less insulation.
(vi) A d.c. line has less corona loss and reduced interference with communication circuits.
(vii) The high voltage d.c. transmission is free from the dielectric losses, particularly in the case
of cables.
(viii) In d.c. transmission, there are no stability problems and synchronising difficulties.
Disadvantages:
(i) Electric power cannot be generated at high d.c. voltage due to commutation problems.
(ii) The d.c. voltage cannot be stepped up for transmission of power at high voltages.
(iii) The d.c. switches and circuit breakers have their own limitations.
A.C. transmission.
Now-a-days, electrical energy is almost exclusively generated, transmitted and distributed in the
form of a.c.
Advantages
(i) The power can be generated at high voltages.
(ii) The maintenance of a.c. sub-stations is easy and cheaper.
(iii) The a.c. voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by transformers with ease and
efficiency. This permits to transmit power at high voltages and distribute it at safe potentials.
Disadvantages
(i) An a.c. line requires more copper than a d.c. line.
(ii) The construction of a.c. transmission line is more complicated than a d.c. transmission line.
(iii) Due to skin effect in the a.c. system, the effective resistance of the line is increased.
(iv) Ana.c. line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a continuous loss of power due to charging
current even when the line is open. 
A General Comparison between AC and DC Transmission:

AC transmission DC transmission

It transmits the alternating current. It transmits the direct current.

Three conductors are used. Two conductors are used.
Voltage drops are high. Voltage drops are low.
 Skin effect, corona loss and dielectric losses All these type of losses does not occur.
occur.

Transformer required. No need of transformer.

Power: 
Power is the rate of doing work or the rate of transmitting heat that is the amount of
energy transferred or converted per unit time. It has no direction, so it’s a scalar quantity. 
P=V.I
What is a Watt: Unit of Power:
The unit of power is the watt which is denoted by the symbol W and it is named after the
Scottish engineer James Watt (1736–1819).

Definition of the watt:

The watt is the SI unit of power defining the rate of energy conversion and it is equivalent to
one joule per second.

The watt can be defined:

 Electrical definition of the watt:   One watt is the rate at which work is done when a
current of one ampere, I of current flows through a network which has an electrical potential
difference of one volt, V. W = V I

 Mechanical definition of the watt:   One watt is the rate at which work is done when
the velocity of an object is held constant at one metre per second against constant opposing
force of one newton.

Types of Power:
Basically there are three types of Power:
1- Active or Real Power (P)
2- Reactive Power (Q)
3- Apparent Power (S)

Active Power: The power which is actually consumed or utilized in an AC Circuit is called
True power or Active Power or real power. It is measured in kilowatt (kW) or MW.

When an active component of current is multiplied by the circuit voltage V, it results in active
power. It is this power which produces torque in the motor, heat in the heater, etc. This power is
measured by the wattmeter.

Reactive Power: The power which flows back and forth that means it moves in both the
direction in the circuit or reacts upon it, is called Reactive Power. The reactive power is
measured in kilovolt-ampere reactive (kVAR) or MVAR.

When the reactive component of the current is multiplied by the circuit voltage, it gives reactive
power. This power determines the power factor, and it flows back and forth in the circuit.
Apparent Power: The product of root mean square (RMS) value of voltage and current is
known as Apparent Power. This power is measured in KVA or MVA.When the circuit current
is multiplied by the circuit voltage, it results in apparent power.

Power Triangle:

Power Triangle is the representation of a right angle triangle showing the relation between
active power, reactive power and apparent power.
When each component of the current that is the active component (Icosϕ) or the reactive
component (Isinϕ) is multiplied by the voltage V, a power triangle is obtained shown in the
figure below:

Figure 3 Power Triangle

A General Comparison Table between the three Power is as follows:

Type of Power Denotion Formula Unit Higher Units

Apparent Power S S = VI VA (volt kVA, MVA

ampere)
Active Power P P = VIcosθ W (Watt) kW, MW

Reactive Power Q Q = VIsinθ VAR (volt kVAR, MVAR

ampere reactive)

Power Factor:

The cosine of the phase difference between Voltage and Current is basically known as the
Power Factor.
Or
The power factor PF or cosθis the ratio between the power that can be used in electric circuit
(real power, P) to the power from the result of multiplication of voltage and current (apparent
power, S).
This factor (-1 <cosφ<1 )represents the fraction of the total power that is used to do the useful
work. The other fraction of electrical power is stored in the form of magnetic energy or
electrostatic energy in the inductor and capacitor respectively.
Range: It ranges from zero to one. 
Power Factor cosθ = Active Power/ Apparent Power = kW/kVA = VIcosθ/VI = cosθ

Conclusion: 

In this lab, we have studied a brief introduction of the Power Transmission system and major
components of the transmission system. We also studied about the two types of transmission
system and compared them as well. We studied the types of power i.e Apparent, active and
reactive power. We also studied the Power factor and all the related formulae.
 

Experiment # 02

Objective: 
                   Study and Analysis of Three Phase Star Connected Resistive Load

Apparatus:
 Cables
 Resistive Load
 Ammeter
 Voltmeter

Theory:
Resistive Load:
Any electrical load can be represented in the general form R+jX , that is, as a combination of
resistance (R) and reactance (X). If reactance (X) is zero, only resistance (R) remains and the
load is said to be resistive. 
Example of Resistive Load: The simplest example of resistive load is an incandescent lamp or
a nichrome wire heater.
Power Factor: Power Factor of a resistive Load is Unity.

Reactive Power in a Resistive Load: The resistive load does not contain the reactive part. The
resistive load draws active current. The reactive current is absent in resistive loads.

