LA CARLOTA CITY COLLEGE

La Carlota City
Education Department

Module in ProEl 12
2nd Semester, AY 2020-2021

SHARON L. APOHEN, PHD

Contact #: 09079841717
Email: [email protected]
Facebook Account: Sharon Liquez-Apohen

I. COURSE TITLE: ProEl 12

II. COURSE CREDIT/UNIT : 3 Units

MODULE 1. INTRODUCTION
HISTORY & DEFINITION

The word statistics means different things to different people. To a college student,
statistics are scores on all quizzes, seatwork, assignments and recitations made in his
subject. To a biological researcher investigating the effects of pollution to our
environment, statistics are evidence of success of research efforts. To a school president,
statistics are information on faculty and employee salary, tardiness & absenteeism, and
increase or decrease in enrollment. To a manager of a food chain, statistics may be kind of
food frequently served to customers, and to the president of a country, statistics are the
information to jobs created, housing projects, increase or decrease in economic situation,
etc.

They are using statistics correctly, yet they use it in different ways and purposes.

The word statistik comes from the Italian word statista which means “statesman”. The
word was first used by Gottfried Achenwall (1719-1772), a professor at Marlborough and
Gottingen, while Dr. E.A.W. Zimmerman introduced it in England. Its used was popularized
by Sir John Sinclair in his work, Statistical Account of Scotland (1791-1799), However,
people had been recording and using data long before the 18 th century.

Presently, Statistics is defined as the branch of scientific methodology which deals with the
collection, classification, description and interpretation of data obtained through survey or
experiment.
STATISTICS is a scientific body of knowledge that deals with the collection, organization or
presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.

Collection refers to the gathering of information or data.

Organization or presentation involves summarizing data or information in textual,
graphical or tabular forms.
Analysis involves describing the data by using statistical methods and procedures.
Interpretation refers to the process of making conclusions based on the analyzed data.

Functions of Statistics
1. To provide investigators means of measuring scientifically the conditions that may
be involved in a given problem and assessing the way in which they are related.
2. To show the laws underlying facts and events that cannot be determined by
individual observations.
3. To show relations of cause and effect that otherwise may remain unknown.
4. To find the trends and behavior in related conditions which otherwise may remain
ambiguous.

Importance of Statistics to Research

1. It gives the most exact kind of description.
2. It provides the most definite and exact procedures in analyzing data.
3. It summarizes results in a meaningful and convenient form.
4. It draws a general conclusion.
5. It predicts possible outcomes under certain conditions.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF STATISTICS

The history of statistics can be traced back at least to the Biblical times in Ancient Egypt,
Babylon and Rome. As early as 3,500 years before the birth of Christ, statistics had been
used in Egypt in the form of recording the number of sheep or cattle owned, the amount of
grain produced, and the number of people living in a particular city. In 3800 BC.,
Babylonian government used statistics to measure the number of men under the king’s rule
and the vast territory that he occupied. It was his belief that the more men under his
command and the more lands he conquered, the more powerful his kingdom would
become. In 700 B.C., Roman empires used statistics by conducting registration to record
population for the purpose of collecting taxes.

In modern times, statistical methods have been used to record and predict such things as
birth and death rates, employment and inflation rates, sports achievement, and other
economic and social trends. Try have even used to assess opinions from polls and unlock
secret codes from the game of chance.
Modern Statistics is said to have begun with John Graunt (1620-1674), an English
tradesman. Graunt collected published records called “bills of mortality” that included
information about the numbers and causes of deaths in the city of London. Graunt
analyzed more than fifty years of data and created the first mortality table, a table that
shows how long a person may be expected to live after reaching a certain age.

There were so many other great men who made important contribution to statistics. One
of them was Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), the brilliant German mathematician who
used statistical methods in making predictions about the positions of the planets in our
solar system. Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1874), A Belgian astronomer developed the idea of
the “average man” from his studies of the Belgian census. He was also known as the
“Father of Modern Statistics”. Karl Pearson (1857-1936), an English mathematician made
important links between probability and statistics. In the 20 th century, the British
statistician Sir Ronald Aylmer Fisher developed the F-tool in inferential statistics (derived
after his name), this tool has been very useful in testing improvements of production from
agricultural experiments and improvement of precision of results from medical, biological
and industrial experimentation. The American George Gallup (1901-1984) was
instrumental in making statistical polling, a common tool in political campaigns.

