Lecture notes

CHAPTER 2
CLASSIFICATION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Materials that are used for construction purpose can be broadly classified into Metallic and
Non-metallic.

a) Metallic materials

In general, metals can be classified into two major groups: Ferrous and Non-ferrous. A ferrous
metal is one in which the principal element is iron, as in:

 Steel

 Wrote iron

 Cast iron

A non-ferrous metal is one in which the principal element is not iron, as in:

 Copper

 Aluminum

 led

 Tin

 Zinc

b) Non-Metallic

 Cementing materials (lime, cement, etc)

 Concrete

 Timber

 Stone

 Plastics.

 Ceramics.

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 Based on their physical nature materials can also be divided as:

 Solid

 Liquid

 Gas

 Materials can also be classified based on their mode of production as:

 Naturally occurring materials

 Industrially produced materials

 Materials produced at construction site

2.2 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Properties of materials have great practical significance and a broad understanding of these
properties is essential. Properties which relate to materials generally are: Physical, Chemical
and Mechanical.

a) Physical Properties:-can know by waching

 Density (the compact ness of the material)m/v

 Specific Gravity(the relative density of material related to water)m/vof water

 Heat conductivity

 Acoustic permeability(sound resistance)

 Fire resistance

 Porosity (water tightness)

b) Chemical Properties:-can’t know by watching

 Corrosion resistance

 adhesion

 Combustibility

 Toxicity

 Decay resistance

 Hardening

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c) Mechanical Properties

 Strength -resistance of a material to the action of external static forces

(compressive, tensile, bending, shear, and torsional strength)

 Strength- resistance of a material to various dynamic external forces (impact

and vibratory loads)

Mechanical properties of materials have great practical significance and a broad understanding
of these properties and the behavior of materials under load are essential. Selection of
materials for construction purpose mainly depends on its mechanical properties.

2.3 BEHAVIOR OF MATERIALS UNDER LOAD

Application of external forces on a solid body in equilibrium results in:

 Internal resisting forces are developed in the body which balance the
externally applied force

 The body is deformed to varying degree

The intensity of the internal force is called STRESS and the deformation per unit length is called
STRAIN

Depending upon the arrangement and direction of the external forces, the stress produced in a
body may be tensile stress, compressive stress, shear stress, bending stress, torsional stress,
and various combinations of the above stresses.

When a body, which has been deformed under the action of external forces, is released from
such action, the deformed bodies may or may not recover their original form depending on the
magnitude of the applied load and the elastic property of the material that they are made out
of it. If a body recovers the original form, it is said to be elastic. If it fails to recover its original
form, it is said to be plastic.

A perfectly elastic body is one that fully recovers its original size and shape after the application
and removal of load. Most engineering materials are in part elastic and in part plastic. Stiffness
is the measure of the ability of the material to resist deformation .In other words, a body is said
to be stiff if it sustains large loads without too much deformations.

Depending on the magnitude of the applied load and the elastic property of the material the
deformation produced may be permanent or temporary. As the magnitude of the applied load
increase the deformation increases, a point is reached beyond which the original form is not
fully recovered; this point is elastic limit of the material.

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2.3.1 Testing of Materials for Mechanical Properties

Mechanical tests are those used to examine the performance of construction materials under
the action of external forces. Mechanical tests may be classified under the following headings:-

A) With reference to the arrangement and direction of the external forces.

B) With reference to the rate and duration of the load Application.

C) With reference to the effect of the test on the specimen.

A) With reference to the arrangement and direction of the external forces

i) Tension test

Under tension test:

 The specimen is subjected to an axial tensile force

 Tensile stress is produced on cross sectional area perpendicular to the line of

action of the force.

 The specimen increase in length.

ii) Compression test

Under compression test:

 The specimen is subjected to an axial compressive force

 Compressive stress is produced on cross sectional area Perpendicular to the line

of action of the force

 The specimen decrease in length.

iii) Shear test

The shearing stress in a specimen is determined on cross-sectional areas parallel -to the line of
action of the external force.

iv) Bending test

Under bending test: -

 .A specimen is subjected to forces that give rise to bending moments

 The resulting stresses are compressive on one side of a neutral plane and tensile on
the other side

 Shear stresses exist through out the beam

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v) Torsion test: is an indirect test used to determine the shearing strength of materials. Test
specimens for torsion test are generally cylindrical shape, solid or hollow.

B) With reference to the rate and duration of the load application

I) Static tests: are made with gradually increasing load, such as the ordinary tests in tension,
compression tests

ii) Dynamic tests: are made with suddenly applied loads, as by falling weight or pendulum. Such
as drop impact test.

iii) Wear tests: are made to determine resistance to abrasion and impact as in the case of
paving materials.

iv) Long-time tests: are made with loads applied to the object under test for a long period. They
are used for materials such as concrete.

v) Fatigue tests: are made with fluctuating stresses repeated a long number of times.

C) With reference to the effect of the test on the specimen

I) Destructive test: under these test methods the specimens are either crushed or ruptured
and made useless at the end of the test. Examples under this category of test are tension in
steel and compression test in concrete.

ii) Non-destructive test: these are usually used to test the strength of members of existing
structures without affecting their performance. Example of this test is hammer test in concrete.

