EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 2020, 16(11), em1896

ISSN:1305-8223 (online)
OPEN ACCESS Research Paper https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/8547

Solving Problem Types Contextualized to the Quadratic Function and Error

Analysis: A Case Study
Verónica Díaz 1*, Maria Aravena 2, George Flores 3
1 Universidad de Los Lagos, Departamento de Ciencias Exactas, Osorno, CHILE
2 Universidad Católica del Maule, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, Talca, CHILE

3 Universidad de Los Lagos, Dirección de Acceso, Equidad y Permanencia, Osorno, CHILE

Received 8 August 2020 ▪ Accepted 28 August 2020

Abstract
The article aims to determine the academic performance and errors in the resolution of types of
problems of application of the quadratic function, of high school students from the Los Lagos
Region and Los Rios Region in Chile. The approach is qualitative and descriptive with case studies.
A math test with open response problems and an opinion questionnaire were developed and
applied. Through the results, the highest academic performance is evidenced in the routine
problems of purely mathematical context and fantasist context, but with difficulty in the resolution
of non-routine problems. In addition, errors originating in affective and emotional attitudes
associated with blockages at the time of initiating the resolution, forgetfulness at the time of
posing the quadratic function, prevail over cognitive errors originating in an obstacle and errors
originating in the absence of meaning.
Keywords: errors, problem solving, quadratic function, secondary education

research regarding the difficulty that students have in

INTRODUCTION learning quadratic function (Celik & Güzel, 2019; Ruli,
In the unit of Algebra and Functions of Secondary Pradawanto & Mulyana, 2019), which has its origin not
Education in Chile, students begin with the recognition only in the cognitive domain, but also in the affective
of functions and their distinction with relationships in domain. Some research in the cognitive domain has been
diverse contexts. In this unit, it is possible to identify proposed to relate to records of semiotic representations
topics related to types of functions, particularly the and technological environments (Bajaña, 2019; Esquer,
quadratic function whose teaching and learning is linked Robles, Cosmes, & Ansaldo 2017; Farez, 2018; Gomez-
to the second year of secondary education, according to Blancarte, Guirette, & Morales-Colorado, 2017; Özaltun
the Ministry of Education in Chile (MINEDUC). & Bukova, 2019; Peralta-García, Encinas-Pablos, &
This research, carried out with types of problems Cuevas-Salazar, 2019). Studies of quadratic function and
according to nature and context, and the classification of problem solving are less common.
errors according to their origin committed by students In the affective domain, it is also rare to find studies
when they solve problems of application of the quadratic of a student’s affections and problem solving. However,
function, allows us to have an assessment instrument there are several studies on the relationship between the
that in the future will allow us to continue analyzing teacher’s attitude and the academic performance of
why students make mistakes and how they affect students in mathematics (Beilock, Schaeffer, & Rozek,
affective mastery in mathematics work in general and in 2017; Chapman, 2013; Fulgar, 2020; Good & Lavigne,
problem solving in particular of Education in Chile 2018; Haciomeroglu, 2013). The importance of attitudes
(MINEDUC, 2019). However, there are gaps in the actual on student performance in mathematics has also been
level of their education, depending on the type of investigated (Langat, 2015; Peteros, Columna, Etcuban,
educational establishment, which may be municipal, Almerino, & Almerino, 2019) concluding that attitudes
privately subsidized, or privately paid (Díaz & Poblete, towards mathematics have a significant impact on
2018). On the other hand, there is agreement in recent student performance.
© 2020 by the authors; licensee Modestum. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
[email protected] (*Correspondence) [email protected] [email protected]
Diaz et al. / Solving problem types contextualized to the quadratic function and error analysis: A case study

Contribution to the literature

• The study contributes to the literature in Mathematics Education on solving problem types according
nature and context in secondary education, by providing empirical evidence of student when apply
knowledge of the quadratic function.
• The study identified three different types of errors, which were influenced by the different educational
establishments students’ prior experiences in problem solving routine and non-routine.
• This research, allows us to have an assessment instrument that in the future will allow to continue
analyzing why students make mistakes and how they affect affective mastery in mathematics work in
general and in problem solving in particular.

