A.

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF CELL Anton van Leeuwenhoek

THEORY
- 1674
Democritus - Improved the polishing of lenses of short focal
length to improve magnification
- 300 BC - Discovered and described “animalcules” in
- Stated that all things are composed of minute, 1676
indestructible, invisible particles of pure - Discovered bacteria in 1683
matter.
Caspar Wolff
Seneca
- 1759
- 65 A.D. - Proposed that all organs in animal embryos
- Reported that glass globules filled with water were made of globules which could be seen
aided in seeing those things difficult to see under a microscope
with the eye.
Lazzaro Spallanzani
Claudius Ptolemy
- 1765
- Investigated magnification by means of - Performed an experiment that totally rejected
curved surfaces. the theory of Spontaneous Generation.
Leonardo da Vinci Felice Fontana
- 1485
- 1781
- Stressed the importance of using lenses for - Described the nucleolus after finding it in the
the study of small objects. slime from an eel’s skin.
Hans and Zacharias Jansen Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
- 1590 - 1809
- Combined two convex lenses within a tube, - Declared that cellular tissue is the general
thus constructing the forerunner of the matrix of all organization
compound microscope.
Henri Dutrochet
Jean Baptiste van Helmont
- 1824
- 1620 - stated that all organic tissues are actually
- Believed and endorsed the theory of globular cells of exceeding smallness, united
Spontaneous Generation (abiogenesis) that by simple adhesive forces.
living things arise from non-living things.
Pierre Turpin
Robert Hooke
- 1826
- 1665 - Reported his observations of cell division
- Described microscopic structure of familiar
substances including the cellular structure of Franz Meyen
cork.
- Coined the term “Cell” - 1830
- Stated that each cell forms an independent,
Marcello Malpighi isolated whole that nourishes and builds itself
up.
- 1660
- Made detailed studies about plant cells and Robert Brown
established the presence of cellular
- 1831
structures.
- Published his observations reporting the
Francesco Redi discovery and widespread occurrence of
nuclei in cells
- 1668
- Disproved the phenomenon of spontaneous Matthias Schleiden
generation
- 1838
- Discovered that plant parts are made of cells.
1839 Ernst Ruska
1. Hugo von Mohl
- Carefully described details of mitosis in plants. - 1933
- Invented and built the first Transmission
Credited for the discovery of cell division.
2. Rene Dutrochet microscope.
- Introduced the theory of Osmosis—the idea Erwin Schrödinger
about how cells react under pressure.
3. Theodor Schwann - 1944
- Discovered that animal parts are made of cells - Published “What is Life? The Physical Aspect
Albrecht von Roelliker of the Living Cell” (Cambridge: University
Press, 1944), a work speculating about the
- 1840 physical basis of biological phenomena. (DNA)
- Discovered that sperm and egg are also cells
Keith R. Porter, Albert Claude, and Ernest F. Fullam
Rudolph Virchow
- 1945
- 1855 - Published the first electron micrograph of an
- Stated that all living cells come only from intact cell. The micrograph reveals
other living cells. mitochondria, the Golgi apparatus and what
Louis Pasteur Porter later names the “endoplasmic
reticulum”
- 1864
- Repeated Needham & Spallanzani’s Jean Brachet
experiments and discovered that bacteria - 1947
become present only in the food through the - Published “Nucleic Acids in the Cell,” which
presence of air. Pasteur's contribution was to suggested that ribonucleoprotein granules
determine the exact time and temperature might be agents of protein synthesis.
that would kill the harmful microorganisms in
the wine without changing its taste. He Erwin Chargaff
patented the process and called it - 1950
pasteurization. - Chemical analyses of different DNAs showing
Gregor Mendel definite proportions of different bases
(“Chargaff’s Rules”)
- 1866
- published his investigations of plant hybrids. James D. Watson and Francis H. C. Crick