2.3.2 Stress-Strain Properties in Simple Tension Test

In the standard conventional tension test, a specimen is subjected to a gradually increasing

axial tensile force, P, by means of a testing machine. At various increment of force, the change
in length ΔL of the specimen for an initial gage length Lo are measured by a strain gage .It is
generally assumed that, for a gage length Lo of the specimen, the stress is uniformly distributed
for all points on each cross section and for all cross sections perpendicular to the line of action
of the force.

σ =P/A

Where: σ = the tensile stress

P = applied load

A=area of the cross section perpendicular to the line of action of the applied
force.

It is also assumed that this uniform stress will produce a uniform elongation ΔL. The value of
the elongation per unit length, strain, is expressed as:

ε = ΔL/ Lo

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Where: ε = strain

ΔL= total elongation

Lo = original length of the specimen

With the values of the stress and strain known for various tensile load values, a diagram
showing the relation between the stress and strain, called the stress-strain diagram, can be
plotted.

It should be noted that as the specimen stretches, the cross sectional area reduces and the
gage length increases in value. However, the stress and strain values as defined by the above
equations do not include these changes of area and gage length but are based on the original
values of area A and gage length Lo. For this reason the stress σ and strain ε are called the
nominal stress and strain. The amount of deformation, which the material will undergo before
rupture, varies widely with different materials.

2.3.3 Stress-Strain Diagram for a Typical Structural Steel in Tension

A stress-strain diagram for a ductile material such as a steel alloy will show a large deformation
after yield point before the specimen ruptures, whereas that for brittle materials will show
small deformation before rupture. This means that a ductile material will exhibit a large
deformation before complete failure whereas a brittle material will fail without showing much
deformation.
A structural steel, also known as mild steel or low-carbon steel, they contain varying amounts of
carbon and not more than 1.65 percent manganese, 0.60 percent silicon, and 0.60 percent
copper, is one of the most widely used metals and is found in buildings, bridges, cranes, towers,
vehicles, and many other types of construction. A stress-strain diagram for a typical structural
steel in tension is shown below. Strains are plotted on the horizontal axis and stresses on the
vertical axis.

B E
A C
σ

Yielding region e
Linear region Necking
hardening region
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The diagram begins with a straight line from the origin 0 to point A, which means that the
relationship between stress & strain in this initial region is not only linear but also proportional.
These stress-strain relations may be represented approximately by the equation:

σ = Eε (Hook’s Law)

E, the slope of the straight line, is called the Modulus of Elasticity or Young's Modulus. Modulus
of elasticity has the same unit as stress.

Beyond point A, the proportionality between stress and strain no longer exists; hence, the
stress at A is called the proportional limit. For low-carbon steels, this limit is in the range 210 to
350 MPa.

With an increase in stress beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to increase more
rapidly for each increment in stress. Consequently, the stress strain curve has a smaller and
smaller slope, until, at point B, the curve becomes horizontal. Beginning at this point,
considerable elongation of the test specimen occurs with no noticeable increase in the tensile
force (from B to C). This phenomenon is known as Yielding of the materials, and point B is called
the yield point. The corresponding stress is known as the Yield Stress of the steel. I n the region
from B to C, the material becomes perfectly plastic, which means that it deforms without an
increase in the applied load. After undergoing the large strains that occur during yielding in the
region BC, the steel begins to strain harden.

During strain hardening, the material undergoes changes in its crystalline structure, resulting in
increased resistance of the material to further deformation. Elongation of the test specimen in
this region requires an increase in the tensile load, and therefore the stress- strain diagram has
a positive slope from C to D. The load eventually reaches its maximum value, and the
corresponding stress (at point D) is called the ultimate stress. Further stretching of the bar is
actually accompanied by a reduction in the load, and fracture finally occurs at a point E. The
yield stress & ultimate stress of a material are also called-the yield strength & ultimate
strength, respectively.

2.4 CHOICE OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Modern structures often comprise vast number of components. Many of them pre-
manufactured & assembled on site, some of them are manufactured at a construction site like
concrete. In each case satisfactory operation of the building as a whole depends on the
performance of the materials from which its components are made as on how they interact
with each other in the structure.

The following questions show some of the main factors which needs to be considered in
choosing construction materials:

 Is the material produced locally, or is it partially or entirely imported?

 Is it cheap, abundantly available, and/or easily renewable?

 Has it been produced in a factory far away (transportation costs!); does it require
special machines and equipment, or can it be produced at lower cost on the

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building site? (Good quality and durability are often more important than low
procurement costs).

 Does its production and use require a high energy input, and cause wastage and
pollution? Is there an acceptable alternative material which eliminates these
problems?

 Is the material and construction technique climatically acceptable?

 Does the material and construction technique provide sufficient safety against
common natural hazards (e.g. fire, biological agents, heavy rain, and earthquakes)?

 Can the material and technology be used and understood by the local workers, or
are special skills and experience required?

 Are repairs and replacements possible with local means?

 Is the material socially acceptable? Is it considered low standard, or does it offend

religious belief? Does it match with the materials and constructions of nearby
buildings?

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