In this age of information technology, a lot of computer programs such as Microstat, Soritec
Sampler, SPSS, and others are made available in diskette or websites that perform more
than the manual calculations in statistics. People working in some government agencies, in
laboratories, in media, and in business generally use these electronic devices to easily
access data, improve graphics, and obtain ready-made analyses interpretations about the
data.

APPLICATION OF STATISTICS

In Education
Through statistical tool, a teacher can determine the effectiveness of a particular
teaching method by analyzing test scores
obtained by their students. Results of this study may be used to improve teaching-
learning activities.

In Business
A business firm collects and gathers data or information from its everyday
operation. Statistics is used to summarize and describe those data such as the amount of
sales, expenditures, and production to enable the management to understand and
determine the status of the firm. Data that have been organized and analyzed provide the
management a baseline to make wise decision pertaining to the operation of the business.

In Psychology
Psychologists are able to interpret meaningful aptitude tests, IQ tests and other
psychological tests using statistical procedure or tools.
In Politics & Government
Public Opinion and election polls are commonly used to assess the opinions or
preferences of the public for issues or candidates of interest. Statistics plays an important
role in conducting surveys or interviews for that purpose.

In Medicine
Statistics is also used in determining the effectiveness of new drug products in
treating a particular type of disease. To illustrate, a drug company wants to test the
effectiveness of its new drug product in treating tuberculosis. An experiment or a clinical
trial is conducted. Ten tuberculosis patients are treated using the new drug product and
another are treated using the existing drug. The results are analyzed statistically to find
out if the new product is more effective in treating tuberculosis.

In Agriculture
Through statistical tools, an agriculturist can determine the effectiveness of a new
fertilizer in the growth of plants or crops. Moreover, crop production and yield can be
better analyzed through the use of statistical methods.

In Industry
The most favorite actresses and actors can be determined by using surveys. Ratings
of the members of the board of judges in a beauty contest are statistically analyzed.
Interviews are used to determine the most widely viewed television show. The top grosser
movies for this year are reported based on statistical records of movie houses. All these
activities involve the use of statistics.

In everyday life
The number of cars passing through streets or a highway is recorded to enable
traffic enforcers to manage efficiently. Even the number of pedestrians crossing the street,
the number of people entering a warehouse or a department store, and the number of
people engaged in video games involve the use of statistics. In short statistics is found and
used in everyday life.

BRANCHES OF STATISTICS

Descriptive Statistics – is a statistical procedure concerned with describing the

characteristics and properties of a group of persons, places or things.

For example, we may describe a collection of persons by stating how many are poor and
how many are rich, how many are literate and how many are illiterate, how many fall into
various categories of age, height, civil status, IQ, and many more. We may also describe a
particular barangay in terms of the number of families it has, the number of grade-
schoolers, the number of professionals, the number of households with certain kinds of
appliances, the number of siblings in each household, or the rate of unemployment.
Generally, descriptive statistics involve gathering, organizing, presenting and describing
data.

Inferential Statistics – is a statistical procedure that is used to draw inferences or

information about the properties or characteristics by a large group of people, places, or
things or the basis of the information obtained from a small portion of a large group.

Suppose we want to know the most favorite brand of toothpaste of a certain barangay and
we do not have enough time and money to interview all the residents of that barangay, we
may just ask selected residents. With the data obtained from the interviews, we shall draw
or make conclusions as to barangay’s favorite brand of toothpaste. This example involves
the use of inferential statistics.

TERMINOLOGIES IN STATISTICS
Some important terms are commonly used in the study of Statistics. These terms should be
understood fully in order to facilitate the study of statistics.
1. Population refers to a large collection of objects, places or things. To illustrate this,
suppose a researcher wants to determine the average income of the residents of a
certain barangay and there are 1500 residents in the barangay. Then all of these
residents comprise the population. A population is usually denoted or represented
by N. Hence, this case, N = 1500.
2. Sample is a small portion or part of a population. It could also be define as a sub-
group, subset, or representative of a population. For instance, suppose the above-
mentioned researcher does not have enough time and money to conduct the study
using the whole population and he wants to use only 200 residents. These 200
residents comprise the sample. A sample is usually denoted by n, thus n = 200.
3. Parameter is any numerical or nominal characteristics of a population. It is a value
or measurement obtained from a population. It is usually referred to as the true or
actual value. If in the preceding illustration, the researcher uses the whole
population (N=1500), then the average income obtained is called a parameter.
4. Statistic is an estimate of a parameter. It is a value or measurement obtained from
the sample. If the researcher in the preceding illustration makes use of the sample
(n=200), then the average income obtained is called statistic.
5. Data –(singular form is datum) are facts, or a set of information or observation
under study. More specifically, data are gathered by the researcher from a
population or from a sample. Data may be classified into two categories, qualitative
or quantitative
a. Qualitative data are data which can assume values that manifest the concepts of
attributes. These are sometimes called categorical data. Data falling in this
category cannot be subjected to meaningful arithmetic. They cannot be added,
subtracted or divided. Gender and nationality are qualitative data.

