Advanced Electronics – Study Guide ©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc.

____________________________________________________________________________________

Course Objectives
Upon completion of this course, technicians should understand and be able to apply their knowledge of:

• Concepts, applications and components of automotive electronics

• Measuring and interpreting analog and digital signals, pulse-width modulation, computer inputs and
outputs
• Semiconductors: standard diodes, zeners, LEDs, and transistors
• Semiconductor circuitry: rectifiers, regulators, indicators, and control devices
• Automotive computer systems: memory and memory types, communications and Class II data
• System actuators: switched and pulse-width modulated controls
• Performance testing for all inputs and outputs
• Input devices: switched, analog, and digital signals
• Test procedures

Using the Job Sheets

As you proceed through the online modules, on some pages you will find links that will open a window
with a printable procedure or job sheet containing hands-on lab activities based on the NATEF standards
related to the content you are studying. When you come upon a procedure or job sheet link, click on it
and print the job sheet for completion in the shop. See your instructor for guidance in completing the job
sheets. Some jobs sheets will require supplemental materials such as a vehicle service manual,
equipment manual, or other references.

Module 1
Overview
Semiconductors are a group of devices that are, in a normal state, neither good conductors nor good
insulators. From our earlier study of electrical fundamentals, we recall that good conductors have only
one or two electrons in the outer shell while insulators have many more, around eight. Semiconductors,
usually made of silicon or germanium, tend to have four outer shell electrons and have the unusual
characteristic of becoming conductors as voltage is applied. Although there are many types of
semiconductors, also called solid-state devices, we will limit our discussion to the two most common
types: diodes and transistors.

Electrostatic Discharge
The electrostatic charge that can build up on your body and discharge to another object (such as a
doorknob), is in excess of 50,000 volts. That “static” discharge is enough to destroy many of the
semiconductor components you may come into contact with in automotive systems. In order to prevent
damage to components, look for the Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) symbol shown in the box below and
carefully follow the instructions on handling those devices. In addition, any electronic parts or components
shipped in a dark-blue or black “anti-static” bag should be left in the bag until they are ready to be
installed. Electronic components can be easily protected against accidental damage by following these
few simple precautions.

______________________________________________________________________________
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Electrostatic Discharge Notice

Semiconductor Construction
Semiconductors start out as either pure silicon or pure germanium. Other elements, such as boron or
phosphorus, are then added to those substances in a process called “doping”. Doping causes a change
in the electrical properties of the base materials and forms two new substances we will call N-material and
P-material. N-type material gets its name because it has an excess of electrons, or negatively charged
particles. Likewise, P-type materials have a shortage of negatively charged electrons and are thus more
positive. If we join one N material and one P material, we create a P-N junction, which is the basic
building block of all semiconductors.

Semiconductors do not conduct well in their

normal state; that is, they have a high resistance
when no voltage is applied. Conductors, on the
other hand, will exhibit a low resistance even if
unpowered. However, when a voltage is properly
applied across a P-N junction, the internal
resistance of the device decreases and the current
flow increases. The minimum voltage required to
allow current to flow across the junction is called
the Barrier Voltage.

P-N Junction

The barrier voltages for different components will vary depending on the basic material used in the
construction of the device and the substances used in the “doping process”. For our purposes, we will use
the most common barrier voltages of .5 to .7 volts for silicon-based components and .3 to .5 volts for
germanium components.

Diodes
Diodes are the simplest of all semiconductors and have only one P-N junction or barrier region. That is to
say, they have one N-material section connected to one P-material section. Diodes serve a number of
functions in automotive circuits including rectification, voltage spike protection, and indicator lighting.
Those that give off light are called Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) and all will be covered later.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
-2-
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

When referring to the two ends of a diode, we use the

terms “Anode” for the P-material end and “Cathode” for the
N-material end. A silicon diode will begin to conduct when
the anode end is approximately .5 to .7 volts higher than
the cathode end. In the illustration of the diode symbol
shown, notice the arrow on the anode (+) end. The arrow
shows the current flow direction when viewed in a
conventional (plus to minus) manner. Also notice, there is
a stripe on the outside of a diode. The stripe is used to
signify the cathode (-) end of the device.

Diode with schematic symbol

Forward Bias
Diodes can be inserted into a circuit in either a Forward Bias or Reverse Bias configuration. In a forward-
biased application, the anode is connected to the more positive part of a circuit while the cathode is
connected to a more negative part of the circuit. When power is applied to a silicon diode, and the barrier
voltage exceeds .5 to .7 volts, current is allowed to flow through the diode and therefore through the
circuit.

Notice in this circuit that the diode does not conduct

until the applied voltage matches the rated barrier
voltage of the device. The diode behaves like an open
in a circuit and drops all of the applied voltage until the
barrier voltage is reached. Once the applied voltage
exceeds the barrier voltage, the voltage drop across
the diode will remain the same regardless of additional
increases in the applied voltage. Any applied voltage
greater than the barrier voltage of the diode will be
dropped across the load (a bulb in this case).

