Formula reminder sheet for GEOL483.

You are expected to be able to give and explain the following equations. Those marked with asterisks
(*) do not need to be memorized exactly, but still need to be understood and interpreted. What
physical quantities do they relate? What physics are they related to and what are their consequences?

General:
1
Relations between wave length, period, velocity, frequency, and wavenumber: =VT , f= ,
T
2
=2  f , k = .



Phase velocity: V phase = .
k

[ ]
−1
dk d
Group velocity: U group = = .
d dk

Amplitude (absolute value, A) and phase (argument, f) of a complex number (e.g., spectrum): Z= Ae
i

Decibel expression of relative amplitudes (powers):

A1
A2 dB
=20 log 10
A1
A2 ( ) ( )
1
Nyquist frequency: f N=
2 t

1
Frequency resolution (sampling interval): f N=
Nt
∞

Z-transform: U z  z =u 0u 1 z u 2 z u 3 z ...=∑ u i z

1 2 3 i

i=0

N
 .=∑ u k e
−2i f −2i  f j t k
Fourier transform*: U F  f j =U z e j
.
k=0

N
1
Inverse Fourier transform*: u t k =
N
∑ U  f k  e 2i f t . j k

j=0

Wave equation (general): [ ]

∂2 −∇ 2 f (t , r)=0.
∂t2

1
Linear inverse:
1
Travel-time tomography problem: t i=∑ L ij =∑ L s .
j V j j ij j

In matrix form: d =Lm.

Generalized inverse : m= L−1 observed.

g d

Least-Squares Inverse*: L−1 T −1 T

g = L L L .

observed T observed
Data misfit minimized in Least Squares Inverse: Misfit m=d −Lm  d −Lm .

Damped Least Squares: m= LT L I −1 LT d observed .

Resolution matrix: R= L−1

g L

Theory of elasticity:

Elementary force acting on a surface within elastic medium: dF i=dS ∑  ij n j.

j=1,2,3

Elementary force acting on a volume within elastic medium: dF =dV ∂  ij

i ∑ ∂xj
.
j=1,2,3

1 ∂Ui ∂ U j
Strain: εij = ( + ).
2 ∂ x j ∂ xi

δV ∂U j
Dilatational strain: Δ= =tr ε=ε xx +ε yy +εzz =
V ∂ xi

Hooke's Law for isotropic medium: ij = 'ij for i=j, and ij = ij for ij. Combined, this can also
be written as: ij = 'dijij (the “Kronecker symbol”, dij = 1 if i=j and 0 otherwise).

Elastic moduli:
2  3 2 
• Young's modulus*: E= .


• Poisson's ratio (modulus)*:  = .
2
2
• Bulk modulus*: K = 
3

2
 • Rigidify modulus = .
2
∂ Ui ∂ ij
Newton's law for elastic medium:  = ∑ .
j=1,2,3 ∂ x j
2
∂ t


4
K− 
P-wave velocity:
V P=
2 
 =

3
.

S-wave velocity: V S =
 


VP
For n = 0.25, = 3
VS

Relation of displacements to wave potentials*:

  ∇
 =∇
General*: U  ×
.

(∂ϕ ∂ϕ
P-waves*: u⃗P (⃗x , ⃗z )= ∂ x , 0, ∂ z , )
(
SV-waves*: u⃗S ( ⃗x , ⃗z )=
−∂ ψ
∂z
, 0,
∂ψ
∂x
, )
Elastic energy density*:

1
General*: E=  ij  ij
2

1 ˙2
In a P- or S-wave*: E elastic= ρ u
⃗ =E kinetic
2

1 1
Average energy flux (for harmonic wave): J =c E kinetic = Z ω2 u 2 = ρ c ω 2 u 2 , where c is the wave
2 2
speed, and Z is the impedance

3
Attenuation
E
Quality factor: Q=2 
E

Measurement using spectral ratios*: ln ( A( f , t 2 )

A( f , t 1 ))=const−
π(t 2−t 1 )
Q
f.

Refraction seismics:
sin i 1 sin i 2
Snell's law of refraction: = =...=const= p
V1 i2

x
Headwave travel time (linear moveout) equation, zero dip: t  x =t Intercept 
V

2h cos i c
Intercept time: t Intercept =
V 1.

2h d cos i c x 2h u cos i c x
Refraction time, down dip: t  x =  cos i c  up dip: t  x =  cos i c −
V 1. V1 V 1. V1

Inversion for refractor dip (small-dip approximation)*: sin i c ≈ 

V1 1

2 Vd Vu
1
.

and refractor velocity*:
1 1 1
≈ 
1
V 2 2 V d Vu
.

h s , r cos i c
Delay time: t S , R Delay =
V 1.

Diving waves*:
hmax
p V  z  dz
x  p=2 ∫ ,
0  1− pV  z 2
hmax
dz
t  p=2 ∫ ,
V  z   1− pV  z 
2
0

4
Reflection seismics:

Vertical reflection resolution:  z= .
4

Horizontal reflection resolution:  x≈

 1
2
H .

√ ()
2
x 2 1 x
Reflection travel time (normal moveout) equation t (x)= t 20 + ( ) ≈t 0+
V 2t 0 V

x2 x sin 
Dip moveout: t  x ≈t 0 2
 .
2t 0 V V


n

∑ ti V i2
RMS velocity: V RMS = i =1
.
n

∑ ti
i=1

()
2
1 x
NMO correction: t (x) → t 0≈t (x)−
2t( x) V

V true
Stacking velocity in the presence of dip: V Stacking = .
cos 

apparent  V min
Sampling theorem: Geophone Spacing max = min =
2 2sin  2 f max sin 

V min
Geophone Spacing max
Or in terms of event moveout*: dt
2 f max
dx

Signal S
Signal-to-noise improvement by stacking: = N .
Noise n

5
Relation of zero-offset (apparent) and true reflector dips: sin true =tan  apparent

Reflectivity and AVO:

   
P 1 P 1 P P S P  P S P
P
S 1 =S S1 P S S S  S S S
P
Scattering matrix: , where S=
P 2 P 2 P P S P  P S P
P
S2 S 2 P S S S  S S S
P

  
ux P 1 P 1
uy =M S 1 =N S1 .
Its relation to boundary conditions*: S= M −1 N , where M and N are from:
 xz P 2 P 2
 zz S2 S 2

Seismic Impedance: Z = rV

Normal-incidence reflection coefficient: R=

Z 2−Z 1 1
≈ Δ (lnZ )≈
Z1+ Z2 2 2 VP (
1 ΔVP Δρ
+ ρ
)
2Z1
Transmission coefficient: T =1−R= .
Z 1+ Z 2

Energy reflection coefficient: E R=R 2

4Z1 Z 2
Energy transmission coefficient: E T =1−E R= .
Z 1+ Z 2

R
Shuey's AVA formula*: ≈1 P sin 2 Q tan 2 −sin 2  
R0

R
AVA for angles <~30: ≈1 P sin 2 
R0

6
Surface waves:

General form for potential: =e−mz e i  kx−t  ,

where for Rayleigh wave m= k 2−

 2
V 2P
for P-wave component,


2

m= k 2− 2
. for SV-wave component.
VS

Wavelets, time series:

Convolution
N
Representation of the Maximum, Minimum, and mixed-delay wavelets: W  z =∏  1a i z 
i=0

Ricker wavelet*: u t= 1−2  f M t  e

2
2 2 2 − f M t 

 
2
2 f
−
2f fM
Ricker wavelet spectrum*: U  f = e
  f 2M
Moveout filtering:

t-p (slant-stack) transform: S  p ,= ∑ u  x , px 

x