Electrical Engineering Laboratory –II Manual

CONTENTS

SL NO TOPIC PAGE
NO.

1. Study of measuring electronic devices ( study of CRO) 3

2. Study of PN junction diode characteristics 8

3. Study of V-I characteristics of zener diode and zener regulator 13

characteristics

4. Half wave rectifier with filter and without filter. 16

5. Full wave rectifier with filter and without filter 21

6. Study of BJT Common Base configuration characteristics 26

7. Study of BJT Common Emitter configuration characteristics 30

8. Study of BJT Biasing circuits (Fixed Bias and Voltage divider bias) 34

9. Study of BJT common emitter Amplifier with voltage divider bias 39

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Instructions before Starting the Experiment

1. Students are expected to study the circuit, theory and procedures, expected output before doing the
experiment.
2. Adjustment of signal generator: - Before connecting the signal generator to the circuit check the
followings.
a. Set the shape of the waveform (sinusoidal),
b. Set the frequency using coarse and fine adjustments.
c. Set the offset adjustments. Set the CRO in DC mode and ensure the waveform is
Symmetry in both positive and negative cycle. If not, adjust it using the DC
Offsetting potentiometer
d. Set the voltage magnitude using V course settings and V fine adjustments.
3. Adjustment of CRO:
a. Select the right voltage and time scale to get the proper waveform
b. For clipper and clamper circuits, observe the waveform in DC mode only
c. Set the input waveform mainly for offset setting in DC mode only.
d. Before measurement, ensure X & Y are in calibrated mode (if provided externally)
e. Ensure that Channel selection and trigger mode are properly set.
f. In case of two channels do not mix the signal and ground terminals.
4. Multi-meter adjustments:-
a. Set the right mode before taking the readings.
b. For current reading, connect the multimeter in mA (or A) mode to the circuit
before switching on the supply. Do not remove the current meter when the supply
is on. Check for ac and dc modes as required.
c. For voltage reading ensure that proper ac or dc setting.
d. Use the proper leads for the measurement. Wrong cables damage the instrument.
5. After adjusting the input voltage, check the circuit connections before turning the power on.
6. Ensure that the circuit has one ground.
7. Don’t pull out the connections with the power supply on.

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Experiment No: 01
Study of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
Objective: To understand the operation of the CRO and to learn how to determine the Amplitude Time
period and Frequency of a given waveform using CRO

Apparatus Required:

SL.N Apparatus Range Quantity

O
01 CRO 01
02 Function Generator 10 -1MHz 01
03 Regulated Power supply (0-30V) 01
04 Audio frequency probe 01

Introduction: CRO is an electronic device which is capable of giving a visual indication of a signal
waveform. With an oscilloscope the waveform of the signal can be studied with respect to amplitude distortion
and deviation from the normal. Oscilloscope can also be used for measuring voltage, frequency and phase
shift.
Cathode Ray Tube: Cathode Ray Tube is a heart of Oscilloscope providing visual display of the input signals.
CRT consists of three basic parts.
1. Electron Gun.
2. Deflecting System.
3. Fluorescent Screen
These essential parts are arranged inside a tunnel shaped glass envelope. Electron Gun: The function
of this is to provide a sharply focused stream of electrons. It mainly consists of an indirectly heated cathode,
a control grid, focusing anode and accelerating anode. Control grid is cylinder in shape. It is connected to
negative voltage w.r.t to cathode. Focusing and accelerating anodes are at high positive potential. w.r.t anode.
Cathode is indirectly heated type & is heated by filament. Plenty of electrons are released from the surface of
cathode due to Barium Oxide coating. Control Grid encloses the cathode and controls the number of electrons
passing through the tube.
A voltage on the control grid consists the cathode determines the number of electrons freed by heating
which are allowed to continue moving towards the face of the tube. The accelerated anode is heated at 10
much higher potential than focusing anode. Because of this reason the accelerating anode accelerates the light
beam into high velocity. The beam when strikes the screen produces the spot or visible light.
The name electron Gun is used because it fires the electrons like a gun that fires a bullet. Deflection
system: The beam after coming out of the accelerated anode passes through two sets of deflection plates with
the tube. The first set is the vertical deflection plate and the second set is horizontal deflection plates. The
vertical deflection plates are oriented to deflect the electron beam that moves vertically up and down. The
direction of the vertical deflection beam is determined by the voltage polarity applied to the plates. The amount
of deflection is set by the magnitude of the applied voltage. The beam is also deflected horizontally left or
right by a voltage applied to horizontal plates. The deflecting beam is then further accelerated by a very high
voltage applied to the tube. Fluorescent Screen: The screen is large inside the face of the tube and is coated
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with a thin layer of florescent material called Phosphor. On this fluorescent material when high velocity
electron beam strikes its converting the energy of the electron the electron beam between into visible
light(spots). Hence the name is given as fluorescent screen.

