Study Notes for DB Design and Management

Table of Contents

Glossary Table 1

Key Notes to remember: 5

DBMS helps make data management much more efficient and effective. Because of this the
following points are worth stressing: 5
File systems – A way of managing data that are now largely obsolete. There are several
good reasons for studying them in some detail. 6
Data Redundancy—A condition that exists when the data environment contains
redundant—unnecessarily duplicated— data. 8
Database System is composed of the 5 major parts shown below: 8
DBMS Functions: 10

Summary Chap 1 12

Glossary Table
data​—Raw facts; that is, facts that have not yet been processed to reveal their meaning
to the end user.

field​—A character or group of characters (alphabetic or numeric) that defines a

characteristic of a person, place or thing. For example, a person’s social security,
address, phone, bank balance, and so on all constitute fields.

record​—A collection of related (logically connected) fields.

file​—A named collection of related records.

information​—Facts (data) that are arranged in meaningful patterns. Information

consists of ​transformed ​data and facilitates decision making.

data management​—A process that focuses on data collection, storage and retrieval.
Common data management functions include addition, deletion, modification and
listing.

database​—A computer structure that houses a collection of related data. A database

contains two types of data: end user data (raw facts) and metadata. The metadata
consist of data about data, that is, the data characteristics and relationships.

metadata​—Data about data; that is, data concerning data characteristics and
relationships. ​See ​data dictionary.​

database management system (DBMS)​—Software that serves as an intermediary

between the user and the database. The DBMS translates user requests into the
computer code that is required to fulfill those requests. A DBMS manages the data
stored within the database.

query​—A question or task asked by an end user of a database in the form of SQL
code.

single-user DBMS​—A database management system classification that depicts a

DBMS that supports only one user at a time.

desktop database​—A single-user database that runs on a personal computer.

multi user DBMS​—A database management system that supports multiple concurrent
users.

workgroup database​—A multiuser database that supports a relatively small number

of users (usually fewer than 50) or for a specific department in an organization.

enterprise database​—The overall company data representation, which provides

support for present and expected future needs.

centralized DBMS​—A database management system that supports a database

located at a single site.

distributed database management system (DDBMS)​—A database management

system that supports a database distributed across several different sites; governs the
storage and processing of logically related data over interconnected computer systems
in which both data and processing functions are distributed among several sites.

transactional database​—A database designed to keep track of the day to day

transactions of an organization. ​See also ​production database.​

production database​—The main database designed to keep track of the day-to-day

operations of a company. ​See also ​transaction database.​

data warehouse database​—A database that focuses primarily on the storage of data
used to generate information required to make tactical or strategic decisions.

database design​—The process that yields the description of the database structure.
The database design process determines the database components. Database design
is the second phase of the database life cycle.

redundant data​—Duplicated data that are stored in more than one location.

logical design​—A stage in the design phase that matches the conceptual design to
the requirements of the selected DBMS an is, therefore, software-dependent. It is used
to translate the conceptual design into the internal model for a selected database
management system, such as DB2, SQL Server, Oracle, IMS, Informix, Access, and
Ingress.

data processing (DP) specialist​—A now obsolete position formed in the conversion
from manual filing systems to computer filing systems; once filled by an employee who
created and programmed the necessary file structures, wrote the software that
managed the data in those structures, and designed the application programs that
produced reports from the file data.
data processing (DP) manager​—A DP specialist who evolved into the department
supervisor. Roles include: managing the technical and human resources, supervising
the senior programmers, program troubleshooting.

third-generation language (3GL)​—A language that requires the programmer to

specify both what must be done and how it is to be done. Examples include, COBOL,
BASIC and FORTRAN.

fourth-generation language (4GL)​—A nonprocedural language, such as SQL, that

only requires the user to define what must be done; the details of ​how ​the user’s
commands are executed are handled by the 4GL.

structural dependence​—A data characteristic that exists when a change in the

database schema affects data access, thus requiring changes in all access programs.
data dependence​—A data condition in which the data representation and
manipulation are dependent on the physical data storage characteristics.

structural independence​—A data characteristic that exists when changes in the

database schema do not affect data access.