Below the barrier voltage, no current flows

Above the barrier voltage, current flows Additional voltage is dropped across the load

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
-3-
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Reverse Bias
If a diode is inserted into a circuit with the N-
material connected to the plus side and the P-
material connected to the negative side, it is said
to be reverse-biased and will not conduct. We will
later see that some diodes are intentionally
installed this way to control current flow and
provide circuit protection when loads are turned
off. There is also a limit to the amount of reverse
bias voltage, called Peak Inverse Voltage or PIV,
that a device can tolerate. If a voltage is applied
that exceeds the PIV, the device may be
destroyed and require replacement. When
replacing a diode, make sure the PIV rating is
sufficiently high to fulfill the current requirements.
A reverse bias application is shown in this circuit.
No current flow across load

Zener Diodes
Zeners are a special type of diode that is designed to be installed
in a reverse-biased configuration, and is used as voltage
regulator or controller. If a Zener is inserted into a circuit in a
forward-biased configuration, it will behave exactly like a
standard diode. The symbol for a Zener diode is different from
the standard diode symbol, as shown in this illustration.
Zener diode symbol
Zeners are manufactured in such a way that they have a certain “breakover voltage” or Zener point. The
Zener point is the amount of reverse bias voltage that must be applied to the device to make it conduct
current. Once the breakover voltage is reached, the voltage drop across the Zener will not increase even
if the applied voltage is increased. For example, if a six-volt Zener is placed in a parallel circuit with a
series lamp with 5 volts applied, all of the voltage will be dropped across the Zener and the bulb will not
light, since the breakover voltage has not been reached. Applying seven volts to the same circuit will
show a six-volt drop across the diode and one volt across the lamp. Increasing the applied voltage to 10
volts, we find the voltage across the Zener remains at its rated six volts but the lamp voltage is increased
to four volts. This operating characteristic is what makes Zener diodes useful as voltage regulators in
applications such as generators and power supplies.

Series circuit with 6.1V Zener diode

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
-4-
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

Light Emitting Diodes conduct when forward-biased and block current flow when reverse-biased, just like
standard diodes. The two primary differences between LEDs and standard diodes are that LEDs emit
light when they begin to conduct, and the forward bias voltages for LEDs are slightly higher, about 1.5 to
2.5 volts. A resistor, usually 470 ohms, must also be used in series with an LED to limit current (typically
20-30ma) and prevent damage to the device. The symbol for an LED, shown here, is a standard diode
symbol with two arrows pointing outward to signify that it gives off light. Do not confuse this symbol with
one that has arrows pointing in. That is the symbol for a photodiode that conducts when exposed to light.

Because they turn on and off more quickly, LEDs are typically used
as indicator lights, in instrument panels, and more recently as rear
park/brake lights. They consume less energy to operate and create
less heat than standard bulbs.

Light Emitting Diode symbol

Rectifier
A Rectifier is a device used to change AC to DC. The most common use of diodes as rectifiers is in the
generator. Automotive generators produce 3-phase alternating current that must be converted to direct
current by a rectifier bridge before it can be used. A rectifier bridge is a network of six diodes arranged in
such a way that the half-cycles of each AC phase are made to travel in the same direction rather than in
opposite directions as is typically the case in alternating current. Each phase of a generator uses only
four of the six diodes, and the rectification of one full cycle is described in the following section.

Rectifier Operation
During the first half-cycle of an AC wave, point A is
positive and point B is negative. Beginning at point A
and using conventional flow, we find that the positive
pulse sees D2 as forward biased and D1 as reverse
biased and passes through D2. After passing through
D2 we find that D4 is also reverse biased and the
current moves through R1 and around to the junction
of D1 and D3. D1 will not conduct since it has positive
voltage on each side, but D3 is forward biased and the
circuit is completed back to point B, bypassing D4,
which also has positive voltage on each side.

Diode Rectifier Bridge, 1st half-cycle

On the second half-cycle, point A is negative and point

B is positive. Current will flow from point B through D4,
through R1 (in the same direction as the first half-
cycle), through D1 and back to point A. This
application is called a Full Wave Rectifier and results
in the type of output shown on the next page.
The signal in the illustration, which is labeled as input,
is the basic AC produced by a single winding in a
generator. The output signal is the same wave after it
has been converted in a full wave rectifier. These two
signals are for one phase only and are measured
across the resistor R1. The actual total output of a
generator will have three identical phases, each 120
degrees later than the previous one, as shown.
Diode Rectifier Bridge, 2nd half-cycle

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
-5-
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

AC to DC rectification Three phase full-wave rectified generator output

Clamping Diodes
Whenever a current is passed through a device with a coil (relay, solenoid, etc.), a magnetic field is
created around the coil. Turning the device off causes the magnetic field to collapse and create an
electrical pulse in the opposite direction as the original current flow. This pulse is referred to as a voltage
spike. Voltage spikes can be many times larger than the original voltage that was applied to the device
and, if not controlled, can cause damage to circuits and other electronic components. To protect these
circuits we use clamping diodes.