As cosθ = 1

This means θ = 0 (The current and voltage are in phase with each other)

Since the reactive Power is

Q = S sinθ

As sin(0) = 0

Q = S (0)

Q=0

Real and Apparent Power: The real power and apparent power is equal if the load is resistive.
The power factor is unity for the resistive loads. The resistive loads consume real power from
the supply source. The real or active power consumed by resistive load is;

P= V^2/R

or

P= I^2 *R

The real and apparent power is same in the resistive loads because

Cosθ = 1
As P = S cosθ
Cosθ = 1
P = S(1)
P=S
Pure Resistive AC Circuit:

The circuit containing only a pure resistance of R ohms in the AC circuit is known as Pure
Resistive AC Circuit.

The presence of inductance and capacitance does not exist in a purely resistive circuit. The
alternating current and voltage both move forward as well as backwards in both the direction of
the circuit. Hence, the alternating current and voltage follows a shape of the Sine wave or
known as the sinusoidal waveform.
 Figure 4 Purely Resistive AC Circuit

Power in a Purely Resistive Circuit:

The power in a purely resistive circuit is completely dissipated by the resistor. The current and
Voltage are in phase with each other.
 Figure 5 Power Graph of a Purely Resistive Circuit

Star Connection in a 3 Phase System

In the Star Connection, the similar ends (either start or finish) of the three windings are
connected to a common point called star or neutral point. The three-line conductors run from
the remaining three free terminals called line conductors.

The wires are carried to the external circuit, giving three-phase, three-wire star connected
systems. However, sometimes a fourth wire is carried from the star point to the external circuit,
called neutral wire, forming three-phase, four-wire star connected systems.
 Figure 6 3 phase Star Connection

Considering the above figure, the finish terminals a 2, b2, and c2 of the three windings are
connected to form a star or neutral point.

The three conductors named as R, Y and B run from the remaining three free terminals as
shown in the above figure.

R as Red Wire

Y as the Yellow Wire

B as the Blue Wire

The current flowing through each phase is called Phase current Iph, and the current flowing
through each line conductor is called Line Current IL. Similarly, the voltage across each phase
is called Phase Voltage Eph, and the voltage across two line conductors is known as the Line
Voltage EL.

In star connection line voltage is root 3 times of phase voltage.

Line Voltage VL = √3Vph

Relation Between Phase Current and Line Current in Star Connection:
The same current flows through phase winding as well as in the line conductor as it is
connected in series with the phase winding.

So in the star connected Load, the Line current is equal to the phase current

IL = Iph

Connection Scheme:
 Figure 7 3 phase Star Connected Resistive Load

Procedure:

1) Check all the wires if they are in working condition with the help of multi meter.
2) Connect positive side of Phase A of the Trainer to the positive side of the Resistive
Load (R1).
3) Connect positive side of Phase B of the trainer to the positive side of the Resistive Load
(R2)
4) Connect positive side of Phase C of the trainer to the positive side of the Resistive Load
(R3)
5) Common all the negative terminals of the supply side as well as the three resistive loads
and connect them to the neutral of the trainer.
6) The above stated connections will make a 3phase star connected load
7) Connect the potential earth of the load trainer to the supply trainer.
8) Set the trainer at supply frequency = 50Hz and Supply Voltage = 50V.
9) Insert a voltmeter in parallel to the phase and neutral to find out the phase voltage.
10) Insert an ammeter in series to find the phase current.
11) The values of phase voltages and phase currents will be same for all the three phases
A,B and C as it is a balanced load (irrespective of the angle difference).
12) Turn on the fuses of the trainer to ensure safety while performing the experiment.
13) Perform the experiment for another balanced 3 phase resistive load as well.
14) Note down the values in the observations table
Trainer Connections:

Figure 8 Trainer Connections of a 3 phase Star Connected Resistive Load

Table of Observations:

Resistance 220Ω 680Ω

Vph 30.11V 28.3V

VL 52.15V 49.02V

Iph 135.9 mA 42.2 mA

IL 135.9 mA 42.2 mA

Pp(W) 4.092 W 1.19 W

 Q(var) 0 0

Sp(VA) 4.092 VA 1.19 W

 
 Conclusion:

In this lab we have studied about the 3 phase star connected resistive load and performed the
experiment how to connect the load to make a star connection keeping in view all the necessary
safety requirements. We also analyzed the phase volatges, phase currents and how to determine
the line currents and line voltages from them using the related formulae. We also determined
the Active, Reactive and Apparent Power in case of Resistive Loads. We performed the same
experiment for another value of resistances.

Experiment # 03

Objective: 
                   Study and Analysis of Three Phase Star Connected Inductive
Load

Apparatus:
 Cables
 Inductive Load
 Ammeter
 Voltmeter
 3 phase Supply

Theory:
Inductive Load:

Inductive Loads, also called Lagging Loads or Inductive Load Banks or Inductive Reactive
Loads or Power Factor Loads, are AC loads that are predominantly inductive in nature so that
the alternating current lags behind the alternating voltage when the current flows into the load.

Any devices or equipment that has coils in them are inductive in nature.

The inductor is a type of coil which reserves electrical energy in the magnetic field when the
current flow through it. The inductor is made up of wire which is wound in the form of a coil.
When the current flowing through inductor changes then time-varying magnetic field causes
emf which obstruct the flow of current.
Examples of inductive load are motors, solenoids, contactor coils, compressors, speakers,
relays, transformers, inductors, power generators, etc. 

Definition with respect to V and I:

Inductive Loads are the loads in which the Current lags the voltage by a phase angle of 90° or
П/2. Inductive loads take time to develop their magnetic field when the voltage is applied, so
the current is delayed.

Power Factor: The power factor of inductive loads is always lagging and they are less than
unity.