For Blanco, Caballero and Guerrero (2013) the linkage types of problems of application of the quadratic
between emotions and performance in mathematics function, in third year students of the Los Lagos and Los
becomes visible in the student, when he or she needs to Rios regions in Chile. This study was guided by the next
understand the structure or needs to recover the research question: What type of errors prevail in solving
information of a specific mathematical task, at the problems contextualized to the quadratic function?
moments when he or she designs a strategy to solve a
problem that requires the memory of formulas or routine THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
procedures, or in the processes of self-regulation of his
or her learning linked to a methodology of teaching Because mathematical problem solving plays such a
mathematics that rejects (Díaz, Belmar, & Poblete, 2018). critical role in the curriculum, it is imperative that
All these situations generate errors and/or difficulties students gain mastery of this complex process. Recurrent
that constitute obstacles in the learning of mathematics. research at different latitudes, however, indicates that
At present, emphasis is placed on the need to develop students have difficulty in this skill (Fuadi, Minarni, &
skills for problem solving and the development of Banjarnahor, 2017; Peranginangin, 2017) which is
creative abilities in mathematics (Díaz & Poblete, 2018), reflected in performance on standardized achievement
but also on the need to recognize and anticipate errors tests.
that are part of the productions of most students, On the other hand, for decades the pedagogy of
constituting a stable element in the processes of teaching Mathematics Education has been based mainly on
and learning mathematics at all levels of the education teachers demonstrating problems from correctly worked
system. In general, the wrong concepts are presented examples, as models for students to replicate while
through errors. An error might be an error, a calculation practicing their own problems (Rushton, 2018). There is
error or a wrong judgement, and such category consensus that problem solving is also a powerful and
underlines non-systematic errors (Díaz, 2019). effective tool for learning (Boesen, Lithner, & Palm, 2010;
The curricular bases of MINEDUC (2019), for Davis, Smith, Roy, & Bilgic, 2014; Henderson, 2012;
secondary education students, recurrently propose as a Jäder, Lithner, & Sidenvall, 2019; Schoenfeld, 2012), as
central objective, to build student learning based on well as a central component of mathematical reasoning
skills and content. Specifically, they point out the (MINEDUC, 2019) that requires higher level thinking
importance of going deeper into routine and non-routine skills and therefore needs the incorporation of routine
problems as a key learning opportunity in mathematics. and non-routine problems for the student. The best use
To do so, the student must be able to solve problems, of this skill is achieved when the student is able to solve
make decisions, apply, and build mathematical models problems in a wide range of subjects in science,
on which to base decisions. However, results in technology, business, finance, medicine and everyday
international assessments such as PISA and TIMSS life (Akyüz, 2020) and in diverse contexts that allow
(OECD, 2019) in which Chile has participated, show that applications of mathematical objects.
these objectives have not been completely achieved.
Types of Problems
Problem solving since the mid-twentieth century has
been the focus of much international research, but also For this work, as a theoretical framework, the types
of major difficulties associated with it (Hernández, of problems that the authors Díaz and Poblete (2001)
Castañeda, & Gonzalez, 2019), which are evident from have been working on in different areas of mathematics
the mistakes that students make when solving problems. were taken. According to this classification, problems
In this context, the research objective arises. are considered according to their nature and context.
According to their nature, problems are classified into:
Aims of the Research routine and non-routine ones and according to their
context: they are classified as real, realistic, fantastical
The aim of research objective was to determine the and purely mathematical (Figure 1).
academic performance and errors in the resolution of

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learning quadratic functions that remain unanswered.