Gender is a qualitative dichotomous variable since an individual may take one of

the two values “male or female”. In an opinion poll, the response of an individual
towards an issue whether to “go” for it, “against” it or “undecided” is an example
of qualitative trichotomous variable. Smoking habits of an individual in different
 situations may be classified as “Always/Very Often”, “often”, “Seldom”, “Very
Seldom”, or “Never”. This set of qualitative values is called multinomous
variable.

b. Quantitative Data are data which are numerical in nature. These are data
obtained from counting or measuring. In addition, meaningful arithmetic
operations can be done with this type of data. Test scores and height are
quantitative data.

6. A Variable is a characteristic or property of a population or sample which makes

the members different from each other. If a class consists of boys and girls, then
gender is a variable in this class. Height is also a variable because different people
have different heights. Variables may be classified on the basis of whether they are
discrete or continuous and whether they are dependent or independent.
a. Discrete Variable
A discrete variable is one that can assume a finite number of values. In other
words, it can assume specific values only. The values of a discrete variable
are obtained through the process of counting. The number of students in a
class is a discrete variable. If there are 40 students in a class, it cannot
reported that there are 40.2 students or 40.5 students, because it is
impossible for a fractional part of a student to be in the class.
b. Continuous Variable
A continuous variable is one that can assume infinite values within a specified
interval. The values of a continuous variable are obtained through measuring.
Height is a continuous variable. If one reports that the height of a building is 15
m, it is also possible that another person reports that the height of the same
building is 15.1m or 15.12m, depending on the precision of the measuring device
used. In other words, height of the building can assume several values.
c. Dependent Variable
A dependent variable is a variable which is affected or influenced by another
variable.
d. Independent Variable
An independent Variable is one in which affects or influences the dependent
variable. To illustrate Independent and dependent variables, consider the
problem entitled, The Effect of Computer-Assisted Instruction on the
Students’ Achievement in Mathematics. Here the independent variable is the
computer-assisted instruction while the dependent variable is the achievement
of students in mathematics.

7. Constant refers to the fundamental quantities that do not change in value, fixed
costs and acceleration due to gravity are examples of such.
 SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
1. Nominal Scale- This is the most primitive level of measurement. The nominal
level of measurement used when we want to distinguish one object from another
for identification purposes. In this level, we can only say that one object is
different from another, but the amount of difference between them cannot be
determined. We cannot tell that one is better or worse than the other. Gender,
nationality and civil status are of nominal scale.
2. Ordinal scale – in the ordinal level of measurement, data are arranged in some
specified order or rank. When objects are measured in this level, we can say that
one is better or greater than the other. But we cannot tell how much more or
how much less of the characteristic one objects than the other. The ranking of
contestants in a beauty contest, or siblings in the family, or of honor students in
the class are of ordinal scale.
3. Interval Scale- If data are measured in the interval level, we can say not only that
one object is greater or less than another, but we can also specify the amount of
difference. The scores in an examination are of interval scale of measurement.
To illustrate, suppose Kensly Kyle got 50 in a Math examination while Kwenn
Anne got 40. We can say the Kensly Kyle got higher score than Kwenn Ann by 10
points.
4. Ratio Scale- The ratio level of measurement is like the interval level. The only
difference is that the ratio level always starts from an absolute or true zero
point. In addition, in the ratio level, there is always the presence of units of
measure. If data are measured in this level, we can say that one object is so
many times as large or as small as the other. For example, suppose Mrs. Reyes
weight 50 kg, while her daughter weighs 25 kg. We can say that Mrs. Reyes is
twice heavy as her daughter. Thus, weight is an example of data measured in the
ratio.