PANEL CONTROLS:

1. POWER ON/OFF: Push the button switch to supply power to the instrument.
2. X5: Switch when pushed inwards gives 5 times magnification of the
X signal
3. XY: Switched when pressed cut off the time base and allows access the exit
horizontal signal to be fed through CH II (used for XY display).
4. CH I/CH II/TRIG I/: Switch out when selects and triggers CH I and when TRIG II. Pressed selects
and triggers CH II.
5. MOD/DUAL: Switch when selects the dual operation switch
6. ALT/CHOP/ADD: Switch selects alternate or chopped in dual mode. If mode is selected then this
switch enables addition or subtraction of the channel i.e. CH-! +- CH II.
7. TIME/DIV: Switch selects the time base speed.
8. AT/NORM: Switch selects AUTO/NORMAL position .Auto is used to get trace when no
signal is fed at the input. In NORM the trigger level can be varied from the
positive peak to negative peak with level control.
9. LEVEL: Controls the trigger level from the peak to peak amplitude signal.
10. TRIG.INP: Socket provided to feed the external trigger signal in EXT. mode.
11. CAL OUT: Socket provided for the square wave output 200 mv used for probe
compensation and checking vertical sensitivity etc.
12. EXT: Switch when pressed allows external triggering signal to be fed from the socket
marked TRIG.INP.
13. X-POS: Controls the horizontal position of the trace.
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14. VAR: Controls the time speed in between two steps of time/div switch.
For calibration put this fully anticlockwise (at cal pos)
15. TV: Switch when it allows video frequency up to 20 KHz to be locked.
16. + - : Switch selects the slope of trigger whether positive going or negative.
17. INV CHJ II: Switch when pressed inverts the CH ii.
18. INTENS: Controls brightness of trace.
19. TR: Controls the alignment of the trace with gratitude (screw driver adjustment).

20. FOCUS: Controls the sharpness of the trace.

21. CT: Switch when pressed starts CT operation.

22. GD/AC /DC: Input coupling switch for each channel. In AC the signal is coupled through the
0.1 MFD capacitor.

23. DC/AC/GD: BNC connectors serve as input connectors for the CH I and CH II channel input
connector also serves as the horizontal external signal.

24. CT-IN: To test any components in the circuit, put one test probe in this socket and
connect the other test probe in the ground socket.

25. VOLTS /DIV: Switches select the sensitivity of each channel.

26. Y POS I AND II: Controls provided for vertical deflection for each channel.

BACK PANEL CONTROLS

1. FUSE: 350 mA fuse is provided at the back panel spare fuses are provided inside the
instrument.

2. ZMOD: Banana socket provided for modulating signal input i.e. Z-modulation.

Precautions
1. Avoid using CRO in high ambient light conditions.
2. Select the location free from Temperature & humidity. It should not be used in dusty environment.
3. Do not operate in a place where mechanical vibrations are more or in a place which generates strong
magnetic fields or impulses.
5. Do not increase the brightness of the CRO than that is required.

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Experiment:
1. Turn on the power of the CRO.
2. From the Function Generator select the desired frequency and amplitude of the sine wave
3. The amplitude of the waveform is obtained by noting the number of divisions along the Y-axis in between
peak to peak of the waveform (i.e. sine waveform / Triangular waveform /Square waveform) and multiplying
with the divisional factor of the amplitude note in volts.
4. Time period is calculated from X-axis.
5. Frequency is obtained by formula F=1/T.
6. This frequency is compared with the frequency applied using function generator.
7. Voltage in the CRO is compared with the voltage applied from function generator.
8. By repeating the above steps we can find frequency and voltages of square wave & triangular waveforms.