physical data format​—The way in which the computer ―sees‖ the data.

logical data format​—The way in which a human being views data.

data redundancy​—A condition that exists when the data environment contains
redundant—unnecessarily duplicated— data.

data inconsistency​—A condition in which different versions of the same data yield
different (inconsistent) results.

data integrity​—A condition in which given data always yield the same result. Data
integrity is mandatory in any database.

data anomaly​—A data abnormality that exists when inconsistent changes to the
database have been made. Example: An employee moves, but the address change
is only corrected in one file and not across all files in the database.

database system​—An organization of components that define and regulate the

collection, storage, management, and use of data in a database environment.
database administrator (DBA)​—Person responsible for the planning, organization,
control and monitoring of the centralized and shared corporate database. The DBA
is the general manager of the database-administration department.

data dictionary​—A DBMS component that stores metadata – data about data.
Thus, the data dictionary contains the data definition as well as its characteristics
and relationships. A data dictionary may also include data that are external to the
DBMS. ​See also ​active data dictionary ​and ​passive data dictionary.​

performance tuning​—Activities that make the database perform more efficiently in

terms of storage and access speed.
data independence​—A condition that exists when data access is unaffected by
changes in the physical data storage characteristics.

query language​—A nonprocedural language that lets the user specify ​what i​ s to be
done without specifying ​how i​ t is to be done. An example of a query language is
SQL.

data definition language (DDL)​—The language that allows a database

administrator to define the database structure, schema, and subschema.

data manipulation language (DML)​—The language (set of commands) that allows

the end user to manipulate the data in the database (Select, Insert, Update, Delete).

Key Notes to remember:

DBMS helps make data management much more

efficient and effective. Because of this the following
points are worth stressing:
• The DBMS helps create an environment in which end users have better access to
more and better data.
• Wider access to well managed data promotes an integrated view of the
organization’s operations and a clearer view of the big picture.
• ​Theprobability of data inconsistency is greatly reduced in a properly designed
database that is managed through a DBMS.
• A ​DBMS ​makes it possible to produce quick answers to AD HOC Queries!!
Database Design is the design of the DB structure that will be used to store and
manage data – NOT the design of the DBMS software.

Proper DB design requires the DB designer to precisely identify the databases

expected use.

A well designed database facilitates data management and becomes a valuable

information generator.
A poorly designed database will most likely become a breeding ground for redundant
data.

Redundant data is unnecessarily duplicated data.

Redundant data are often the source of difficult to trace information errors.

A poorly designed database tends to generate errors that are likely to lead to BAD
decisions and BAD decisions can lead to the failure of an organization.

File systems – A way of managing data that are now

largely obsolete. There are several good reasons for
studying them in some detail.
• An understanding of the relatively simple characteristics of file systems makes
the complexities of a DB design easier to understand.
• An awareness of the problems the plagued file systems can help you avoid
such pitfalls with DBMS software.
• If you intend to convert an obsolete file system to a DB then knowledge of the
file systems basic limitations will be useful.

Although the file systems method of organizing and managing data was a definite
improvement over a manual system many problems and limitations became evident
in this approach.

Understanding the shortcomings of the file system enables us to understand the

development of the modern DB’s.

3​rd ​Generation Languages ​require the programmer to specify both WHAT must be
done and HOW it is to be done. ​Examples of this are COBOL, BASIC and
FORTRAN.

4​th ​Generation Languages ​require the programmer to specify both WHAT must be
done WITHOUT specifying HOW it is to be done. ​Examples of this are SQL.
Programming in a 3GL can be a time consuming, high skilled activity. This is
because programmers must be familiar the physical file structure that is how and
where the files are stored in the computer.

The need to write 3GL Programs to produce even the simplest reports makes ​AD
HOC Queries ​impossible!!

DB Specialists and Managers are often harried and having numerous requests for
reports means reports often take weeks and months.

Another problem with 3GL programming is that as the number of files in the system
expands the System Administration becomes very difficult. Each file must have it’s
own file management system composed of programs that allow the user to do:

• Create the file structure

• Add data to the file
• Delete data from the file
• Modify the data contained in the file
• List the file contents

Making changes in an existing structure can be difficult in a file system environment.