Clamping diodes are standard diodes placed across device coils so as to be reverse biased to current
flow in normal operation. When the circuit is opened, however, the resulting spike flows in the opposite
direction, which now makes the diode forward biased. The current continues to flow in a circle, dissipating
the electrical energy through the coil in the form of heat.

Clamping diode to dissipate voltage spike

Diode Testing
Unlike resistors, the voltage drop across a diode does not increase with an increase in applied voltage.
Diodes are rated in volts, not in ohms, and should therefore not be tested with an Ohmmeter even though
this is a common practice for many technicians.

Test Procedure
Using a meter with a “Diode test” position, check the diode’s forward bias voltage (red lead on the anode
and black lead on the cathode) and ensure that it is the same as the device’s rating (.5 to .7 V for
standard silicon, for example). Reverse the leads, and the meter should read OL, or its absolute highest
resistance value. If the diode shows a voltage reading in each direction, or OL in both directions, it is bad.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
-6-
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Transistors
A second type of semiconductor device found in automotive applications is the transistor. Transistors can
be used as switches to turn circuits on and off, or as amplifiers to control a variable current output. In the
simplest sense, a transistor can be seen as a resistor whose value decreases as the electrical input
increases.

Transistors fall into one of two primary categories: Bi-polar or Field Effect Transistor (FET). Both types are
designed to control output current, but bi-polars operate based on input current while FETs operate on
input voltage.

Since the bi-polar transistor is most commonly used

in automotive applications, we will limit our
discussion to it.

Bi-polar transistors are composed of the same N-

type and P-type materials used in diodes. Unlike a
diode, a transistor has three layers of material and
two barrier regions arranged either as an NPN type
or as a PNP type.

Bipolar transistors
Transistor Construction
In this figure, the basic construction of the two bi-polar transistor types is shown along with the
corresponding symbols for each. Although their construction is different, both NPN and PNP transistors
have the same three parts known as the Emitter, the Base, and the Collector. To determine from the
symbol which type you have, notice that the arrow points toward the base (in) on a PNP type and toward
the emitter (out) on an NPN type. Therefore, the rule to keep in mind is that the arrow always points to an
N material. The arrow also indicates the direction of current flow through the transistor using conventional
flow theory. NPN transistors tend to be more commonly found in automotive applications than PNP
transistors.

Field Effect Transistors operate differently than bi-polars and have different names for the sections. FETs
have a gate (base), a source (emitter), and a drain (collector) to distinguish them from other types.

Transistor Operation
For our discussion of transistor operation, we’ll use an NPN component as our example. In an NPN
transistor, the emitter is an N material and the base is a P material. The Emitter-Base junction is like that
in a diode, meaning that for a silicon-based transistor, if the voltage between the base and the emitter is
.5 to .7 V, it will conduct and current will begin to flow. As the Emitter-Base (E-B) junction conducts, the
resistance of the Emitter-Collector (E-C) begins to drop and current begins to flow through the transistor,
thus turning on the circuit. Further increasing the base current reduces the Emitter-Collector resistance
even more and produces an increase in the circuit current. Notice also that base current flows into the
base and out the emitter while the collector current enters the collector and exits the emitter. Therefore,
the emitter current is the sum of both the base current and the collector current, or:

When selecting a transistor for use, make sure the current ratings are sufficient to handle the circuit
requirements.

A PNP transistor will operate the same as an NPN except the base will be at least .7 V lower than the
emitter rather than higher.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
-7-
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Applications
In a transistor being used as an amplifier, small variations to the base current will correspond as much
larger outputs at the collector. If, however, base current is not varied but is toggled between high current
(saturation) and off, then the transistor becomes a high-speed switch for On-Off applications. A
“saturation switch” can also be compared to a relay in that it uses a small current to control a large
current. However, a transistor has only three legs compared to the relay’s four. Transistors also contain
no moving parts.

Transistor Currents

Current Limiting
Refer to the schematic at right and notice the 1KW resistor in the base circuit.
This resistor serves two purposes: first, it limits the amount of current that flows
through the base circuit and protects the transistor from damage, and second,
it is the output controller for the Emitter-Collector circuit. As we increase or
decrease the amount of base current by changing the base resistor, we control
how much the transistor turns on. This will limit the Emitter-Collector current,
which protects the transistor. The resistance of the lamp also serves to limit the
E-C current when the transistor is operating.