Tabular Column:
Waveforms Time Period(sec) Frequency(Hz) Amplitude(V)

Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical

Sinusoidal

Triangular

Square

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Calculations:
1. Sinusoidal Waveform:
Amplitude: ___________ V
Time Period: __________Sec
Frequency: ___________Hz
2. Square Waveform:
Amplitude: ___________ V

Time Period: __________Sec

Frequency: ___________Hz

3. Triangular Waveform:
Amplitude: ____________ V

Time Period: __________Sec

Frequency: _____________Hz

RESULT: The CRO Panel is studied and determined the Amplitude, Time period and Frequency of a given
waveform using CRO.

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Experiment No: 02
Volt-Ampere Characteristics of PN junction diode.
Objective: 1. To plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Silicon P-N Junction Diode.
2. To find cut-in Voltage for Silicon P-N Junction diode.
3. To find static and dynamic resistances for P-N Junction diode.

Apparatus required:
sl.no Apparatus Range Quantity
1 PN Junction diode 1N4007 1
2 Resistance 470Ω,1KΩ 1
3 Regulated Power supply (0-30V) 1
4 Ammeter (0-100mA),(0-100μA) 1
5 Voltmeter (0-2V),(0-30V) 1
6 Breadboard and Wires

Introduction:

The semiconductor diode is created by simply joining an n-type and a p-type material together nothing
more just the joining of one material with a majority carrier of electrons to one with a majority carrier of holes.
The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input supply is connected to
anode (P-side) and –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to cathode (N- side), then diode is said to be
forward biased. In this condition the height of the potential barrier at the junction is lowered by an amount
equal to given forward biasing voltage. Both the holes from p-side and electrons from n-side cross the junction
simultaneously and constitute a forward current( injected minority current – due to holes crossing the
junction and entering N-side of the diode, due to electrons crossing the junction and entering P-side of the
diode).
Assuming current flowing through the diode to be very large, the diode can be approximated as short-
circuited switch. If –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-side) and +ve terminal of the
input supply is connected to cathode (n-side) then the diode is said to be reverse biased.
In this condition an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the height of the potential barrier
at the junction. Both the holes on p-side and electrons on n-side tend to move away from the junction thereby
increasing the depleted region. However the process cannot continue indefinitely, thus a small current called
reverse saturation current continues to flow in the diode. This small current is due to thermally generated
carriers. Assuming current flowing through the diode to be negligible, the diode can be approximated as an
open circuited switch. The volt-ampere characteristics of a diode explained by following equation:
𝑉
I = 𝐼𝑂 (𝑒 𝜂𝑉𝑇 - 1)

I=current flowing in the diode

Io=reverse saturation current
V=voltage applied to the diode
𝐾𝑇
VT=volt-equivalent of temperature = = 26mA at room temp
𝑞

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η = 1 (for Ge)
η = 2 (for Si)
It is observed that Ge diode has smaller cut-in-voltage when compared to Si diode. The reverse saturation
current in Ge diode is larger in magnitude when compared to silicon diode.

Circuit Diagram
Forward Bias

Reverse Bias:

Experiment
Forward Biased condition
1. Connect the PN Junction diode in forward bias i.e. Anode is connected to positive of the power supply and
cathode is connected to negative of the power supply.
2. Use a Regulated power supply of range (0-30) V and a series resistance of 470Ώ
3. By varying the input voltage in steps of 0.1V, note down corresponding Ammeter readings.(IF) and
voltmeter reading.
4. Plot the graph between forward voltage (VF) and forward current (IF).

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Reverse Biased condition

1. Connect the PN Junction diode in Reverse bias i.e.; anode is connected to negative of the power supply and
cathode is connected to positive of the power supply.
2. Use a Regulated power supply of range (0-30) V and a series resistance of 1KΏ
3. By varying the input voltage vary voltage (VR) in steps of 1V and note down corresponding Ammeter
readings. (IR)
4. Plot the graph between Reverse voltage (VR) and Reverse current (IR).

Tabular column
Forward Bias
SL.NO. VS VF IF
(Volts) (Volts) (mA)

Reverse Bias

SL.No. VS VR IR
(Volts) (Volts) (µA)

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Model Graph

Calculations from the Graph

1. Static Resistance: To find the forward static resistance locate a point on characteristic curve obtained
from the forward bias characteristics which is called operating point Q and draw a line onto the X-axis and Y-
axis to obtain VF and 𝐼𝐹 Calculate static forward resistance using the formulae
VF
Static forward Resistance R DC = Ω at Q-point.
IF

2. Dynamic Resistance: The dc resistance of a diode is independent of the shape of the characteristic in the
region surrounding the point of interest. If a sinusoidal input is applied rather than a dc input ,the varying input
will move the instantaneous operating point up and down a region of the characteristics and thus defines a
specific change in current and voltage. To find the ac or dynamic resistance draw a straight line drawn tangent
to the curve through the Q-point as shown in the figure will define a particular change in voltage and current
that can be used to determine the ac or dynamic resistance for this region of the diode characteristics.
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∆Vd
Dynamic Resistance rd = Ω at Q-point
∆ Id

Precautions:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may lead to damage of the diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the circuit
diagram.