DATA GATHERING TECHNIQUES

SOURCES OF DATA
There are two sources of obtaining data. One is called primary source from which a
first-hand information is obtained usually by means or personal interview and
actual observation. On the other hand, the secondary source of information is taken
from other’s works, news reports, readings, journals, magazines, and those that are
kept by the National Statistics Office, Securities and Exchange Commission, Social
Security System and other government and private agencies.

Data are said to be an asset of a company if they are accurate, updated and available
when needed. Hence, any institution or business organization must have a database
called Management Information System where all information about their business
are made available in order to facilitate verification of claims and to come up with
wise management decision.
METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA: Its Advantages and Disadvantages

1. Direct or Interview Method – is a person-to-person interaction between a

interviewer and an interviewee. Tape recorded or written interview will help
the researcher obtain exact information from the interviewee.
Advantages: Precise and consistent answers can be obtained by modifying or
rephrasing the questions especially to illiterate or to children under study.
Disadvantages: It is time, money and effort consuming and it will be applicable
only for small population, except when conducting a census.
2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method- is an alternative method for the interview
method. Written responses are obtained by distributing questionnaires (a list of
questions intended to elicit answers to a given problem, must be given in a
logical order and not too personal) to the respondents through mail or hand-
carry
Advantages: Lesser time, money, and efforts are consumed.
Disadvantages: Many responses may not b consistent due to the poor
construction of the questionnaire. The meaning of the questions may be
different from each respondent. Inconsistent responses can no longer be
modified, thus, it reduces valid number of respondents.
3. Registration Method – is enforced by private organization or government
agencies for recording purposes.
Advantages: Organized data from an institution can serve as ready references for
future study or for personal claims of people’s record.
Disadvantages: Problem arises only when an agency doesn’t have a Management
Information system and if the system or process of registration is not
implemented well.
4. Observation Method – is a scientific method of investigation that makes possible
use of all senses to measure or obtain outcomes/responses from the object of
study
Advantages: Observation method is usually applied to respondents that cannot be
asked or need not speak especially when behaviors of persons/culture of
organization/performance outcomes of employees/students are to be considered.
Disadvantages: Subjectivity of information sought cannot be avoided.
5. Experimentation- is used when the objective is to determine the cause-and-
effect of a certain phenomenon under some controlled conditions.
Advantages: There is objectivity of information since a scientific method of
inquiry is used. An equal number of respondents with relatively similar
characteristics are being examined to obtain the different effects of something
applied to the experimental group.
Disadvantages: It’s too difficult to find respondents with almost similar
characteristics. The whole method must be repeated if the desired outcome is
not reached.
 Data that are collected by these methods are usually referred to as raw data.
Responses out from taped interviews, answered questionnaires, furnished
registration forms, recorded observations, and results from an experiment are
considered raw data since they are not yet organized and presented in a
form ready for interpretation.

CLASSIFICATION OF VARIABLES AND DATA

v VARIABLE

QUALITATIV  Dependent
QUANTITATI
E  Independent
VE

Dichotomous *Discrete
Trichotomous *Continuous
Multinomous

DATA

SCALES OF
SOURCES PRESENTATION
MEASUREMENT
*Primary  Textual
METHODS *Nominal
* Secondary  Tabular
*Interview *Ordinal
 Graphical/Chart
*Questionnaire *Interval
-Line Graph
*Registration *Ratio
-Bar Graph
*Observation
-Pie Graph
*Experimentation
-Pictograph
-Map/Cartogram
-Scatter Point Diagram

SLOVIN’S FORMULA IN DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE

In research, we seldom use the entire population because of the cost and time involved.
In fact, most researchers do not use the population in their study. Instead, the sample
which is small representative of a population is used. The characteristics of the whole
entire population are described using the characteristics observed from the sample.

The sample size can be obtained by the formula

N where n – sample size

n = ---------------- N – population size
1 + Ne2 e – margin of error
 Observe that there is a margin of error. When we use a sample, we do not get the actual
value but just an estimate of the parameter. Hence, there is an error associated when
using the sample.

To illustrate, suppose we want to find out the average age of the students in Manila.
However, due to insufficient time, only the students in three particular schools were
used to estimate the average age. Obviously, the result is not the actual average age but
just an estimate and thus, there is really an error when we use the sample instead of the
population.
Study the examples below in finding the sample size.

Example 1. A group of researcher will conduct a survey to find out the opinion of
residents of a particular community regarding the oil price hike. If there are 10,000
residents in the community and the researchers plan to use a sample using a 10%
margin of error, what should the sample size be?