Gain
Gain is a factor that affects the operation of a transistor and must be taken into
account when selecting a replacement component. There are no units
associated with gain such as volts or amps; it is simply the ratio of the collector
current compared to the base current. For instance, if a transistor has a gain of
100, then 20 mA of base current will yield 2000 mA of collector current. Simply
multiply the gain times base current to get the collector output. Gain can also
be used to calculate maximum base current. If a transistor has a maximum
collector current of 2500 mA and a gain of 200, then dividing the collector
current by the gain gives the highest base current that can be used. In this
case:

2500 mA ÷ 200 = 12.5 mA

maximum base current. Technicians should consider all these factors when doing repairs to ensure the
transistor has the necessary capabilities.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
-8-
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Gain formula

Transistor Testing
The testing of transistors is a simple process, but just as with diodes, it is often done incorrectly. As we
did before, we’ll use an NPN transistor for our example to show the six possible checks.

To make the process easier, look at transistors as two diodes connected back-to-back. An NPN transistor
is then just two P-N junctions, one between the Emitter-Base and one between the Base-Collector. Some
of the connections will be forward-biased and some will be reverse-biased.

Use the diode position on a DVOM just as if you are measuring a diode and it will be easy. Do not use an
ohmmeter since different meters will give different and sometimes erroneous results. The six tests on a
silicon-based NPN will be as follows:

1. Red lead on the Base (P) and the Black lead on the Emitter (N); the meter should read approximately
.5 -.7 volts.
2. Black lead on the Base (P) and the Red lead on the Emitter (N); the meter
should read OL (no conduction).
3. Red lead on the Base (P) and the Black lead on the Collector (N); the meter should approximately .5 -
.7 volts.
4. Black lead on the Base (P) and the Red lead on the Collector (N); the
meter should read OL.
5. Red lead on the Emitter (N) and the Black lead on the Collector (N); the
meter should read OL.
6. Black lead on the Collector (N) and the Red lead on the Emitter (N); the
meter should read OL.

Testing for PNP transistors is similar and just as easy, if you keep track of which junctions are forward-
biased and which are reverse-biased. The Emitter-Collector junctions should always read OL.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
-9-
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Transistor Circuit
This is a simple transistor circuit using a capacitor
and a load (bulb). Study the schematic to
determine the circuit’s function. What might this
circuit be used for in an automotive application?
When the switch is closed, a voltage is applied to
the base circuit that is sufficient to make the
transistor conduct. A ground is then provided
through the transistor to the bulb, which lights
since it has full time power. The capacitor also
charges when the switch is on. If the switch is
turned off, the capacitor discharges through the
base circuit and the transistor continues to operate
the bulb until the capacitor is depleted. This
particular application could be used for interior
lights dimming, sometimes called “theater
dimming”, where the switch would indicate the
opening and closing of a door.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 10 -
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise – Blower Motor Circuit

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 11 -
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise answers: 1) 2.8 Ω, 2)1.8 Ω, 3).8 Ω, 4) 30 amps, 5) 4.2 amps, 6) 6.6 amps, 7) 30 amps, 8)
4.2 volts, 9) 0 volts, 10) 4.2 volts, 11) 12 volts, 12) 180 watts, 13) HI speed, 14) It will go down.

Capacitors
Capacitors are devices that store electrical charges and
behave like temporary batteries. Technicians may have
seen them used as filters on alternators or radios to reduce
noise, or even in older point-style distributors as
condensers. By controlling how quickly they charge and
discharge, we can also use them as timers.

Capacitors basically consist of two metallic plates separated by an insulator called a "dielectric."
Dielectrics can be something as simple as a piece of paper. A simple capacitor can be made by placing a
sheet of paper between two equal sized sheets of aluminum foil. Wrap all three sheets around a paper
towel roll (don't let the aluminum sheets touch) and attach a connector wire to each piece of aluminum
foil. That is the basic construction of a capacitor.

There are two types of capacitors, electrolytic and

non-electrolytic. Electrolytic capacitors have both a
positive and negative end while non-electrolytics can
be inserted in either direction. The symbol for an
electrolytic capacitor is, and for a

non-electrolytic .
Since the plates in a capacitor do not touch, it acts
like an open in a circuit and will not pass DC current.
Electrical Charges on capacitor plates
Units
Capacitors are rated in terms of their storage capacity, called
Farads, as well as their working voltage. The Farad (F) is a
measure of the number of electrons a capacitor can store and
is very large. Most applications will be rated in microfarads
(µF) or nanofarads (nF). A microfarad is one-millionth of a
farad and a nanofarad is one-billionth of a farad. When
selecting a capacitor for a given application, make sure the
working voltage rating is higher than the source voltage to prevent damage.