The concept of quadratic function is one of the most
important ideas in school mathematics since graphs and
equations are important parts of mathematics (Benning
& Agyei, 2016; Nielsen, 2015; Parent, 2015). The idea of
quadratic function plays a key role in the development
of mathematical concepts, since it crosses a range of
mathematical content domains, including algebra and
geometry (NCTM, 2020).
On the other hand, mathematics teachers’
understanding of quadratic functions is critical to
students’ success in mathematics, and there seems to be
agreement that, for many high school students, solving
and understanding quadratic functions can be
conceptually challenging because of the need to make
Figure 1. Types of problems connections between various representations of the
function, as well as the connections between the various
ways in which the quadratic equation can be expressed
(Didis, Bas, & Erbas, 2011; Kilic, 2011).
Nature of the problem
Research on quadratic functions of teaching and
Based on their nature, problems are defined as learning (Didis et al., 2011; Ellis & Grinstead, 2008;
Routine and Non-Routine ones. Eraslan, 2008; Metcalf, 2007; Strickland, 2011) has
Routine problems are like those solved during involved students after their learning of specific
instructional courses; the student follows a sequence that functions. One such quadratic function study was
involves understanding the concepts and algorithms to conducted (Metcalf, 2007) with three undergraduate
achieve valid solutions. students at a university of New England. He found that
A problem will be Non-Routine when a student does one of his participants could perform several procedures
not know an answer or a previously established but showed limited relational understanding of the
procedure or routine to find it. concepts. Unfortunately, none of his participants
showed much flexibility in moving between
Context of the problem representations. In addition, all exhibited
communication difficulties in relation to quadratic
• Real context problem: A context is real if it is function.
produced in reality and compromises the actions
Although it is not limited to these examples,
of the student in it.
quadratic functions are related to mathematical thinking
• Realistic context problem: A context is realistic if it is and reasoning in the real world due, for example, to their
susceptible to be produced. It is about a involvement in the description of the path of projectiles,
simulation of reality or a part of it. appearing on suspension bridges, as cross sections of car
• Fantasist context problem: A context is fantasist if it headlights, satellite dishes and radio telescopes, to
is fruit of imagination and is unfounded in reality. describe the orbits along which the planets move and the
• Purely mathematical context: A context is purely link between quadratic equations and acceleration
mathematical if makes exclusive reference to (Budd & Sangwin, 2004).
mathematical objects: numbers, relations and Kotsopoulos (2007) points out three forms of the
arithmetic operations, geometric figures, etc. quadratic function which are the standard form, the
factored form, and the vertex form. Students become
Quadratic Function confused when the concepts of quadratic function are
presented in different ways to which they are not
One area of recurrent difficulty is algebra, which is
accustomed. Mutambara, Tendere and Chagwiza (2020)
linked to functions, in that they model a dependent
conducted an exploration of teachers’ understanding of
relationship between one quantity and another (Díaz &
the concept of quadratic function. The findings of the
Poblete, 2018). For National Council of Teachers of
study revealed that most pre-service teachers appeared
Mathematics NCTM (2020) together, algebra and
to be operating at the level of understanding action, with
functions constitute the language of generalization that
very few teachers having reached the object level. The
allows the systematic representation of patterns and
researchers Martínez-Planell, Torres, and Hernandez
relationships between numbers and objects, analysing
(2015) indicated that students who knew some rules
change and modelling real-world situations (NCTM,
related to the resolution of quadratic functions could
2018). However, there are many questions about

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apply these rules without thinking about why they did that knowledge in another context, it results in
it, or if what they were doing was mathematically inadequate responses.
correct. • Errors that have their origin in the absence of meaning:
Recent studies have shown that students and teachers These can be divided into three classes:
in service present a diversity of difficulties related to (1) Errors that have their origin in arithmetic, because
quadratic function. Obstacles that in the processes of of not having assimilated relationships and processes in
teaching and learning are potentially generating errors. an arithmetic context,
Authors such as Radatz (1980), Rico (1995), Socas (1997)
(2) Procedural errors, i.e. when students use
and others, have established error classifications in
formulas, definitions, or rules inappropriately,
mathematics.
(3) Errors due to misinterpretation of mathematical
Types of Errors language.