Unit of Inductance: The unit of inductance is Henry (H).

Explanation and Derivation of Inductive Circuit

The circuit containing pure inductance is shown below:

Figure 9 Purely Inductive AC Circuit

Consider a pure inductive element connected across an AC Supply. The alternating voltage
applied is denoted by the equation,

v = Vmsinωt

Let the current flowing in the circuit be of magnitude ‘I’. The electrical energy flowing in the
circuit is stored in the form of the magnetic field in the inductor(L).

This produces an induced emf in the inductor of magnitude:

di
L
dt

And this opposes any sudden change in the flow of current.

Let us find out the equation of current ‘I’ that flows in the circuit. When the current starts
flowing the applied voltage equals to the voltage induced in the inductor

di
L =v
dt

Substituting v =Vmsinωt

di
L =Vmsinωt
dt

Vmsinωtdt
di=
L

After integrating both sides

Vmsinωtdt
∫ =∫ di
L

Vm
i= (cosωt )
ωL

To maintain the uniformity in the equations, converting cos into sin

Vm
i= ¿
ωL

Vm
i= ¿
ωL

When sin reaches its maximum value ‘i’ will also reach its maximum value (Im)

Vm
ℑ=
ωL

So,
i=ℑ ¿

Re writing the instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current equations:

v = Vmsinωt

i=ℑ ¿

It is very much clear from the above given equation that the current lags the voltage by an angle
of 90° or П/2.
Phasor Diagram:

V = Vmsinωt

90°

I =Imsinωt

Inductive Reactance:
As Vm/Im = ωL
Comparing it with Ohm’s Law
V/I = R
So we can say that ωL is basically the opposition offered to the flow of AC current in the
inductive circuit. The term ωL is known as the Inductive Reactance and it is denoted by XL. Its
unit is ohm(Ω) as well.
XL = ωl

XL = 2ПfL
Equations for Power Consumed in the circuit:
The Power consumed in the circuit is of two types:
1. Instantaneous Power
2. Average Power

Instantaneous Power is the Power what is consumed at the moment:

Pi= v i
Pi= Vmsinωt × Imsin(ωt – П/2)
Pi = -Vmsinωt × Imcosωt
Pi= -VmImsinωtcosωt
Pi = (-VmIm/2) sin2ωt
Average Poweris the power that is consumed in a cycle or over a cycle. For this purpose we
will integrate Pi over a whole cycle.
2П
Pavg = 1/2П ∫ (−VmIm ) /2 ( sin 2 ωt ) dωt
0

After integrating we find out that

 Pavg = 0
Remarks:
 Hence, the average power consumed in a purely inductive circuit is zero.
 The average power in one alteration, i.e., in a half cycle is zero, as the negative and
positive loop is under power curve is the same.
 In the purely inductive circuit, during the first quarter cycle, the power supplied by the
source, is stored in the magnetic field set up around the coil. In the next quarter cycle,
the magnetic field diminishes and the power that was stored in the first quarter cycle is
returned to the source.

This process continues in every cycle, and thus, no power is consumed in the circuit.

Figure 10 Power Graph of a purely inductive circuit

Note : The Inductive load is absorber of reactive power.

Formulae:
Some of the formulae which are being used in this experiment are:
Vline = √3(Vph)
Iline = Iph
XL = 2ПfL
Sph = 3 VphIph
Qph = Iph2 XL
Qtotal = 3Qph
θ = tan-1(Q/P)

Connection Scheme:
 Figure 11 3 phase Star connected Inductive Load

Procedure:

1) Check all the wires if they are in working condition with the help of multi meter.
2) Connect positive side of Phase A of the Trainer to the positive side of the Inductive
Load (R1).
3) Connect positive side of Phase B of the trainer to the positive side of the Inductive Load
(R2)
4) Connect positive side of Phase C of the trainer to the positive side of the Inductive Load
(R3)
5) Common all the negative terminals of the supply side as well as the three inductive
loads and connect them to the neutral of the trainer.
6) The above stated connections will make a 3phase star connected load
7) Connect the potential earth of the load trainer to the supply trainer.
8) Set the trainer at supply frequency = 50Hz and Supply Voltage = 50V.
9) Insert a voltmeter in parallel to the phase and neutral to find out the phase voltage.
10) Insert an ammeter in series to find the phase current.
11) The values of phase voltages and phase currents will be same for all the three phases
A,B and C as it is a balanced load (irrespective of the angle difference).
12) Turn on the fuses of the trainer to ensure safety while performing the experiment.
13) Perform the experiment for another balanced 3 phase inductive load as well.
14) Note down the values in the observations table

Trainer Connections:
 Figure 12 Trainer connections of a 3 phase star connected Inductive Load

Table of Observations:

Value of Inductance 0.4H 0.8H 1.6H

(H)
Iph 51.7 mA 40.6 mA 39.5 mA

Iline 51.7 mA 40.6 mA 39.5 mA

Vph 32.6 V 32.6 V 32.6 V

Vline 56.46 V 56.46 V 56.46 V

XL 125.66Ω 251.33Ω 502.65Ω

Qph 0.336VAR 0.414VAR 0.78VAR

Sph 1.685VA 1.32VA 1.288VA

Qtotal 1.008VAR 1.008VAR 2.34VAR

Conclusion:

In this lab we have studied about the 3 phase star connected inductive load and performed the
experiment how to connect the load to make a star connection keeping in view all the necessary
safety requirements. We also analyzed the phase volatges, phase currents and how to determine
the line currents and line voltages from them using the related formulae. We also determined
the Active, Reactive and Apparent Power in case of Resistive Loads. We performed the same
experiment for another value of inductances