Capacitors in Parallel
If two or more capacitors are placed in parallel in a circuit (figure 3-16), the total capacitance is
determined by adding the individual capacitor values as shown by the equation:

CT = C1 + C2

Therefore, two 1000 µF capacitors in parallel have a total

of 2000 µF capacitance. Keep in mind that combining
capacitors does not increase the working voltage. Any
number of capacitors in parallel will have the same
working voltage as the capacitor with the lowest working
voltage rating.
Figure 3-16 Capacitors in parallel

Note: It is always a good idea to discharge any capacitor, by touching the leads together, before
connecting it to a circuit or meter.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 12 -
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Applying Capacitors for Noise

If a noise or pop occurs in the audio system when a switch or contact is deactivated, capacitors can be
used to filter out the noise. Referring to the diagram below, the first .47µF capacitor will be placed across
the switch/contact (1) to absorb any surge current at deactivation. If the pop is gone, you're finished. If
not, place a second capacitor (leaving the first) from the positive side of the switch/contact to ground (2)
and test again. This capacitor will filter out noise on the power side. If a problem still exists, insert the third
capacitor between the switch and load to ground (3). This capacitor will filter out noise on the load side of
the switch.

Adding capacitors to eliminate popping noises

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 13 -
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Module 2
Computers
In recent years, automotive computers have shown up in areas from engine control to air conditioning,
and everywhere in between. They control engine performance and emissions, operate the Anti-lock
brakes, shift the transmission, adjust the suspension, and in some vehicles, control the radio. Ironically,
these electronic wonders are often credited with capabilities they don’t have, and blamed for problems
they didn’t cause. A simple understanding of what automotive computers do, and how they work, will
greatly assist in helping the technician diagnose and repair microprocessor based systems.

First of all, computers do not think. They are just machines (with some very small parts) that take
information from sensors, apply that information to an internal microprocessor program, and then tell
some device to turn on or off. Computers also have memories for storing diagnostic codes, power
supplies for sensors, and communications capabilities for sharing information with other computers.

Computer Features
Automotive computers, as shown in this example, tend to have the same general features even though
they control different systems. From this illustration we can see the following:
• Memory – shown here as an EEPROM, they have both long-term and short-term memories.
• Voltage Regulators – the regulators take the 12 V input voltage and convert it to other lower
voltages. Those voltages can then be used to power input sensors (5V) or to operate the internal
electronics.
• Inputs – this illustration shows both
types of inputs used by automotive
computers: voltage inputs and
grounding inputs. If a sensor has an
external power feed it will connect to a
grounding input. Likewise, a sensor with
an external ground will be applied to on
internal voltage. Note that both types of
inputs use internal resistors to limit the
current and protect the electronics. Both
types of inputs will be covered in more
detail in the next module.
• Output Control – these are the output
drivers that operate the actuators by
turning them on and off. Most actuators
are controlled by applying or removing
ground, however, some outputs control
the applied voltage as is the case with
fuel pump relays.

Computer Memory
Automotive computers have four basic forms of memory:
• Random-Access Memory (RAM)
• Read-Only Memory (ROM)
• Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)
• Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM)

Random Access is the only “volatile” form of memory, which means that it will clear if the power is
removed. RAM has two functions in an automotive application:
1. It stores information from the sensors while it calculates the actions it needs to take and,

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 14 -
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

2. It stores the diagnostic codes while the vehicle is operating and allows them to be read with a
scan tool.

When an ignition key is turned off, all of the information in RAM must be transferred to a different kind of
memory to prevent its loss when power is removed.

Read-Only Memory is programmed at the factory and usually contains the basic operating instructions
for the computer to function. ROM information cannot be changed once the programming is done, and it
does not require any action on the part of the technician.

Programmable Read-Only Memory is a form of ROM that can be reprogrammed, with the proper
equipment, at the factory. PROMs carry the calibration information for vehicle engine/transmission
operation and can be replaced by the technician. The PROM is often referred to as the computer “chip.”
When a vehicle is turned off, current information in RAM is transferred to PROM memory.

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory is the newest form of computer memory and
can be recalibrated by a technician with a scan tool. Some technicians may have already done EEPROM
updates or flash calibrations” to correct a driveability condition, or in response to a Technical Service
Bulletin.

Serial Communication
In addition to controlling the vehicle’s
functions, automotive computers also need
to communicate with each other. They do
this by sharing “serial data” on a single wire
that connects the computers. Serial data is
groups of ones and zeroes (electrical ons
and offs) transmitted between computers in
a language they can decipher. It is also the
information, including diagnostic codes, read
by a scan tool.

Before 1996, manufacturers used different forms of communication and not all systems were compatible.
Beginning in 1996, a new standard was adopted as part of the OBD II emissions implementation. The
new standard is called Class 2 and uses a 7 volt line toggled on and off to make ones and zeroes. The
newest data transmission protocol to be used is called Class C, or CAN, for Controller Area Network, and
it will be much faster than Class 2.

Class II Data Format

Modern automotive computers must be able to communicate with each other; otherwise, they will begin
limited operation or stop working all together. Some systems, such as air conditioning, may require
several computers to function, and the failure of one can cause the entire system to fail. If any or all of

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 15 -
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

the computers will not communicate with each other, or with a scan tool, then one of four problems is
usually the cause. They are:
1. Loss of voltage to a computer
2. Loss of ground to a computer
3. Data line has grounded or is open
4. A computer has failed internally

The 16 pin Data Link Connector (DLC) is shown here with a list of typical pin identifications.