Since errors are inherent to human life, their presence • Errors that have their origin in affective and emotional
in the acquisition and development of knowledge in attitudes: These errors derive from lack of
mathematics is a constant throughout the history of the concentration, blockages, forgetfulness, etc.
discipline. In recent years, incorrect problems have been For many students and teachers, mistakes are
introduced for the analysis of errors by students associated with negative feelings. According to the
(McLaren, Adams, & Mayer, 2015). For Rushton (2018) American Psychological Association, feelings that affect
error analysis carryings out are aligned with standards a person’s mood and emotional reaction can be called
of mathematical practice (NCTM, 2014) and affection, and the attitude toward mathematics is an
mathematical teaching practices (NCTM, 2014). example of an affective state (Berger, Mackenzie, &
Researchers report a result of increased mathematical Holmes, 2020).
understanding when these practices are used with a For Fulgar (2020) attitude in general, it refers to a
combination of problems worked on correctly and person’s way of thinking, acting, and behaving. It has a
incorrectly (Adams et al., 2014; Durkin & Rittle-Johnson, truly relevant implication for the student, the teacher,
2012; Große & Renkl, 2007; Loibl & Rummel, 2014; the immediate social group, and the whole school
McLaren et al., 2012; NCTM, 2014; NGA Center & system (Mensah, Okyere, & Kuranchie, 2013). Attitudes
CCSSO, 2010; Sisman & Aksu, 2015). can affect behaviour that influences what the student
The MINEDUC (2019) recognizes that mistakes selects from the environment, how he or she will react to
provide opportunities for learning in mathematics. teachers, to the material being used and to other
Authors such as Oser and Spychiger (2005), Heinze and students.
Reiss (2007) suggest that errors are necessary to develop When students are approached with non-routine
the individual’s idea of what is false and what is correct. math problems, according to (Díaz, Belmar, & Poblete,
But how often do students see their mistakes as signs of 2018), their reactions often include a lot of emotion and
failure? How many students, as well as parents or if the problem-solving time is long, the emotional
guardians, believe that the goal of learning math is to get responses can even be very intense.
only the right answer? Teachers often resist the idea of
using error analysis in their classrooms. Some believe METHODOLOGY
that analyzing them takes too long (Tsovaltzi, Melis,
McLaren, Meyer, Dietrich, & Goguadze, 2010). This study corresponds to a qualitative descriptive
According to error analysis is an instructional strategy research with case studies (Hernández, Fernández, &
that helps students retain their learning. But prior to that, Baptista, 2014), with the purpose of studying in a
it is fundamental to know the types of errors that detailed, comprehensive and in-depth way, the
students can make when solving a mathematical academic performance and the errors presented by the
problem. students in the resolution of types of application
problems on quadratic function.
For the purposes of the theoretical framework of this
research, the classification of errors proposed by Socas Three educational establishments are included, in
(1997) is considered, which, associating the cognitive order to have representative case studies of the three
and affective domains, recognizes three categories: types of educational establishments that exist in the
errors that have their origin in an obstacle, in the absence country. Five third-year secondary school students are
of meaning, and errors that have their origin in affective analysed, selected based on student availability and, five
and emotional attitudes, which are presented below. educational establishments in the Los Lagos and Los
Ríos Regions to which they belong. The students are
• Errors that have their origin in an obstacle: The
hereinafter referred to by the word case and are listed
obstacle is considered as an acquired knowledge,
from 1 to 5.
not as a lack of knowledge, which was effective in
some specific context but when the student uses