Result:
Thus the VI characteristic of PN junction diode is verified.
1. Cut in voltage = ……… V
2. Static forward resistance = ………. Ω
3. AC or Dynamic resistance = ………. Ω
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. When diode acts like ideal switch?
2. What is the cut in voltage? Give typical values for Ge and Si.
3. What is reverse saturation current?
4. What is Dynamic and static resistance?
5. What is V-I characteristics equation?
6. Define potential barrier.
7. Define doping.
8. What is the effect of temperature on Ico.
9. Define a Q point.
10. Explain how the diode can acts as a capacitor.

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Experiment No: 03
Study of V-I characteristics of zener diode and zener regulator characteristics
Objective:
1. To plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Zener Diode in reverse bias.
2. To find Zener Breakdown Voltage in reverse biased condition.
Apparatus Required:
S.No Apparatus Type Range Quantity
01 Zener diode IMZ 5.1V 01
02 Resistance 470Ω 01
03 Regulated Power supply (0-30V) 01
04 Ammeter (0-100mA) 02
05 Voltmeter (0-10V) 01
06 Decade Resistance Box (0-10K) 01
07 Breadboard and Wires

Introduction:
An ideal P-N Junction diode does not conduct in reverse biased condition. A zener diode conducts
excellently even in reverse biased condition. These diodes operate at a precise value of voltage called break
down voltage. A zener diode when forward biased behaves like an ordinary P-N junction diode.
A zener diode when reverse biased can either undergo avalanche break down or zener break down.
Avalanche break down:-If both p-side and n-side of the diode are lightly doped, depletion region at the junction
widens. Application of a very large electric field at the junction may rupture covalent bonding between
electrons. Such rupture leads to the generation of a large number of charge carriers resulting in avalanche
multiplication.
Zener break down:-If both p-side and n-side of the diode are heavily doped, depletion region at the
junction reduces. Application of even a small voltage at the junction ruptures covalent bonding and generates
large number of charge carriers. Such sudden increase in the number of charge carriers results in zener
mechanism.

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Circuit Diagram
Reverse Biased:

Precautions:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the diode. This may lead to damage of the
diode.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the circuit
diagram.

Experiment:
To plot V-I characteristics of Zener diode in reverse bias condition and to find Zener
breakdown voltage
1. Connect the Zener diode in Reverse bias i.e; anode is connected to negative of the power supply and
cathode is connected to positive of the power supply as in circuit.
2. Vary the input voltage in steps of 1V and note down reverse voltage (VR ) and the corresponding values
of reverse current ( IR ).
3. Plot the graph between reverse voltage (VR) and the reverse current ( IR ).

Tabular column
To plot V-I characteristics:
S.No Vs(V) VR(V) IR(mA)

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Model Graph:

Calculations from Graph:

To find Zener breakdown voltage
1. In the reverse characteristics of Zener diode observe the voltage at which the reverse current is
abnormally increasing while the reverse voltage remain constant.
2. That particular reverse voltage is called the breakdown voltage of the Zener diode.

Result :
The V-I characteristics of Zener diode were plotted and the Zener breakdown voltage was
determined and is given as ------------------------V

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Difference between Zener and Avalanche breakdown.
2. What is the difference between zener and ordinary diode?
3. Draw equivalent circuit for Zener diode.
4. What is Breakdown voltage?
5. What are the applications of zener diode?
6. How zener acts as a regulator?