Anton Schneider - 1953

- How the DNA double helix structure embodies
- 1873 within it the capacity for its own self-
- Observed and described chromosomes during replication.
cell division
Arthur Kornberg
Alexander Fleming
- 1960
- 1921 - Synthesized DNA in vitro, showing that an
- Discovered lysosome, his first major discovery enzyme (DNA polymerase) will produce new
before Penicillin. strands using precursors, an energy source
Hermann J. Muller and a template DNA molecule.
James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins
- 1927
- Showed that radiation causes mutations that - 1962
are passed on from one generation to the - Awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine /
next Physiology for their discovery of the structure
of DNA.
John H. Northrop
- 1930
- Crystallized pepsin and finds that it is a
protein
Walter Gilbert and Allan M. Maxam Hermann Waldmann & Greg Winter
- 1977 - 1988
- Developed a technique for sequencing DNA. - Produce humanized rat anti-T-cell antibody
“The Gilbert-Maxam method involved that induces prolonged remissions in two
multiplying, dividing, and carefully terminally ill leukemia patients. This may be
fragmenting DNA. the first bio-engineered antibody.
Frederick Sanger Francis Collins and LapChee Tsui
1977 1989
- Developed the methods for Genome Timeline, - “Cystic Fibrosis gene” identified. Their team
the rapid sequencing of long sections of DNA identified the gene for the cystic fibrosis
molecules. Sanger’s method, and that transmembrane receptor (CFTR) that, when
developed by Gilbert and Maxam make it mutated, can lead to onset of cystic fibrosis.
possible to read the nucleotide sequence for [NLM pp. CFTR.]
entire genes that run from 1000 to 30,000 1990
bases long. - The first approved gene therapy is performed
1978 with some success. Immunoglobulin genes are
- Production of the first human hormone inserted into harvested white blood cells that
somatostatin by using recombinant DNA are then returned to the patient and confer
1980 some immunity.
- Construction work begins on the first 1995
industrial plant designed to make insulin by - The entire human genome is mapped, using
recombinant DNA procedures yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs).
Eli Lilly The Roslin Institute in Edinburgh
- 1981 - 1997
- Received FDA approval to market the first - reports the birth of Dolly the lamb, the first
recombinant protein, human insulin, for the mammal to be cloned from an adult using the
treatment of diabetes. modern techniques of trangenic cloning
Aaron Klug J. Craig Venter’s Celera Genomics
- 1982 - 2000
- Receives the Nobel Prize in chemistry for the - in collaboration with the worldwide
development of crystallographic electron Drosophila community, and the federally
microscopy and application to measurement funded Berkeley Drosophila Genome Project,
of biologically important structures. sequence and assembles nearly 120MB of the
Drosophila genome and releases it to
Renato Dulbecco (Salk Institute) researchers at publication.
- 1985 2001
- Suggested the sequencing of the human
genome to help to understand cancer. - The Human Genome Project reported it had
finished a "working draft" of the genome,
Leroy Hood & Lloyd Smith stating that the project had fully sequenced
- 1986 85 percent of the genome.
- Demonstrated the first prototype DNA
sequencing machine
Olson and colleagues
- 1987
- Developed a method to clone large regions of
DNA (100,000 to 200,000 base-pairs)
 B. EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Cell 7. Cytoskeleton
- a network of microfilaments, intermediate
- The basic structural and functional unit of filaments, and microtubules
living things FUNCTIONS:
Eukaryotic Cell  Allow movement in cell (amoeba, WBC)
 Movement of chromosome during cell
- Has a distinct nucleus division
- Has endomembrane system (membrane-  Movement of organelles within cell and
bound organelles) endocytosis
- Contains DNA inside the nucleus a) Microtubules
MAJOR PARTS: - composed of protein monomer tubulin.
b) Microfilament
1. Cell Membrane - composed of protein monomer actin
- Separates the INTRACELLULAR environment c) Intermediate fibers
from the EXTRACELLULAR environment - strengthen cells and tissues and are the
2. Cytoplasm anchors for muscle filaments
- Everything inside the cell
OTHER PARTS:
8. Cytosol
1. Cell wall - The jelly-like fluid portion of the cytoplasm
- Outermost membrane which gives cells - Most of the metabolic reactions take place in
rigidity, strength and protection against the cytosol.
mechanical stress. COMPOSITION:
2. Cellulose  Water (70 %)
- gives the cell wall rigidity  Irons (sodium, potassium, chloride, etc)
3. Cross-linking Glycan  Macromolecules (protein, DNA, lipids)
- help keep the molecules planar by interacting 9. Nucleus
with other regions of the chain. - Has double-membrane system
4. Pectin - In eukaryotes, this structure encloses the DNA
- a diverse group of polysaccharides and are - Directs the cell’s activities
particularly rich in galacturonic acid COMPONENTS:
- For determining wall porosity, providing a a) Nuclear envelope –double membrane
charged wall surface for cell-cell adhesion with pores
5. Fungal Cell Wall b) Nucleolus – dense cluster of RNA and
- composed mainly of chitin and glucans proteins used to assemble ribosome
6. Cell membrane subunits
- Separates cell from another cell c) Nucleoplasm – fluid portion of the
- Gives shape to the cell nucleus interior
- Regulates the movement of materials in and d) Chromosomes – DNA molecules and
out of the cell proteins
- For signal and reception
IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS:
 Semi-permeable
 Double layer of phospholipids
 Protein molecules are embedded in the
phospholipid bilayer
 Cholesterol is present in the plasma
membrane
 Fluid quality
THE ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM C. PROKARYOTIC CELLS
- Membrane-bound organelles in the cell BACTERIA & ARCHAEA
- Consists of the Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi
- Organisms belonging to Kingdom Eubacteria
body, Vesicles, Mitochondria, and Chloroplast
and Archaea
- Generally, much smaller and simpler in
structure compared to eukaryotes
10. Mitochondrion - Thrive almost anywhere in the environment
- ATP-producing powerhouse of most cells ADVANTAGES
(eukaryotic)
 Decomposers
- Contains extrachromosomal DNA
 Production of industrial chemicals,
- Has a double-membrane system
foodstuff, and drugs
11. Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Aid in digestion and vitamin synthesis
- A channel that starts at the nuclear envelope
and curves through the cytoplasm DISADVANTAGES
TYPES:  Most members of this kingdom are
1. Rough Endoplasmic reticulum has pathogenic
ribosomes attached to it.
2. Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum has no BACTERIAL STRUCTURE
ribosomes 1. Capsule
12. Golgi Bodies - Outermost protective layer in prokaryotic cells
- For packaging and sorting of cell products COMPOSITION:
- It is a series of flattened membrane sacs  typically made up of repeating hydrated
13. Vesicles polysaccharide structures that cover the
- Tiny sacs that move through the cytoplasm outer layer of the cell wall
- Examples are the lysosome and peroxisome
- These vesicles specialized for digestion and GENERAL FUNCTIONS:
break down of cell parts
 help prevent bacterial desiccation
14. Chloroplast
 resist phagocytosis by host cells
- specialized organelles found in all higher plant
 reduce complement-mediated lysis
cells
- contain the pigment chlorophyll hence, the OTHER FUNCTIONS:
site for photosynthesis—a chemical reaction
of converting light energy to chemical energy  Protection from oxygen toxicity
 Identification of the bacteria
 Aid in the formation of smooth colonies
15. Vacuoles  Capsular polysaccharides are used as the
- Membranous sacs that can have a variety of antigens in certain vaccines (vaccine
functions: development)
 water vacuoles  helps the bacteria to adhere to host cells
 contractile vacuoles  Receptors for Bacteriophages
 food vacuoles 2. Cell Wall
16. Ribosomes - additional layer found outside of the cell
- The site for protein synthesis membrane that typically provides strength by
- Has small and large ribosomal unit measure in having a semi-rigid structure.
Svedberg - Composed mainly of Peptidoglycan (murein)
- Can be attached in endoplasmic reticulum or which is made from polysaccharide chains
free ribosomes cross-linked by unusual peptides containing D-
amino acids.
- protects the cell from osmotic lysis.