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to record every detail in student’s processes of problem

solving: No Start: The student is unable to start the
problem or delivers work which is meaningless (0 point),
Focus: The student focuses the problem with a
meaningful work, indicating comprehension of the
problem, yet faces difficulties easily (1 point), Substance:
Sufficient details show that the student has been oriented
to a rational solution, yet relevant error s or wrong
interpretations prevent the process of the correct
resolution (2 points), Result: The problem is about to be
resolved, yet few mistakes lead to a wrong final solution
(3 points), Completion: The proper method has been used
and it has led to the correct solution (4 points).
Figure 2. Routine problem of fantasy context image To describe the errors shown, the classification model
proposed by Socas (1997) is used, which includes errors
that have their origin in an obstacle, in the absence of
Specifically, Case 1 corresponds to a student from a
meaning and in emotional and affective attitudes. For
municipal educational institution in the Los Lagos
the affective and emotional attitudes, immediately after
Region; Case 2, from a municipal educational institution
the quadratic function test is completed, the case studies
in the Los Ríos Region; Case 3, from a private subsidized
are consulted through a brief opinion questionnaire, the
educational institution in the Los Lagos Region; Case 4,
possible causes of obstacles in the resolution of a
from a private subsidized educational institution in the
problem, whose response options were blockage, lack of
Los Rios Region; Case 5, a student from a private paid
motivation, lack of concentration (excessive confidence),
educational institution in the Los Lagos Region.
forgetfulness, omission associated with their disposition
for mathematics.
Instruments
In order to describe and analyse the academic RESULTS
performance and the errors of the students in the
resolution of problems, a test of resolution of 11 To show the analysis on the classification of errors
problems contextualized to the quadratic function and and academic performance by each case study, they are
open answer is elaborated and applied, which was presented as examples on quadratic function, problems
previously validated by content and by means of the according to their nature and context.
judgment of ten experts in resolution of problems in The P3, it is according to its nature routine and
mathematics (Skjong & Wentworth, 2001) considering fantasist context, that is, it is a problem fruit of the
an 85% of congruence among their answers, to accept as imagination and has no basis. In this problem the
valid the type of problem that finally conforms the test quadratic function is given, and it is requested to
of mathematics, which initially had 15 problems. determine the time that takes a drop to fall and its
The result obtained in the mathematics test graphic representation. Figure 2 corresponds to the way
determines the academic performance of the students in which the problem was presented to the students.
under study. For its resolution, they had 2 hours and 30 “Problem 3: When a drop of water from the top of Niagara
minutes and were applied in December 2019 in their Falls into the pit at the bottom, the height h, in meters, from
respective educational establishments. The distribution the water in the pit can be determined by the equation ℎ =
of the test problems, according to the classification of −16𝑡 2 + 176. In the equation, t is the time in seconds from
types of mathematical problems proposed by Díaz and when the drop falls into the waterfall.
Poblete (2001) was as follows: Problem 1 (P1) routine of a) Determine the time it takes for the drop to reach the
realistic context, P2 routine of realistic context, P3 bottom of the waterfall in the pit (when ℎ = 0).
routine of fantasist context, P4 non-routine, P5 routine of b) Graph the drop jump”.
realistic context, P6 routine of fantasist context, P7
Both the academic performance evidenced in each of
routine of realistic context, P8 routine of purely
the five case studies (Figure 3) and the errors according
mathematical context, P9 routine of purely mathematical
to their origin recorded in this problem (Figure 4) are
context, P10 routine of fantasist context and P11 routine
presented below.
of realistic context.
According to the scheme in Figure 3, case 1 fails to
The academic performance of the students is
begin the resolution of the problem. On the other hand,
determined, using the Rash Model adapted by (Díaz &
case 4 had the problem almost solved, but the lack of the
Poblete, 2001). This model includes a score scale that
function’s graph leads to an incomplete final solution.
indicates the different progress levels of students when
The errors committed on time range from handing in the
solving a problem correctly. This four-point scale is used

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Figure 3. Errors and academic performance in routine fantasist context problem