Changing just one field in the original file (ex: Customers file) requires a program
that:
• Puts a new file structure into a special portion of the computers memory known
as a buffer.
• Reads the record from the original file
• Transforms the original data to conform to the new structures storage
requirements
• Deletes the original file
• Modifies all programs that use the file (ex: Customers file) to fit the revised file
structure

To summarize the limitations of file system Data Management:

• It requires extensive programming
• System Administration can be complex and difficult
• It is difficult to make changes to existing structures
 • Security features are likely to be inadequate

These limitations in turn lead to problems of structural and data dependency.

A change in any file’s structure requires the modification of all programs using that
file. Such modifications are required because the file system exhibits ​Structural
Dependency ​that is access to a file is ​dependent ​on its structure.

Structural Independence ​exists when it is possible to make changes in the DB

Structure ​without affecting ​the application programs ability to access the data.

Data Redundancy—A condition that exists when the

data environment contains
redundant—unnecessarily duplicated— data.
Uncontrolled ​Data Redundancy ​sets the stage for:

• ​Data Inconsistency​—A condition in which different versions of the same data

yield different (inconsistent) results.
• Data that display inconsistencies are also referred to data that lack data
integrity.
• Data Anomalies develop when all the required changes in the redundant data
are not made successfully. (Ex: Modification Anomalies, Insertion Anomalies,
Deletion Anomalies)

Database System​—An organization of components that define and regulate the

collection, storage, management, and use of data in a database environment.

Database System is composed of the 5 major parts

shown below:
1. Hardware ​– Refers to all the systems physical devices.
2. Software ​– Refers to the collection of programs used by the computers within the
DB System. Examples are:
 o O​ perating System Software​: DOS, MS, LINUX, UNIX...
o D ​ BMS Software ​manages the DB within the DB environment: Access,
SQL Server, Oracle, UDB...
o ​Application Programs and Utility Software ​are use to manipulate the
data in the DBMS. They Generate Reports, tabulations and other
information to facilitate decision making.

3. People ​– This component includes all users of the DB System. There are 5 types
of users in a DB System:
o ​Systems Administrator (SYSADM)​—The person responsible for
coordinating the activities of the data processing function. The systems
administrator also manages the use of database software in a data
processing (DP) department; solicits and evaluates database designs,
coordinates the development of applications based on the data resource,
and assigns the right to manage the database(s) to selected individuals.
The systems administrator also coordinates the activities of all database
administrators (DBAs) in a multidatabase operation.
o ​Database Administrator (DBA)​—Person responsible for the planning,
organization, control and monitoring of the centralized and shared
corporate database. The DBA is the general manager of the database-
administration department.
o ​Systems Analysts and Programmers ​– Design and implement the
applications programs. They design and create the data entry screens,
reports and procedures through which end users access data.
o ​End User ​– People who use the application programs to run the
organizations daily operations.

4. Procedures – ​They are the instructions and rules that govern the design and use
of the DB Systems.
5. DATA – ​The word DATA covers the collection of facts stored in the DB.

DB Systems must be cost effective as well as tactically and strategically effective.

DB levels of system complexity are dedicated by the organizations activities and the
environment within which those activities take place.

DB Technology in use is likely to affect the selection of a DB system.

 A DBMS performs several important functions that guarantee the integrity and the
consistency of the data in the DB.