Experiment # 04

Objective: 
                   Study and Analysis of Three Phase Star Connected Capacitive
Load

Apparatus:
 Cables
 Capacitive Load
 Ammeter
 Voltmeter
 3 phase supply

Theory:
Capacitive Load:
Capacitive loads are the ones involving capacitors and components which make the overall load
leading, the current leading the voltage in phase.
Definition with respect to V and I
In a capacitive load, current and voltage are out of phase as with an inductive load. The
difference is that in the case of a capacitive load, the current reaches its maximum value
before the voltage does. The current waveform leads the voltage waveform.
Example – Capacitor Banks
In engineering, capacitive loads do not exist in a stand-alone format. No devices are
classified as capacitive in the way lightbulbs are categorized as resistive, and air conditioners
are labeled inductive.
Capacitors in large circuits are useful, however, in controlling power use. They are often
included at electrical substations to improve the overall "power factor" of the system.
Inductive loads increase the cost of a given power system and reduce the amount of power
that is converted to another form of energy.
Rating of Capacitor Banks: The rating of capacitor banks are in VAR,kVAR or MVAR.
They supply reactive power to the system.
Let Q be the reactive power of the system before the installation of capacitor.
Let Q’ be the reactive power after the installation of capacitor bank
If Qc is the VAR rating of the installed capacitor bank it means
Qc = Q – Q’
Power Factor of Capacitive Loads : Additionally, capacitors draw current that leads the
voltage sinusoidal waveform by 90° - they have a leading power factor. This contrasts with
motors and other inductive machines that have a lagging power factor. Accordingly, capacitor
banks can be added to systems with motors as a counteractive element to bring the power factor
as close as possible to unity; this minimises the flow of unproductive, unwanted reactive
currents in a circuit.
Unit of Capacitance : The unit of Capacitance in Farad (F)
Explanation and derivation of Capacitor Circuit
A capacitor consists of two insulating plates which are separated by a dielectric medium. It
stores energy in electrical form. The capacitor works as a storage device, and it gets charged
when the supply in ON and gets discharged when the supply is OFF. If it is connected to the
direct supply, it gets charged equal to the value of the applied voltage.

Figure 13 Purely Capacitive AC Circuit

The alternating voltage is denoted by the equation:

V = Vmsinωt
Let the current flowing in the circuit be of magnitude ‘I’
The capacitor alternatively charges and discharges at the rate determined by the frequency of
the supply. We will first of all determine an equation for the current which results due to the
movement of the charges when the capacitor undergoes charging and discharging.
Current is defined as the rate of flow of charges (I = dQ/dt)
With respect to capacitor, the charge is defined as the product of capacitance and the applied
voltage
Q = Cv
Or Q = CVmsinωt
I = d(CVmsinωt)/dt
I= CVmd(sinωt)/dt
I= CVm ω cosωt
To maintain the uniformity in the equations,
I= ωCVmsin(ωt + П/2)
When sin reaches its maximum value, the current reaches its maximum value as well (Im)
Im = ωCVm
Or
I = Imsin(ωt + П/2)
From the above equation it is quite clear that the current leads the voltage by 90° or П/2.
Phasor Diagram:

I = Imsin(ωt + П/2) 90°

V = Vmsinωt
Capacitive Reactance:
As Vm/Im = 1/ωC
Comparing it with Ohm’s Law
V/I = R
So we can say that 1/ωC is basically the opposition offered to the flow of AC current in the
capacitive circuit. The term 1/ωC is known as the Capacitive Reactance and it is denoted by
Xc. Its unit is ohm(Ω) as well.
XC = 1/ωC

XL = 1/2ПfC
Equations for Power Consumed in the circuit:
The Power consumed in the circuit is of two types:
1. Instantaneous Power
2. Average Power

Instantaneous Power is the Power what is consumed at the moment:

Pi= v i
Pi= Vmsinωt × Imsin(ωt + П/2)
Pi = Vmsinωt × Imcosωt
Pi= VmImsinωtcosωt
Pi = (VmIm/2) sin2ωt
Average Poweris the power that is consumed in a cycle or over a cycle. For this purpose we
will integrate Pi over a whole cycle.
2П

Pavg = 1/2П ∫ ( VmIm ) /2 ( sin 2 ωt ) dωt

0

After integrating we find out that

Pavg = 0
Remarks:
 Hence, from the above equation, it is clear that the average power in the capacitive
circuit is zero.
 The average power in a half cycle is zero as the positive and negative loop area in the
waveform shown are same.
 In the first quarter cycle, the power which is supplied by the source is stored in the
electric field set up between the capacitor plates. In the another or next quarter cycle, the
electric field diminishes, and thus the power stored in the field is returned to the source.
This process is repeated continuously and, therefore, no power is consumed by the
capacitor circuit.
 Figure 14 Power Flow of a Capacitive Circuit

Formulae:
Some of the formulae which are being used in this experiment are:
Vline = √3(Vph)
Iline = Iph
XC = 1/2ПfC
Sph = 3 VphIph
Qph = Iph2 XC
Qtotal = 3Qph
θ = tan-1(Q/P)

Connection Scheme:
 Figure 15 3 phase star connected capacitive load

Procedure:

1) Check all the wires if they are in working condition with the help of multi meter.
2) Connect positive side of Phase A of the Trainer to the positive side of the Capacitive
Load (R1).
3) Connect positive side of Phase B of the trainer to the positive side of the Capacitive
Load (R2)
4) Connect positive side of Phase C of the trainer to the positive side of the Capacitive
Load (R3)
5) Common all the negative terminals of the supply side as well as the three capacitive
loads and connect them to the neutral of the trainer.
6) The above stated connections will make a 3phase star connected load
7) Connect the potential earth of the load trainer to the supply trainer.
8) Set the trainer at supply frequency = 50Hz and Supply Voltage = 50V.
9) Insert a voltmeter in parallel to the phase and neutral to find out the phase voltage.
10) Insert an ammeter in series to find the phase current.
11) The values of phase voltages and phase currents will be same for all the three phases
A,B and C as it is a balanced load (irrespective of the angle difference).
12) Turn on the fuses of the trainer to ensure safety while performing the experiment.
13) Perform the experiment for another balanced 3 phase capacitive load as well.
14) Note down the values in the observations table

Trainer Connections:
 Figure 16 Trainer Connections of a 3 phase star connected capacitive load

Table of Observations:

Value of 1uF 2uF 3uF

Capacitances (uF)
Iph 8.78 mA 18.81 mA 27.8 mA

Iline 8.78 mA 18.81 mA 27.8 mA

Vph 28.6 V 28.5 V 28.6 V

Vline 49.54 V 49.36 V 49.36 V

XL 3183.099Ω 1591.55Ω 1061.033Ω

 Qph 0.2454VAR 0.563VAR 0.820VAR

Sph 0.251VA 0.536VA 0.795VA

Qtotal 0.736VAR 1.689VAR 2.460VAR

Conclusion:

In this lab we have studied about the 3 phase star connected capacitive load and performed the
experiment how to connect the load to make a star connection keeping in view all the necessary
safety requirements. We also analyzed the phase volatges, phase currents and how to determine
the line currents and line voltages from them using the related formulae. We also determined
the Active, Reactive and Apparent Power in case of capacitive Loads. We performed the same
experiment for another value of capacitances as well.

Experiment # 05
Objective: Study and analysis of three phase delta connected resistive loads.
Apparatus:
1. Resistive loads
2. Cables
3. Three phase supply
4. Voltmeter
5. Ammeter

3Ф Delta Connected Resistive Loads

Theory:
Delta Connection:
The connection in which the three loads connected together in such a way that neutral of
one gets connected with live of other is known as delta connection. In this way the three
elements get in series forming a triangle.

Resistive Load:
A load having purely resistance as hindrance in path for current to flow, without any
inductance and capacitance is known as resistive load. The voltage and current are in phase to
each other. So θ=0 and cosθ=1.
For example incandescent lamp and electric heaters are considered to be resistive loads.

Formulas:
I L =√ 3 I P
V L=V P

P=V phase∗I phase cosθ

3Ф Delta Connected Resistive Loads

Procedure:
1. I took the apparatus.
2. I connected ammeter in series with load 1 and phase 1.
3. I connected phase 2 and phase 3 with load 2 and load 3.
4. I connected the second terminal of each load with first terminal of other load.
5. I measured the values.
6. I changed the loads and repeated the experiment.
7. I made calculations using the formulas and recorded them in table.
Observations &Measurements:

Resistance 220Ω 680Ω

Vph 29.0V 28.9V

VL 29.0V 28.9V

Iph 19.05 mA 20.78 mA

IL 33 mA 36 mA

Pp(W) 0.957 W 1.0404 W

Q(var) 0 0

Sp(VA) 0.957 VA 1.0404 VA

Conclusion:
In this lab we Study and analysis th e three phase delta connected resistive loads.and take the
measurements and perform to its several times.

Experiment # 06
Objective:Study and analysis of three phase delta connected inductive load.
Apparatus:
 1. Inductive loads
2. Cables
3. Three phase power supply
4. Voltmeter
5. Ammeter

3Ф Delta Connected Inductive Loads

Theory:
Inductive load:
Inductive loads also known as lagging loads are AC loads predominantly inductive in
nature in which current lags behind voltage by phase angle of 90 degree. Reactive power for
indictors is positive as they absorb reactive power.
For example motors, solenoids, relays etc. are inductive in nature.

Formulas:
I L =√ 3 I P
V L=V P

S=V phase∗I phase

X L =2 πfL

Q=V phase∗I phase sinθ

Procedure:
1. I took the apparatus.
2. I connected ammeter in series with load 1 and phase 1.
3. I connected phase 2 and phase 3 with load 2 and load 3.
4. I connected the second terminal of each load with first terminal of other load.
5. I measured the values.
6. I changed the loads and repeated the experiment.
7. I made calculations using the formulas and recorded them in table.
 3Ф Delta Connected Inductive Loads

Table of Observations:

Value of Inductance 0.4H 0.8H 1.6H

(H)
Iph 1.639 mA 0.889 mA 0.248 mA

Iline 2.84 mA 1.54 mA 0.43 mA

Vph 30 V 30V 30V

Vline 30V 30V 30V

XL 125.66Ω 251.33Ω 502.65Ω

Qph 0.33VAR 0.198VAR 0.30915VAR

 Sph 1.685VA 1.32VA 1.288VA

Qtotal 0.99VAR 0.5958VAR 0.92745VAR

Conclusions:
In this experiment we came to study and analysis of three phase delta connected inductive
load.annd check its response.we take the measurements and perform its several times.

Experiment # 07
Objective: Study and analysis of three phase delta connected capacitive loads.
Apparatus:
1. Capacitive loads
2. Three phase supply
3. Cables
4. Voltmeter
5. Ammeter

3Ф Delta Connected Capacitive Loads

Theory:
Capacitive Load:
 The load in which alternating current leads the voltage by phase difference of 90 degree
is known as capacitive load. Reactive power for capacitive load is taken as negative as they
provide reactive power.

Procedure:
1. I took the apparatus.
2. I connected ammeter in series with load 1 and phase 1.
3. I connected phase 2 and phase 3 with load 2 and load 3.
4. I connected the second terminal of each load with first terminal of other load.
5. I measured the values.
6. I changed the loads and repeated the experiment.
7. I made calculations using the formulas and recorded them in table.