If a serial data failure is suspected, a simple voltage

test on the data line will validate its operation. Check
the DC voltage on the Data Link Connector between
pins 2 and 5, with the vehicle operating. The DVOM
should measure approximately .2 V to .7 V. A
reading of 7 V indicates a short to power and a
reading of 0 V is a short to ground.

A typical Class II data waveform as it appears on an oscilloscope

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 16 -
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

This schematic is an example of serial data/communication lines on late model vehicles.

Computer data line inputs and outputs

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 17 -
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Computer Output Testing

If an input sensor or an output actuator is inoperative and the computer
is suspected, perform a preliminary voltage test on the computer before
replacement.

In this example, a voltage measurement of zero at point A (to ground)

may be a computer failure or it may be a shorted sensor or wire. To
determine which, remove the wire from the computer at point A and
insert a 5000Ω resistor between point A and ground. If the voltage at
point A is still zero, the computer is bad. If there is now a voltage at
point A, the sensor or wire is the problem.

To check a computer output suspected of failure, remove the

connecting wire from the computer and insert a ½ A (500 mA) bulb
between the output and 12 volt power. Activate the output (usually with
a scan tool) and check for operation of the bulb. If the bulb lights, the
actuator is the problem, if not, the computer has failed. Caution: Be
very careful performing this test with a test light! Many test lights draw
far more than ½ A and will damage the computer!

Typical Input Sensor

Fault Protection
In addition to protecting against Data Line problems, modern automotive computers monitor current and
voltage on input and output wires. If a failure (wire or component) causes the amperage or voltage in a
particular circuit to be too high, the computer will disable the line to prevent internal damage. Some
applications will also disconnect for voltage/current failures that are too low; for instance, if an injector is
disconnected.

Inputs
Automotive computers always need to know the most current operating conditions of a vehicle to
determine what changes should be made. This operating information is fed to the computers from a
series of inputs called sensors. Sensor signals come in a variety of types but all generally fall into one of
three broad categories:
• Switches
• Digital Signals
• Analog, or Variable Signals

Switches
Switches are the simplest type of sensors and provide the computer with information that a device is on
or off, open or closed, high or low, etc. In the closed position, a switch may send a voltage (usually 12 V)
to the computer or it may provide a ground. For example, a brake switch may send a 12 V signal when
pressed and a 0 V signal when released. A computer could then use that information to disengage a
Torque Converter Clutch or engage the Anti-Lock Brake system.
Some examples of switches include:
• Door Jamb
• Oil Level
• Transmission Ranges
• Torque Converter Clutch
• Oil Pressure
• Park/Headlights
• Closed Throttle
• A/C Pressure
• Transmission Pressure
• Blower Speeds

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 18 -
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Notice in this illustration that the A/C compressor switch is externally attached to ground while the TCC
brake switch is fused to the Battery (B+). When each switch is closed, the A/C compressor signal feeds
into the computer, through a limiting resistor, to B+ and the TCC switch connects through a limiting
resistor to an internal computer ground. In this way, if a technician knows a particular switch is connected
to ground, then the signal from the computer, with the switch disconnected, should be B+ and vice-versa.
Also note that the actual input the computer uses is read across the internal resistor rather than the
switch itself. As shown here, the voltage across the internal resistors for both of these switches, varies
with the operation of the switches.

Open Closed

Typical Input Switches

Switch Input Testing

If a switch input is not functioning and the switch itself is found to be operating properly, then a suspected
computer failure can be tested as follows:

For externally grounded switches-

1. Remove the switch connecting wire from the computer
2. Connect a voltmeter between ground and the input terminal of the computer
3. Check that the voltmeter reads 12 V. If not, then the computer is bad.

For externally powered switches-

1. Remove the switch connecting wire from the computer.
2. Connect a voltmeter between Battery power and the input terminal of the computer
3. Check that the voltmeter reads 12 V. If not, then the computer is bad.

Digital Signals
Digital inputs are similar to switch signals in that they only have
two states, on or off. What makes digital signals different,
however, is that they cycle many times each second to form a
square wave. Digital inputs may have a constant duty cycle
(each on-off cycle time is the same), or the on-off times may
vary to signal a change in vehicle operation. This figure shows
digital signals with both varying and constant duty cycles.

Examples of digital input signals include Hall-Effect type

Crankshaft Position Sensors or Mass Airflow Sensors.

Digital Signals

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 19 -
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Variable or Analog Signals

Unlike Digital signals, Analog signals vary throughout a voltage range rather than just provide on or off
states. Typical voltages range from 0-1 V, 0-5 V, and 0-12 V. Analog sensors will fall into one of two
categories: Variable Resistance or Variable Voltage.
Variable resistor sensors will be one of four types:
• Thermistors (for temperatures)
• Rheostats (for levels)
• Potentiometers (for position)
• Pressure Transducers

Thermistors
A thermistor is a heat-activated variable resistor that receives a 5V source, through a current limiting
resistor, from the Powertrain Control Module (PCM). As a thermistor’s temperature increases, its
resistance and voltage drop decrease. This in turn causes the voltage drop across the internal resistor,
located inside the computer, to increase. The internal voltage drop then becomes the signal input. In
addition to a 5V source, thermistors also receive their ground source from the PCM.