Solution: N= 10,000, e= 10% or .10

N 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000

n = ------------ , = ---------------------- , = --------------------, n = ----------, n = ---------,
n=99.01=99
1 + Ne2 1 + 10,000(.10)2 1 + 10,000(.01) 1+ 100 101

Hence, the researchers will just conduct the survey using 99 residents. A 10% margin or
error means that the researcher is 90% confident that the result obtained using the sample
will closely approximate the result had he used the population.

Example 2. Suppose that in example 1, the researcher would like to use a 5% margin of
error. What should be the size of the sample?

Solution: N=10,000 e = 5% or .05

10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000

n = ------------------ , n = ----------------------, n= ------------, n = -----------,
1+ 10,000(.05)2 1 + 10,000(.0025) 1 + 25 26

n =384.62 or 385

Observe from examples 1 & 2 that as we reduce the margin of error, the sample size gets
larger. Hence if we want to have a more accurate result, we have use a larger sample.
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Sampling Technique- is a procedure used to determine the individuals or
members of a sample.
A – PROBABILITY OR RANDOM SAMPLING TECHNIQUE is a sampling technique
wherein each member or element of the population has an equal chance of being selected
as members of the sample.

1. Simple Random Sampling

a. Lottery Method
Suppose Mrs. Cruz wants to send five students to attend a 2-day training or
seminar in basic computer programming. To avoid bias in selecting these five
students from her 40 students, she can use the lottery sampling. This is done by
assigning a number of paper to each student and then writing these numbers on
pieces of paper. Then, these pieces of paper will be rolled or folded and placed in
a box called lottery box. The lottery box should be thoroughly shaken and then
five pieces of paper will be picked or drawn from the box. The students who
were assigned to the numbers chosen will be sent to the training. In this case,
the selection of the students is done without bias. Note that we can simply
assign1 to the first student, 2 to the second student and so on.

b. Sampling with the use of Table of Random Numbers

Below is a proportion of the table of roman Random Numbers
31871 60770 59235 41702
87134 32839 17850 37359
06728 16314 81076 42172
95646 67486 05167 07819
44085 87246 47378 98338

Let us illustrate how these random numbers are use to select the members of the
sample. Let us consider the preceding example wherein Mrs. Cruz wants to
select 5 students from her 40 students. Again, we will assign a number to each
student, say from 1 to 40.

Since there are 40 students, we will use the two-digit number of the table of
random number when selecting the members of the sample. This is because the
students have been assigned with number 01, 02, 03,. . . up to 40. Looking at the
first column of the table of random numbers above, we see that the number
formed by the first two-digit is 31, hence, the student assigned to number 31 is
chosen as a member of the sample. If we proceed down the column, we see that
the number formed is 87 which cannot be used because we have only 40
members. In a similar manner, the third number is 06 so that the student
assigned to number 6 is chosen. Notice that the next two numbers from the table
are 95 and 44, numbers we cannot use for the same reason as before. When we
get to the bottom of the column, we move up the column and merely shift one
 digit to the right for the next random number. Thus, we will have 18 as our next
number. Thus is one of the many alternatives. We can have other ways of
selecting the members of the sample until we complete the 5 students.

2. Systematic Sampling
Let us use the example wherein Mrs. Cruz wants to select 5 students from her 40
students. First, we select a random starting point. This is done by dividing the
number of members in the population by the number of the members in the sample.
Hence, in our case we shall have i = 8. The next step is to write the numbers 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 on pieces of paper and draw one number by lottery. If we were able
to get 5, this means that we will select every 5th student in the population as
members of the sample. Therefore, the 5 th, 10th, 15th, 20th, and 25th student shall be
the members of the sample. If, for instance, we were able to obtain the number 6,
then the members of the sample will be the 6th, 12th, 18th, 24th and 30th students.

3. Stratified Random Sampling

There are some instances whereby the members of the population do not belong
to the same category, class, or group. To illustrate this, let us suppose that we want
to determine the average income of the families in a certain community or barangay.
In a typical barangay, different families belong to different income brackets. If we
will draw or select members of the sample using simple random sampling, there is a
possibility or chance that none of the families or a disproportionate number of the
families from the low-income, average income, or high-income group will be include
in the sample. In this case, the result of the study would turn out into biased. For
example, if the sample comes only from the high-income families, then we will
conclude that the average income of the families living in this barangay is high. This
suggest that the sample that should be drawn from the population should be
proportionally drawn from each group or category – the high, the average, and the
low-income families.