Figure 4. Errors according to their origin in routine problem of fantasist context

work without starting the resolution, errors in basic used in another context, inadequate responses are
concepts such as the sense of the equal sign which are produced. In addition, case 2 presents errors due to the
errors of a strictly algebraic nature and have no explicit absence of meaning produced because the student does
relation with arithmetic, since the sense of this sign not properly use the formula to find the time it takes for
constitutes the passage from arithmetic to algebra and the drop to reach the bottom of the waterfall in the pit.
formal substitution. Procedural errors, because of the The errors that come from emotional and affective
inappropriate use of the formula of the given quadratic attitudes are recorded in the responses of Case 1 and 2.
function and the lack of construction of the graph of the Case 2 achieves a certain degree of progress in solving
function. Only case 5 achieves the result using an the problem, while Case 1 does not respond to the
appropriate method and thus establishing the correct problem. Consulted because lead them not to achieve the
solution. resolution of the routine problem and of fantasist
Figure 4 shows the errors classified according to their context, they opt for the options of forgetting the
origin, these are recorded indistinctly in the obstacles concepts and blocking to initiate the resolution in an
with cases 2 and 3, noting that when the knowledge is effective way. Figure 5 presents Case 2, which is present

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a) It delay 44 sec. to reach the bottom of the waterfall

Figure 5. Response of case 2 to the routine problem of fantasist context

in all types of errors in the development of the routine in another context, it resulted in an inadequate advance.
P3 fantasist context. Errors are also registered with origin in the absence of
According to Figure 5, case 2 initiates different sense based on algebra, when the student in his
mathematical procedures, but when working with the procedure applies square root only in one member of the
function 16t 2 = 176 and wanting to search for its roots, equality √16t 2 = 176 generating an erroneous result.
it presents difficulties associated with mathematical The P4 is non-routine in nature, in the sense that the
thought processes, evidencing errors associated with student does not know an answer or a previously
obstacles such as an acquired knowledge of the established procedure or routine for performing it. The
function’s graph, not as a lack of knowledge, but being

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Figure 6. Academic Performance in Non-Routine Problems

Figure 7. Errors according to their origin in non-routine problem

A school basketball player, you want to know how long it will take shoot the ball and what is the distance he should take to
shoot a triple assuming it has an initial velocity of 1.5 m/s and the hoop is at a height of 2,7 m
h (t) = ½ · g · t2 · V0 t · h 0
Figure 8. Case 5 response to non-routine problem

student is asked to invent a problem whose Regarding the errors, cases 1, 2, 3 and 4 related to
mathematical object is a quadratic function. affective and emotional attitudes are evident, without
“Problem 4: Invent a problem of daily life that corresponds having an answer to associate a mathematical object with
to the development of the quadratic function”. the contextualization of the same. Consulted through the
reasons why they did not respond to the non-routine
Figures 6 and 7 present the academic performance
problem, their answers are associated with forgetting the
and errors according to their origin recorded in the five
subject, blocking because of the difficulty presented by
case studies, respectively.
the type of problem. Figure 8 shows case 5, which was
According to Figure 6, four of five case studies fail to the only one that achieved a complete.
start the problem and do not record any mathematical
It should be noted that Case 5 uses the formula that is
procedure. Only case 5 succeeds in creating an everyday
part of the routine P1 of realistic context, which was
problem which can be solved using the quadratic
given an explicit context, however, it demonstrates an
function as a mathematical object.

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Based on the scheme that gives an account of the