3Ф Delta Connected Capacitive Loads

Formulas:
I L =√ 3 I P
V L=V P

1
XC=
2 πfC

Q=I P2∗X C
Ptotal=3 P

Q total=3 Q

Stotal= √ Ptotal2 +Q total2

Table of Observations:

Value of 1uF 2uF 3uF

Capacitances (uF)
Iph 0.092A 0.19A 0.265A

Iline 0.16A 0.33A 0.46A

Vph 29.8 V 29.7 V 29.8 V

Vline 29.8 V 29.7 V 29.8 V

XC 3183.099Ω 1591.55Ω 1061.033Ω

Qph 26.94VAR 57.45VAR 74.54VAR

Sph 2.831VA 5.643VA 7.897VA

Qtotal 80.82VAR 172.41VAR 223.62VAR

Conclusion:
In this experiment we came to Study and analysis of three phase delta connected capacitive
loads.We perform it and take its readings

Experiment # 08
Objective: Study and analysis of three phase RC series (Branch)in star connected.
Apparatus:
1. Capacitive loads
2. Three phase supply
3. Cables
4. Voltmeter
5. Ammeter

3Ф Star Connected RC Loads

Procedure:
1. I took the apparatus.
2. I connected the ampere meter in series with load 1 and phase 1.
3. I connected phase 2 and phase 3 with load 2 and load 3.
4. I made common all the remaining point together forming neutral line and connected it
with neutral of supply.
5. I gave the supply line voltage.
6. I measured the required values.
7. I repeated the experiment by varying the load.
8. I made calculations and recorded them in table.
 3Ф Star Connected RC Loads
Formulas:
I L =I P

V L= √ 3 V P
1
XC=
2 πfC

Q=I P2∗X C

P= √ S2−Q 2
P
P . F=
S

Table of Observations:

When R=220Ω and When R=680Ω and

L=0.4H L=0.8H
Vline 32.134V 52.134V
Vph 30.1V 30.1V
Iline 0.09A 0.07A
Iph 0.09A 0.07A
XL 125.2 Ω 251.2 Ω
S 2.709VA 2.107VA
P 2.51W 1.7107W
Z 334.4 Ω 430 Ω
 p.f (cosθ) 0.92 0.81
Q 1.01VAR 1.230VAR

Conclusion:
In this experiment we came to Study and analysis of three phase RC series (Branch)in star
connected and perform the experiments several times.We also take the readings

Experiment # 09
Objective: Study and analysis of three phase RL series (Branch)in star connected.
Apparatus:
1. Inductive loads
2. Three phase supply
3. Cables
4. Voltmeter
5. Ammeter
 3Ф Star Connected RL Loads
Procedure:
1. I took the apparatus.
2. I connected the ampere meter in series with load 1 and phase 1.
3. I connected phase 2 and phase 3 with load 2 and load 3.
4. I made common all the remaining point together forming neutral line and connected it
with neutral of supply.
5. I gave the supply line voltage.
6. I measured the required values.
7. I repeated the experiment by varying the load.
8. I made calculations and recorded them in table.
 3Ф Star Connected RL Loads
Formulas:
I L =I P

V L= √ 3 V P
X L =2 πfL
Q=I P2∗X L
P= √ S2−Q 2
P
P . F=
S

Table of Observations:

When R=220Ω and When R=680Ω and

C=1uF C=2uF
Vline 52.65V 52.65V
Vph 30.4V 30.4V
Iline 0.00193A 0.0947A
Iph 0.00193A 0.0947A
 Z 15.75kΩ 3.21 kΩ
S 0.05867VA 0.2878VA
P 0.0574W 0.25W
Xc 3184.7 Ω 1592.36Ω
p.f 0.97 0.86
Q 0.0118VAR 0.142VAR

Conclusion:
In this experiment we came to Study and analysis of three phase RL series (Branch)in star
connected.We perform experiment several times and take its readings.

Experiment # 10
Objective: Study and analysis of three phase RLC series (Branch)in star connected.
Apparatus:
1. Capacitive loads
2. Inductive loads
3. Three phase supply
4. Cables
5. Voltmeter
6. Ammeter
 3Ф Star Connected RLC Loads

Procedure:
1. I took the apparatus.
2. I connected the ampere meter in series with load 1 and phase 1.
3. I connected phase 2 and phase 3 with load 2 and load 3.
4. I made common all the remaining point together forming neutral line and connected it
with neutral of supply.
5. I gave the supply line voltage.
6. I measured the required values.
7. I repeated the experiment by varying the load.
8. I made calculations and recorded them in table.
 3Ф Star Connected RLC Loads

Table of Observations:

When When
R=220Ω,C=1uF and R=680Ω,C=2uF and
L=0.4H L=0.8H
Vline 52.65V 52.65V
Vph 30.4V 30.4V
Vresistor 21.2V 21.2V
Vinductor 6.7V 6.7V
Vcapacitor 2.5V 2.5V
Iline 0.00193A 0.0947A
Iph 0.00193A 0.0947A
 Z 15.75kΩ 3.21 kΩ
S 0.05867VA 0.2878VA
P 0.0574W 0.25W
Xc 3184.7 Ω 1592.36Ω
XL 125.2Ω 251.2Ω
p.f 0.97 0.86
Q 0.0118VAR 0.142VAR

Conclusion:
In this experiment we came to Study and analysis of three phase RLC series (Branch)in star

connected and perform it on apparatus and take its readings.

Experiment # 11
Objective: Study and analysis of three phase RLC parallel (Branch) in Star Connected.