The thermistor’s resistance and voltage drop decrease with heat.

Some examples of typical thermistors include:

• Engine Coolant Temperature sensor
• Intake Air Temperature sensor
• Transmission Fluid Temperature sensor
• Outside Air Temperature sensor
• Heat Duct Temperature sensor
• Ambient Air Temperature sensor
• A/C Duct temperature sensor

Rheostats
Rheostat sensors are similar to thermistors in that they are both variable resistors. The difference is that
rheostats operate mechanically rather than by temperature. A Fuel Level sensor is a good example of a
rheostat. As the amount of fuel in the tank decreases, the resistance and voltage drop of the sensor
changes, which varies the voltage drop across the internal resistor where the input is measured. Be
aware that some Fuel Level sensors will have a higher resistance with low fuel and some will have a
lower resistance with low fuel. Refer to the appropriate service manual.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 20 -
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

The rheostat mechanically varies the resistance and voltage drop.

Potentiometers
Potentiometers are three wire position sensors that have 5 V, ground, and input signals all tied into a
computer. Like rheostats, pots are also mechanically variable, as opposed to changing by temperature,
pressure, or light. However, rather than altering the voltage drop across an internal resistor, as variable
resistor sensors do, potentiometers actually send a voltage signal directly to the computer. These sensor
inputs supply information on the position of throttle valves, EGR pintles, etc. The sensor signal voltage is
applied to the computer through a current limiting resistor to ground. Notice also that potentiometers do
not use limiting resistors in the 5 volt supply line.
Some common examples of potentiometers include:
• Throttle Position Sensor
• EGR Position Sensor
• Accelerator Pedal Position Sensor
• Air Door Motor Feedback Sensor (HVAC)

The potentiometer sends a variable voltage signal to the computer.

Pressure Transducers
Pressure Transducer sensors have the same computer connections as potentiometers. The difference is
that pressure sensors operate based on a change in pressure rather than a change in position. Diagnosis
and testing of pressure sensors will be basically the same as for any input potentiometer. Common types
of pressure sensors include Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) for measuring engine load, Fuel Tank

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 21 -
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Pressure (FTP) for checking fuel tank vapor pressure as part of emissions testing, and the A/C pressure
sensor for measuring air conditioning high side pressure.

Pressure transducers operate based on a change in pressure rather than a change in position.

Photoresistors
One last type of variable resistor we need to mention is the photoresistor. Photoresistors are wired to
computer modules in the same way as thermistors or rheostats. The difference is the photoresistor
changes its resistance based on how much light strikes its surface rather than on temperature or position.
As the amount of light changes, the voltage drop across the photoresistor changes, and causes the
voltage across the internal resistor to change, which determines the input voltage. Photoresistors are
used to turn on Automatic Headlights at dusk, control interior lighting operation, and determine heat load
for automatic Air Conditioning systems.

The photoresistor changes its resistance based on how much light strikes its surface.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 22 -
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Typical Input Sensor Schematic

Voltage Generators
In addition to variable resistor sensors, there are a number of input sensors that actually produce their
own voltage, known as Voltage Generators. Voltage generators can be electromagnetic, chemical, or
Photovoltaic.

Electro-Magnetic Sensors
Electro-Magnetic sensors are made of a coil of wire wound around a permanent magnet, and use a metal
sensor ring that turns very close to the sensor. As the sensor ring begins to rotate, the magnetic field is
disrupted and an AC voltage is produced. The frequency of this sensor output is then translated into a
rotational speed value the computer can use.

Some examples of Electro-Magnetic sensors include:

• Anti-Lock Wheel Speed Sensors
(WSS)
• Crankshaft Position Sensors
(CKP)
• Distributor Pick-Up
• Camshaft Sensors (CMP)
• Vehicle Speed Sensors (VSS)
• Input Speed Sensors (ISS)
• Output Speed Sensors (OSS)
Electro-Magnetic Sensor

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 23 -
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Chemical Voltage Generator

The most commonly used chemical voltage generator is the Oxygen Sensor (O2). This sensor produces
an output from 0 Volts to approximately 1 Volt when the oxygen in the exhaust stream reacts with the
platinum coating on the inside of the sensor and is compared to atmospheric oxygen. The O2 sensor
signal is evaluated inside the PCM based both on voltage output and its transition rate from high voltage
to low voltage.

Low oxygen content (rich) produces a low voltage signal; high

oxygen content produces a higher voltage signal.