DBMS Functions:
1. ​Data Dictionary Management ​– The DBMS stores the definitions of the data
elements and their relationships (metadata) in the ​Data Dictionary​.
2. ​Data Storage Management ​– The DBMS creates and manages the complex
structures required for data storage.
3. ​Data Transformation and Presentation ​– The DBMS transforms the entered
data to conform to the data structures that are required to store the data. It
relieves is of the chore of distinguishing between ​Logical ​and ​Physical ​format.
Data Independence​—A condition that exists when data access is unaffected by
changes in the physical data storage characteristics. The DBMS formats the
physically retrieved data to make it conform to the users logical expectations.
4. ​Security Management ​– The DBMS creates a security system that enforces user
security and data privacy within the DB. Security rules determine which users
can access the DB, which data items each user may access and which data
operations (read, add, modify, delete...) the user may perform.
5. ​Multi-User Access Control – ​The DBMS creates the complex structures that
allow multiple users access to the data. In order to provide data integrity and data
consistency the DBMS uses sophisticated algorithms to ensure that multiple
users can access the DB concurrently without compromising the integrity of the
DB.
6. ​Backup and Recovery Management – ​The DBMS provides backup and data
recovery procedures to ensure data safety and integrity. Current DBMS systems
provide special utilities that allow the ​DBA ​to perform routine and special backup
and restore operations.
7. ​Data Integrity Management – ​The DBMS promotes and enforces integrity rules
to eliminate data integrity problems. Thus minimizing data redundancy and
maximizing data consistency. The Data Relationships stored in the Data
Dictionary are used to enforce data integrity.
8. ​Database Access Languages and Application Programming Interfaces – ​the
DBMS provides data access through a query language.
 o ​A query Language is a Non Procedural Language (4GL) ​o ​The
DBMS query language contains two components:
▪ ​Data Definition Language (DDL)​—The language that allows
a database administrator to define the database structure,
schema, and subschema.
▪ ​Data Manipulation Language (DML)​—The language (set of
commands) that allows the end user to manipulate the data in
the database (Select, Insert, Update, Delete). ​o ​The DBMS
also provides data access to programmers via Procedural
Languages (3GL) ex: COBAL, C, PASCAL, VB...

9. Database Communication Interface – ​Current generations of DBMS’s provide

communication interfaces designed to allow the DB to accept end-user
request within a computer network environment. Example: The DBMS might
provide communications functions to access the DB through the Internet
using Web Browsers such as Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer. In
this environment communications can be accomplished in several ways:
o ​End users can generate answers to queries by filling in screen forms
through their preferred Browser. ​o ​The DBMS can automatically publish predefined
reports on the
Internet using a Web format that enables and Web user to browse it. ​o ​The DBMS
can connect to the 3​rd ​party to distribute information via
email or other productivity applications such as Lotus Notes.

The DBMS allows chores to be done and performed without the tedious and time
consuming programming required in the File Management System.

The role of the DB Specialist or the DB Manager changes from an emphasis on

programming to a focus on the broader aspects of managing the organizations data
resources and on administration of the complex software itself.

Because the File Systems DB Manager performs broader managerial functions in a

database environment they might be promoted to ​System Administrators – SYS
DBAs

The availability of a DBMS makes it possible to tackle far more sophisticated uses of
the DATA resources, if the DB is designed to make use of that available power.
 Summary Chap 1

• Information is derived from data, which are usually stored in DB.

• To implement a DB and manage its contents you need commercial software
known as a DBMS.
• Database design defines the DB Structure.
• The DBMS stores the facts about the structure in the DB itself. The DB contains
the data you have collected and the ​―data about the data‖ ​known as
Metadata​.
• Good Database design is important because even a good DBMS will perform
poorly with a poorly designed DB.
• DB’s were preceded by File Systems.
• Because File Systems lack a DBMS, file management becomes difficult as the
file system grows.
• Each file requires its own set of basic data management programs and because
files are usually ―owned‖ by those who commission them, the number of files
tends to grow.
• Many of the files in a File System often contain redundant data, thus leading to
data inconsistency, data anomalies and a lack of data integrity.
• Because each file can be used by many application programs a mature file
system might have generated hundreds or even thousands of programs.
• Serious file system data management problems usually stem from data
dependency. Access to any file is dependant on the data characteristics and
storage formats therefore even a minor change in data structure with a file
requires that all programs accessing that file must be modified too.
• DB management systems were developed to address the file systems inherent
weaknesses. Rather than depositing data within independent files. A DBMS
presents the DB to the End User as a single repository. This arrangement
promotes data sharing thus at least potentially eliminating the ​Islands of
Information ​problem.
• DBMS enforces data integrity, eliminates redundancy and promotes data
security.