Apparatus:
 Resistances
 Capacitances
 Inductances
 Wires
 Ammeter
 Voltmeter
 Three phase supply

Formula:
S=V ph∗I ph

1
X c=
2 πfC
X L =2 πfL

Qcapacitive =I c 2 X c

Qinductive =I l2 X L

Stotal= √ Ptotal2 +Qtotal2

Ptotal
P . F=
S total
Procedure:
1. I took the apparatus.
2. I made the RLC parallel (Branch) in Star Connection.
3. I connected the voltmeter and ammeter.
4. I measured the values.
5. I changed the values of resistance, capacitance and inductance.
6. I observed and did the analysis of changes in voltage, current and power.
7. I recorded the values and wrote them in table.

Table of analysis:

Sr Loads RLC1 RLC2 RLC3 Star Delta

no (ohms) (ohms) (ohms) connectio connection
. n IN (amps)
IN (amps)
1. Balanced 500+j1000 500+j1000- 500+j1000- 0 amps No neutral
-j1e6 j1e6 j1e6 current
exists

2. Unbalance 500+j1000 1000+j1500 1500+j3000 0.024amps No neutral

d -j1e6 -j2e6 -j3e6 current
exists

Conclusion:
In this experiment we Study and analysis of three phase RLC parallel (Branch) in Star
Connected similarly we perform it and take readings also.

Experiment 12
Objective:
Study and implementation of HVDC transmission Line using
PWM technique
Apparatus:
 Mat-lab software
 3 phase supply
 VI clock measuring unit
 IGBT diode
 LC filters
 Converter Transformers

Theory:
Introduction:
High voltage direct current (HVDC) power systems use D.C. for transmission of bulk power
over long distances. For long-distance power transmission, HVDC lines are less expensive,
and losses are less as compared to AC transmission. It interconnects the networks that have
different frequencies and characteristics.

In AC transmission, alternating waves of voltage and current travels in the line which change
its direction every millisecond; due to which losses occur in the form of heat. Unlike AC
lines, the voltage and current waves don’t change their direction in DC. HVDC lines increase
the efficiency of transmission lines due to which power is rapidly transferred.

In a combined AC and DC system, generated AC voltage is converted into DC at the sending

end. Then, the DC voltage is inverted to AC at the receiving end, for distribution purposes.
Thus, the conversion and inversion equipment are also needed at the two ends of the line.
HVDC transmission is economical only for long distance transmission lines having a length
more than 600kms and for underground cables of length more than 50km.

Phases of work:

How does HVDC transmission system work?

In generating substation, AC power is generated which can be converted into DC by using a
rectifier. In HVDC substation or converter substation rectifiers and inverters are placed at
both the ends of a line. The rectifier terminal changes the AC to DC, while the inverter
terminal converts DC to AC.
The DC is flowing with the overhead lines and at the user end again DC is converted into AC
by using inverters, which are placed in converter substation. The power remains the same at
the sending and receiving ends of the line. DC is transmitted over long distances because it
decreases the losses and improves the efficiency.

A system having more than two converter stations and one transmission line is called a ‘two
terminal DC system’ or a ‘point-to-point system’. Similarly, if substation has more than two
converter stations and interconnecting DC terminal lines, it is called multiterminal DC
substation.

Economic Distance For HVDC transmission lines

DC lines are cheaper than the AC lines, but the cost of DC terminal equipment is very high as
compared to AC terminal cables (shown in the graph below). Thus, the initial cost is high in
HVDC transmission system, and it is low in the AC system.
The point where two curves meet is called the breakeven distance. Above the breakeven
distance, the HVDC system becomes cheaper. Breakeven distance changes from 500 to 900
km in overhead transmission lines.

Advantages of HVDC transmissions

 A lesser number of conductors and insulators are required thereby reducing the
cost of the overall system.
 It requires less phase to phase and ground to ground clearance.
 Their towers are less costly and cheaper.
 Lesser corona loss is less as compared to HVAC transmission lines of similar power.
 Power loss is reduced with DC because fewer numbers of lines are required for
power transmission.
 The HVDC system uses earth return. If any fault occurs in one pole, the other pole
with ‘earth returns’ behaves like an independent circuit. This results in a more
flexible system.
 Due to the absence of frequency in the HVDC line, losses like skin effect and
proximity effect does not occur in the system.
 It does not generate or absorb any reactive power. So, there is no need for reactive
power compensation.
 The very accurate and lossless power flows through DC link.

Procedure:

 First of all, we open the mat lab version of 2016a which is used for simulation
purposes.
 Then make the model circuit also shown in screenshots.
 First take the 3 phase RLC source which is nothing than a 3-phase supply.
 Pointing out its values and measure Ac values by VI Measure block.
 Then take an IGBT/diode from library tool that converts Ac to Dc.
 Transmit That DC and Filter its ripple by capacitor and take its graph.
 Then convert it into AC again by using IGBT/Diode.
 Pwm is connected with IGBT.
 In last, a load is connected and here we check the results so the Scope is used for
output results and save the simulation.
Simulation Work
Simulation project:

Output Readings:
Load Measurements of VI:

Three phase AC source (LOAD SIDE);

DC Transmission:

Conclusion:

Considering all the advantages of DC, it seems that HVDC lines are more proficient than AC
lines. But, the initial cost of HVDC substation is very high and their substation equipment is
quite complicated. Thus, for long distance transmission it is preferable that power is generated
in AC, and for transmission, it is converted into DC and then again converted back into AC for
final use. This system is economical and also improves the efficiency of the system.
 Experiment # 13
Objective: Study and of comparison of High Voltage AC & High Voltage DC transmission.