Photovoltaic Sensor
The photovoltaic sensor is similar to the photoresistor only in the sense that it is affected by light. While
the photoresistor changes its resistive value, the photovoltaic sensor actually produces an output voltage
that can be used by a computer to determine the intensity of sunlight. Photovoltaic sensors are commonly
referred to as Sun Load Sensors and are primarily used with A/C systems to determine heat load.
Photovoltaic sensors can also be used to turn on headlights at dark, operate an auto-dimming rear view
mirror, or operate interior light functions. A photovoltaic sensor can be tested by exposing it to varying
amounts of light and measuring the voltage output.

The photovoltaic sensor produces an output voltage based on the amount of light.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 24 -
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Outputs
In modern automotive applications, computers control many (and sometimes most) of a vehicle’s
functions. The commands that come from the computers are called outputs. Outputs are the voltage and
current signals that operate the actuators, which directly control the vehicles operation.
Some typical examples of actuators include:
• Relays
• Solenoids
• Ignition coils
• Motors
• Valves
• Lamps

All of the actuators in automotive applications fall into one of two possible control categories, switched or
variable. Switched applications, of which there are two, are either on or off (e.g. relays). However, the two
types of variable applications change continuously throughout their operating range.
These four categories break down as shown here:
• Switched Voltage (on/off)
• Switched Ground (on/off)
• Constant Frequency Pulse Width Modulated (variable)
• Variable Frequency Pulse Width Modulated (variable)

Switched Voltage
A switched voltage control is either on or off and is computer activated by applying or removing a voltage
source. Refer to the fuel pump circuit below. In this typical fuel pump circuit, the relay coil has a fixed
ground and the PCM supplies the 12 Volt power to energize the coil, engage the contacts, and supply
power to the pump. Some applications of relays, solenoids, lamps, valves, and motors are switched
voltage activated.

Switched Voltage Control

Switched Ground
Like switched voltage applications, switched ground devices are also either on or off. In the following
illustration, the transmission shift valves have a constant 12 Volts on one end and are controlled by
ground signals from the PCM on the other. In automotive applications, switched ground control is much
more common than switched voltage applications due to a reduced possibility of arcing. Relays,
solenoids, lamps, valves, and motors can all be ground switch controlled.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 25 -
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Switched ground control: 1-2 Shift Solenoid is switched on at right

Pulse Width Modulation

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a control method
in which a computer produces a variable or partial
operation of a device by supplying a constantly
cycling ground signal to the device. As seen in this
illustration, the average voltage applied to a device
is dependent on the Duty Cycle of a PWM signal.
Duty Cycle is the amount of time a signal is turned
on as compared to the total amount of operating
time. For example, if a signal has a 100% duty cycle,
its average voltage will be 12 volts and the actuator
will operate at full capacity. Changing the output to a
50% duty cycle (on half the time, off half the time)
drops the average voltage to 6 volts, and the speed
or intensity of operation decreases.

Even though PWM signals are digital, the output can

be measured with a DVOM using the average
voltage readings.

PWM Duty Cycles

Constant Frequency Pulse Width Modulation
The first type of Pulse Width Modulated signal is the Constant Frequency output. Constant frequency
signals, as the name implies, turn an actuator on and off the same number of times each second. The
computer then varies the duty cycle to alter the open/close time. For example, the evaporative purge
valve in the next illustration will be cycled at 35 Hertz (HZ), or 35 times each second. If the duty cycle
during that time is 50%, the average voltage will be 6 Volts and the valve will open approximately half
way. At this setting, it will flow at one-half of its vapor capacity for emissions control. Changing the duty
cycle to 25% (about 3 volts average) reduces vapor flow to one-fourth of capacity but the on/off rate
remains at 35 times per second. The same concept applies if the duty cycle increases to 75%. Similar to
the evaporative valves, transmission pressure control valves control line pressure, and EGR valves
control recirculation gas using constant frequency PWM signals.

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 26 -
©2004 – 2006 Melior, Inc. Advanced Electronics – Study Guide
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Variable Frequency Pulse Width Modulation

Some output actuators must change operating frequency in response to changing engine or transmission
speed. As a result, these types of actuators cannot use constant frequency computer outputs. Refer to
the fuel injector circuit below. Although injectors are still controlled by a cycling ground, their demands
change with engine speed and their on/off times are sequenced to coincide with Crankshaft Position
Sensor inputs. That means they must change both how often they open and how long they stay open.
Even though injectors may have a large demand at slower engine speeds, or lower demand at higher
speeds, their average voltages can still be measured with a DVOM. Simply put, as the requirement for
fuel increases, the average voltage will increase. Ignition Module and Idle Control Motor outputs are
additional examples of computer signals with both varying frequency and duty cycle.

Constant Frequency Pulse Width Modulation, left; Variable Frequency Pulse Width Modulation,
right. The number 6 fuel injector is energized.

Portions of materials contained herein have been reprinted with permission of General Motors
Corporation, Service Operations License Agreement #0410610

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
- 27 -