academic performance, it is visualized that the problem
was of high difficulty for the five students, given that
cases 1, 2, 4 and 5 do not manage to start the resolution
of the problem and in addition they do not present
procedure, that is to say, they are incapable of starting
the problem or they delivered it without resolution
demonstrating that for them it has no meaning. Only
case 3 manages to reach the focus stage, indicating an
understanding of the application of the quadratic
function, but it quickly encounters a difficulty and in its
Figure 9. Realistic routine context problem image discreet progress, presents obstacles in arithmetic.
With regard to errors classified according to their
ability to formulate a problem situation of origin, these are mostly recorded in affective and
contextualization of the quadratic function, in which it emotional attitudes and correspond to cases 1, 2, 3 and 4.
manages to involve the formula known to it. Only case 3 presents errors with origin in the absence of
The P5 is, according to its nature, routine, and meaning, as a result of not having assimilated
realistic context, that is, it is susceptible to being relationships and processes in an arithmetical context,
produced because it is a simulation of reality. It asks the which is manifested in the multiplication of fractions.
5 students to substitute the data and information given The answers about the reasons for the lack of resolution
in the quadratic formula and determine the time it will are related to blocks produced by the work of solving
take Neil Armstrong to touch the ground. problems in mathematics and forgetting how to pose a
quadratic function when the formula is not previously
“Problem 5: The gravity on the Moon is about one-sixth
known. Figure 12 presents case 3 in the development of
that of the Earth. Suppose that Neil Armstrong is on the
the routine P5 of realistic context.
Moon, standing on a hill 60 meters high. If he jumps up at a
speed of 40 meters per second, how long will it take him to Case 3 shows that the algebraic procedure of the
touch the ground at the bottom of the hill?” quadratic function is known, however, in the numerical
Figure 10 shows the academic performance shown in coefficient that is part of the quadratic variable it does
each of the five case studies and the errors according to not consider the value: g = -32m / s2 which conditions its
their origin recorded in this problem (Figure 11). result. This error is mainly due to the absence of meaning
originating in arithmetic, because of not having

Figure 10. Academic performance in a realistic routine problem

Figure 11. Errors according to their origin in realistic context routine problem

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Figure 12. Response of case 3 to the routine problem of realistic context

Figure 13. Academic performance on routine problem of purely mathematical context

assimilated relationships and processes in an rectangle has been given and it is requested to calculate
arithmetical context. its diagonal as a function of the given area.
The P8 is, according to its routine nature of purely “Problem 8: Calculate the diagonal of a rectangle knowing
mathematical context, that is, it refers exclusively to that the base is equal to three quarters of the height and that
mathematical objects, numbers, relations and arithmetic the area is 48”. Figures 13 and 14 show the steps in solving
operations, geometrical figures, etc. In this problem a the problem and the errors according to their origin,
respectively.

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Figure 14. Errors according to their origin in a purely mathematical routine problem

Figure 15. Response of case 4 to the purely mathematical routine context problem

Based on the scheme in Figure 13, overall academic Analyzing the errors according to their origin, it was
performance is high on this issue. In a student analysis, found that these are only recorded in case 2 and
cases 1 and 3 achieve complete resolution of the routine correspond to errors due to the absence of meaning
problem in a purely mathematical context. Cases 4 and 5 associated with arithmetic procedures. With respect to
although they had difficulties in the procedure of errors due to emotional and affective attitudes, when
resolution in the quadratic equation, indicate consulted, the student opts for the blocking response and
understanding of how to solve a problem that refers to forgets how to pose a quadratic function. Next, in Figure
relations and algebraic operations, which have been 15, case 4 is presented in the development of the routine
previously known by the students, but they found P8 of purely mathematical context.
difficulties in the operability of the equation and its Case 4 y, except for the spatial location of the sides of
calculation, leading to erroneous results. Only case 2 the rectangle, manages to pose the quadratic equation
remains in the focus stage of the quadratic function, properly, but when working with the equation 3/4𝑥 2 =
finding a difficulty that did not allow it to advance to the 48, it does not manage to clear the variable x, because it
next stage of resolution. With respect to the origin of the does not apply the multiplicative inverse correctly and
errors, these are outlined in Figure 14. this makes the final result incorrect.