To do this, we will use the stratified random sampling. The word stratified comes
from the root word strata which means group or categories (singular form is
stratum). When we use this method, we are actually dividing the elements of the
population into different categories or subpopulation and then the members of the
sample are drawn or selected proportionally from each subpopulation.

Example. Suppose a community consists of 5000 families belonging to different

income brackets. We will draw 200 families as our random sample using stratified
random sampling. Below are the subpopulations and corresponding number of
families belonging to each subpopulation or stratum.

Strata Number of Families

 High-Income Families 1000
Average-Income 2500
Families
Low-Income Families 1500
N=5000

Solution: the first step is to find the percentage of each stratum. This is done by
dividing the number of families in each stratum by the total of families. Then, we
multiply each percentage by desired number of families in the sample.
Strata Number of Percentage Number of Families
Families in the Sample
High 1000 1000/5000= 0.2 or 0.2x200= 40
20%
Average 2500 2500/5000=0.5 or 0.5x200=100
50%
Low 1500 1500/5000=0.3 or 0.3x 200=60
30%
N=5000 n = 200

From the above table, we see that if we are going to draw 200 members from the
population of 5000, we should draw 40 families belonging to the high-income, 100
from the average, and 60 from the low-income groups. Observe that the number of
families drawn as sample in each stratum is proportional to the number of families
from the population.

4. Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is sampling wherein groups or clusters instead of individuals are
randomly chosen. Recall that in the simple random sampling we select members of
the sample individually. In cluster sampling, we will select or draw the members of
the sample by group and then we select a sample of elements from each cluster or
group randomly. Cluster sampling is sometimes called area sampling because this is
usually applied when population is large.

To illustrate the use of this sampling method, let’s suppose that we want to
determine the average income of the families in Manila. Let us assume there are
250 barangay in Manila. We can draw a random sample of 20 barangays using
simple random sampling, and then a certain number of families from each of the 20
barangays may be chosen.

5. Multi-Stage Sampling
Multi-stage sampling is a combination of several sampling techniques. This
method is usually used by the researchers who are interested in studying a very
large population, say the whole island of Luzon or even the Philippines. This is done
by starting the selection of the members of the sample using cluster sampling and
 then dividing each number or group into strata. Then, from each stratum
individuals are drawn using simple random sampling.

B. Non-Probability or Non- Random Sampling Techniques

The non-probability sampling is a sampling technique wherein members of the
sample are drawn from the population based on the judgment of the researchers. The
results of a study using this sampling technique are relatively biased. This technique lacks
objectivity of selection; hence, it is sometimes called subjective sampling. Inferences made
based on the sample obtained using this technique is not so reliable.
Non-probability sampling techniques are used because they are convenient and
economical. Researchers use these methods because they are inexpensive and easy to
conduct.

1. Convenience Sampling
As the name implies, convenience sampling is used because of the convenience it
offers to the researcher. For example, a researcher who wishes to investigate the
most popular noontime show may just interview the respondents through the
telephone. The result of this interview will be biased because the opinions of those
without telephone will not be included. Although convenience sampling may be
used occasionally, we cannot depend on it in making inferences about a population.

2. Quota Sampling
In this type of sampling, the proportions of the various subgroups in the
population are determined and the sample is drawn to have the same percentage in
it. This is very similar to the stratified random sampling the only difference is that
the selection of the members of the sample using quota sampling is not done
randomly. To illustrate this, let us suppose that we want to determine the teenagers’
most favorite brand of T-shirt. If there are 1000 female and 1000 male teenagers in
the population and we want to draw 150 members for our sample, we can select 75
female and 75 male teenagers from the population without using randomization.
This is quota sampling.

3. Judgment or Purpose Sampling

Another method of drawing the members of the sample using non-probability is
by using purposive sampling. Let us suppose that the target is to find out the
effectiveness of a certain kind of shampoo. Of course, bald fellows will not be the
sample.

4. Incidental Sampling
This design is applied to those samples which are taken because they are the
most available. The investigator simply takes the nearest individuals as subjects of
the study until it reaches the desired size. In an interview, for instance, an
interviewer can simply choose to ask those people around him or in a coffee shop
where he is taking a break.