EXCEPTION!!!
 - mycoplasmas are the only bacteria that 3. Cell Membrane
naturally lack a cell wall - a thin lipid bilayer (6 to 8 nanometers) that
completely surrounds the cell and separates
**Organisms from Kingdom Archaea have cell the inside from the outside.
walls composed of chemicals distinct from - selectively-permeable that keeps ions,
peptidoglycan such as protein or pseudomurein proteins, and other molecules within the cell
- prevents the ions from diffusing into the
extracellular environment, while other
Gram Positive Bacteria vs. Gram Negative Bacteria molecules may move through the membrane.
Gram Positive Bacteria 4. Fimbriae
- A type of appendage of prokaryotic cells.
- primary component of bacterial cell walls are - Hair-like protrusions that allow prokaryotes
several layers of peptidoglycan to stick to surfaces in their environment and
- Pathogenic Gram-Positive Bacteria cause to each other.
disease by the secretion of toxic proteins - Longer appendages, called pili (singular:
known as exotoxins. pilus), come in several types that have
- thick layers also enable Gram positive bacteria different roles
to retain most of the crystal violet dye during - Present on both gram positive and gram-
Gram staining causing them to appear purple. negative bacteria
5. Pili (pilus)
Gram Negative Bacteria
- Hair-like structures on the surface of the cell
- - the peptidoglycan is a single thin layer - Used to attach to other bacterial cells
compared to the thick layers in Gram positive - present only on some Gram-negative bacteria
cells. 6. Cytoplasm
- Located between the plasma membrane and - A gel-like substance composed mainly of
the thin peptidoglycan layer is a gel-like water that also contains enzymes, salts, cell
matrix called periplasmic space. components, and various organic molecules.
- does not retain the initial crystal violet dye 7. Flagella
but picks up the pink color of the counterstain - Long, whip-like protrusion that aids in cellular
during Gram staining. locomotion.
- Gram negative bacteria have an outer 8. Ribosomes
membrane layer that is external to the - Cell structures responsible for protein
peptidoglycan cell wall. production
- - Another unique characteristic of Gram- 9. Plasmid
negative bacteria is the presence of - circular DNA that carries genes but are not
lipopolysaccharide (LPS) molecules on the involved in reproduction
outer membrane 10. Nucleoid Region
- a large glycolipid complex that protects - Area of the cytoplasm that contains the single
bacteria from harmful substances in their bacterial DNA molecule.
environment.
- LPS is a bacterial toxin (endotoxin) that can
cause inflammation and septic shock in
humans if it enters the blood.
Exotoxins vs Endotoxins
Exotoxins
- proteins produced inside pathogenic bacteria,
most commonly gram-positive bacteria
Endotoxins
- lipid portions of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) that
are part of the outer membrane of the cell
wall of gram-negative bacteria