Theory:
HVDC transmission system has many more advantages over HVAC, such as stability,
controllability etc. For distances longer than the break even distance, HVDC system becomes
more cost effective. Submarine HVDC links can be more suitable for connecting offshore wind
farms as they prove to be more efficient and cost effective than undersea HVAC cables. Hence,
there is an increasing interest in HVDC transmission. Still, HVAC system will remain much
longer as it has its own advantages in transmission and distribution, such as it can be easily
stepped up and stepped down. HVDC is actually a complement for AC systems rather than a
rival.
Investment Cost: DC transmission requires fewer conductors than AC transmission, 2
conductors in DC per circuit while 3 conductors per 3 phase AC circuit. HVDC allows line
supporting tower o be smaller and hence requires lesser right of way. Thus clearly HVDC
transmission line would cost lesser than HVAC transmission line.

However the terminal converter station in HVDC are much more expensive which are not
required for HVAC transmission. Over a specific distance, called as break even distance, HVDC
line becomes cheaper than HVAC lines. The break even distance for overhead lines is around
600km and for submarine lines it is around 50km.

Losses: Skin effect is absent in DC. Also, corona losses are significantly lower in the case of
DC. An HVDC line has considerably lower losses compared to HVAC over long distances.

Controllability: Due to the absence of inductance in DC, an HVDC line offers better voltage
regulation. Also, HVDC offers greater controllability as compared to HVAC.

Asynchronous Interconnection: AC power grids are standardized for 50Hz in some

countries and 60Hz in others. It is impossible to interconnect two grids working at different
frequencies with the help of an AC interconnection. An HVDC link makes this possible.

Interference with nearby Communication Lines:Interference with nearby

communication lines is lesser in the case of HVDC overhead line than that for HVAC line.

Short Circuit Current: In longer distance HVAC transmission, short circuit current level in
the receiving system is high. An HVDC system does not contribute to the short circuit current of
the interconnected AC system.

Power Factor - A control Parameter:

Power factor acts as a control parameter as it controls the apparent and reactive power, as it is
explained by the following example
Case 1:
Let, V =220V , I = 1.3A , θ = 50°
The Reactive Power = Q = V I sinθ = (220)(1.3)(sin50°) = 219.07Kvar
The Active Power = P = V I cosθ = (220) (1.3) (cos50°) = 183.83 Watts
Case 2:
(When the angle θ is increased)
Let, V =220V , I = 1.3A , θ = 75°
Q = (220) (1.3) (sin75°) = 276.25 Kvar
P = (220) (1.3) (cos75°) = 74.02 watts
 Case 3:
(When the angle θ is decreased)
Let, V =220V , I = 1.3A , θ = 15°
Q = (220) (1.3) (sin15°) = 74.02 Kvar
P = (220) (1.3) (cos15°) = 276.25 watts
Comparison Table:

Phase Angle Power Factor Apparent Power Reactive Power

θ = 75° Decreased Decreased Increased

θ = 15° Increased Increased Decreased

Comparison Table:

Line Voltage (kV) Power Factor (%)

Bus 8 Bus 12 Bus 9 Bus 6 Bus 11 Bus 7

Without 8.073 6.087 6.778 81.8 78.6 79.8

Capacitor
Bank
With 9.538 8.078 8.725 96.2 91.5 96.2
Capacitor
Bank

Experiment # 14
Objective: Study and of comparison of High Voltage AC & Low Voltage AC transmission.
Apparatus:
 Resistances
 Transformers
 Watt meters
 Wires
 Ammeter
 Voltmeter
 Three phase supply

Theory:
Low Voltage Ac (LVAC):The International Electro technical Commission (IEC) defines
supply system low voltageas voltage in the range 50 to 1000 V AC or 120 to 1500 V DC.
In electrical power systems low voltagemost commonly refers to the mains voltages as used by
domestic and light industrial and commercial consumers. "Low voltage" in this context still
presents a risk of electric shock, but only a minor risk of electric arcs through the air.
High Voltage Ac (HVAC): The term high voltage usually means electrical energy at
voltages high enough to inflict harm on living organisms. Equipment and conductors that carry
high voltage warrant particular safety requirements and procedures. In certain industries, high
voltagemeans voltage above a particular threshold. High voltage is used in electrical power
distribution, in cathode ray tubes, to generate X-rays and particle beams, for ignition, and in high
power amplifier vacuum tubes and other industrial, military and scientific applications.

IEC Voltage AC RMS Voltage DC Voltage Defining Risk

Range
High Voltage >1000 >1500 Electrical arcing
Low Voltage 50 to 1000 120 to 1500 Electrical Shock
Extra-low Voltage <50 <120 Low Risk
 Comparison
between LVAC and HVAC:
Low Voltage Alternating Current High Voltage Alternating Current

 In Transmission more conductor size is  The conductor size required is less as

required compare to low voltage transmission
 Long Transmission is not possible  Long Transmission is possible with High
 High Copper losses on Same power Efficiency
Demand  Low copper losses on same power
 LVAC cannot run High voltage (3- demand
Phase) Loads  HVAC can be used to run three phase
 Low voltage from nominated value at loads
receiving end  Nominated voltage value can be achieve
 Voltage drops more in transmission lines at receiving end
as compared to HVAC due to high  Low voltage drops in Transmission lines
current due to low current
 Power handling capacity of line is less in  Power Handling capacity of lines can be
LVAC increase
 Less Insulation is required as Compared  High Insulation is required Insulators
to HVAC cost increases in HVAC
 There is No Corona Loss in LVAC  Corona Losses are present in HVAC
Conclusion:
In this experiment we came to Study and of comparison of High Voltage AC & Low Voltage AC
transmission.We perform the practical and take the readings.