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CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION resolution. This result coincides with various

investigations, such as that of Kaya and Kablan (2018)
This study purpose was to gain a better those who mention the difficulty of students in finding
understanding of the errors made by students, belonging more than one solution to a non-routine problem; with
to the three types of educational establishments that exist Akyüz (2020) in a recent investigation with future
in school education in Chile in solving types of quadratic teachers, whose performance decreased when the level
function application problems. of difficulty of the problem considered to be non-routine
The results first of all revealed that in relation to the increased. In similar studies, teacher candidates showed
academic performance of the five case studies and low success in problems related to non-routine problems
according to the problems that in their resolution only (Akgün, Işık, Tatar, İşleyen, & Soylu, 2012; Dündar,
reached the result stage - previous to the final phase of 2015) with other research reporting that students tend to
correct resolution - it was because minor difficulties led use arithmetic operation to solve non-routine problems.
to a wrong solution. Therefore, they can be considered of Thirdly, the analysis of the test and answers to the
lesser importance since they can be overcome through opinion questionnaire, provides an idea of the most
conscious work by the student. Although they were common procedural and conceptual errors in the
presented in two of the five cases, they are not as relevant students. It is discovered that in the cognitive errors
to the objectives of this paper, because the stages prior to presented in most of the cases under study, they have
resolution are considered more important, as substance, their origin in the absence of meaning, where procedural
focus and fundamentally, not start. In the non-beginning difficulty has predominated. In these errors, although
stage, the highest frequencies were recorded, which the student demonstrates knowledge of some concepts
implies that the student was unable to start the problem to achieve the resolution of the problem, he or she does
or deliver a work that has no meaning. Four case studies, not achieve the link between them, generating a mixture
were left without more than one problem being solved. of concepts without meaning. In general, they were
Only one of them managed to address all the situations limited to achieving effective resolution, which was
of contextualization of the quadratic function, and in limited by the need to apply a more basic algebraic
most of them, to adequately solve the problem posed. procedure (application of additive and multiplicative
Secondly, in relation to the type of problem inverses, resolution of the equation, etc.). In order to
associated with academic performance, we can indicate overcome these errors, a greater intervention of the
that those with the highest performance were the purely teacher is required, but also a joint work with the
mathematical context routines followed with less student, since in this type of errors the lack of both
frequency by the fantasist context routines. Purely theoretical and conceptual content is manifested,
mathematical context problems, because they refer coinciding with the investigations of Agustyaningrum,
exclusively to mathematical objects, numbers, relations Abadi and Mahmud (2018).
and arithmetic operations, geometric figures, etc. and Errors originating in emotional and affective
correspond to problems that are commonly present in attitudes were the most frequent in the five case studies
literature and inherent to the usual form of practice, from both regions. When asked about the reasons for the
therefore it is foreseeable that students have had the lack of resolution in certain problems, the five case
opportunity to practice them previously. They have a studies mostly agreed on having blockages when
fantasist context, with no basis and are the fruit of the starting the resolution, forgetting to pose the quadratic
imagination. However, they are problems that, function. These findings coincide with Lester and Kehle
containing clearly defined mathematical objects, are (2003) that recognize that the difficulty, in addition to the
motivating for students, as they consider fantasist characteristics of a problem, also depends on the
situations like a drop of water from Niagara Falls. This disposition, beliefs and attitudes of the students.
result is similar to that of Díaz (2020) in the investigation
Similarly, research from Hall and Goetz (2013),
of types of problems in derivative applications with
Pekrun and Linnenbrink-Garcia (2014) has shown that
engineering students. These different and original
students’ emotions are linked to their academic
problems manage to awaken the curiosity and
performance. Generally, positive emotions, such as
motivation of the student by trying to bring fantasist
enjoyment of learning, show positive links to
elements closer to reality and the students’ interests in
achievement, and negative emotions, such as assessment
their knowledge, so that they learn to solve these
anxiety, show negative links. This fact, can provide
problems that have been contextualized to a specific
further analysis on the reason for greater emphasis at the
mathematical object.
need to take into account the affective domain when
On the other hand, the problem with the greatest teaching mathematics to students at any educational
obstacle was the non-routine one. In this problem, the level and to really develop the ability to solve types of
student does not know an answer or a previously problems that contextualize a mathematical object, all
established procedure or routine to carry it out. Thus, levels of the education system.
four out of five case studies did not manage to start their

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 EURASIA J Math Sci and Tech Ed

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