D. ANIMAL SPECIALIZED CELLS

1. Red Blood Cells 1. Root Hair Cell
- Biconcave disc-shape for more surface area in - Has a lot of mitochondria so that it can have
exchanging gases active energy to absorb water and minerals
- Has no nucleus in its cytoplasm to have more - Thin thread like structure
space for the hemoglobin - Elongated cell
- Carries oxygen molecule - No chloroplast
2. White Blood Cells 2. Palisade Cell
TYPES: - For structural support
a) Lymphocytes – produce antibodies to kill - Part where photosynthesis mainly occurs
bacteria - The cell wall is very transparent so the energy
b) Phagocytes – engulf bacteria because the can pass through the leaf
nucleus allows it to change its shape 3. Xylem Vessel Cells
3. Ciliated Epithelial Cells - Part of vascular bundle
- It has cilia which is produced by the cytoplasm - Phloem cells are located mainly outside the
- Cilia is a thin hair like structure xylem cell, so that the xylem cell will enable
- Cells that are always located on surface of the plant to lessen the rate of transpiration
covering organs
- The extension of cilia is good for filtration
4. Muscle Cell
- It is long
- It has bands of proteins F. CELL SURFACE MODIFICATIONS
- The muscle cells are arranged in fibers that Structure for Modifications
helps it to run along the length of the muscle 1. Cilia
- For movement - Structure found in eukaryotic cells
- Enables them to attach to the bones - Slender protuberances that project from the
5. Nerve Cell (Neuron) much larger cell body
- It is long and branched a) Axoneme
- To send signals from sensory organs to the - inner core of cilia that consists of
brain cytoskeleton.
PROCESS: - Axoneme of primary cilia (9+0 axoneme)
 Impulse, brain, interpretation, action, - Axoneme of motile cilium (9+2 axoneme)
back to the sensory organs b) Basal Body
6. Sperm Cell - Microtubule organizing center
- Head: nucleus and DNA of male organism - Identical to centrioles
- Neck: has lots of mitochondria c) Motile Cilia
- Tail: Flagella, pushes it from side to side so the - Usually present on a cell’s surface in large
cell can move forward numbers and beat in coordinated waves
7. Ovum Cell (Gamete Cell) - For transport of fluids
- It is very large - For locomotion
- It has lot of cytoplasm which acts as the d) Primary Cilia
stored food for the developing embryo - Mechanoreceptors; extends from the apical
- Doesn’t have any flagellum surface of the epithelial cells lining the kidney
- Has a very special membranous sac tubules and monitors the flow fluid through
surrounding it so that one cell can penetrate the tubules
- Chemoreceptors; detect odors by receptors
on the primary cilium of olfactory neurons
- Photoreceptors; outer segment of the rods in
the vertebrate retina is also derived from a
primary cilium

E. PLANT SPECIALIZED CELLS 2. Flagella

 - Tail-like projection that protrudes from the
cell body of certain prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells
- Functions in locomotion
- Encased within the cell’s plasma membrane
- Flagella serve for the propulsion of single
cells
TYPES:
 Monopolar Flagellation
 Bipolar Flagellation
 Peritrichous Flagellation
- Though eukaryotic flagella and motile cilia are
ultra-structurally identical, the beating
pattern of the two organelles can be
different
- In the case of flagella, the motion is propeller-
like
- Motile cilia consist of coordinated back and
forth cycling of many cilia on the cell surface
3. Microvilli
- Form a structure called the brush border that
is found on the apical surface of some
epithelial cells
 Small intestinal enterocyte
 Kidney proximal tubule
 In sensory cells of the inner ear
 In the cells of taste buds
 In olfactory receptor cells.

CHARACTERISTIC OF A LIVING THING

1. Life span
2. Energy Requirement
3. Cellular Organization
4. Reproduction
5. Growth and Development
6. Adaptation
7. To Stimuli