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Experiment No.04
Half-Wave rectifier with and without filter
Objective:
1. To plot input and output waveforms of the Half Wave Rectifier with and without Filter
2. To find ripple factor of Half Wave Rectifier with and without Filter

Apparatus required:
sl.no Apparatus Range Quantity
1 Transformer (step down) 0 -12V 1
2 Diode 1N4007 1
3 Decade Resistance Box (10-1kΩ) 1
4 Capacitor 1000μF/25V 1
5 Digital Multimeter (DMM) (0-20V) 1
6 CRO & CRO Probes 1
7 Breadboard and Wires

Introduction:
A device is capable of converting a sinusoidal input waveform into a unidirectional waveform with
non zero average component is called a rectifier.
A practical half wave rectifier with a resistive load is shown in the circuit diagram. During the positive
half cycle of the input the diode conducts and all the input voltage is dropped across RL. During the negative
half cycle the diode is reverse biased and it acts as almost open circuit so the output voltage is zero.
The filter is simply a capacitor connected from the rectifier output to ground. The capacitor quickly
charges at the beginning of a cycle and slowly discharges through RL after the positive peak of the input
voltage. The variation in the capacitor voltage due to charging and discharging is called ripple voltage.
Generally, ripple is undesirable, thus the smaller the ripple, the better the filtering action.

Circuit Diagram
Without Filter:

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With filter:

PRECAUTIONS
1. The primary and secondary sides of the transformer should be carefully identified.
2. The polarities of the diode should be carefully identified.

Theoretical calculations for Ripple factor:-

Without Filter:-
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 =
𝜋
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
Ripple factor = √( ) − 1 = 1.21
𝑉𝑑𝑐

With filter:-
1
Ripple factor =
2√3 𝑓𝑐 𝑅𝐿

Where f = 50 Hz
C= 1000µF
𝑅𝐿 = 1kΩ
EXPERIMENT (without Filter)
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram of the rectifier without filter.
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary side to the rectifier input.
3. Note down the no load voltage before applying the load to the Circuit and by using the Multimeter,
measure the ac input voltage of the rectifier and its frequency.

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4. Measure the AC and DC voltage at the output of the rectifier for each value of RL using Multimeter.
5. Now observe the output waveform on CRO across RL and find out value of Vm.
6. Now calculate Vdc, Vrms, Ripple Factor and other parameters of half wave rectifier according to the
given formulae.
7. Measure the amplitude and time period of the transformer secondary (input waveform) by connecting
CRO.
8.Feed the rectified output voltage to the CRO and measure the time period and Amplitude of the
waveform.
EXPERIMENT (with Filter)
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram of the rectifier with filter.
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary side to the rectifier input.
3. By the multimeter, measure the ac input voltage of the rectifier and, ac and dc voltage at the output of
the rectifier.
4. Measure the amplitude and time period of the transformer secondary (input waveform) by connecting
CRO.
5. Feed the rectified output voltage to the CRO and measure the time period and amplitude of the
waveform.

Tabular Column: Without Filter

Using DMM:
Vac Vdc Ripple Factor(ɤ)= Vac/ Vdc

Using CRO :
RL VL Vm 𝑽𝒅𝒄=𝑽𝒎/𝝅 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔=𝑽𝒎/𝟐 (V) 𝑽𝒓 (𝒓𝒎𝒔) = R.F=𝑽𝒓(𝒓𝒎𝒔)/𝑽𝒅𝒄
(Ω) (V) (V) (V) √𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠2 − 𝑉𝑑𝑐2 (𝑽)

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Tabular Column: With Filter

Using DMM:
Vac Vdc Ripple Factor(ɤ)= Vac/ Vdc

Using CRO:
RL VL Vm 𝑽r(V) Vdc = Vm –Vr/2 𝑽𝒓 R.F=𝑽𝒓(𝒓𝒎𝒔)/𝑽𝒅𝒄
𝑽𝒓 (𝒓𝒎𝒔) =
(Ω) (V) (V) (v) 𝟐√𝟑 (v)
(v)

OUTPUT WAVEFORMS:

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REGULATION GRAPH:

Result:
The input and output waveforms of Full wave rectifier is plotted and the ripple factor and
Regulation at 1100Ω are
Ripple factor with out Filter =
Ripple factor with Filter =
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the advantages of full wave rectifier over half wave rectifier?
2. Compare the PIV of half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier.
3. Why center tapped transformer is required for full wave rectifier operation.

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Experiment No: 05
Full -Wave rectifier with and without filter
Objective
1. To plot input and output waveforms of the Bridge Rectifier with and without Filter
2. To find ripple factor for Bridge Rectifier with and without Filter

Apparatus required:
sl.no Apparatus Range Quantity
1 Transformer (step down) 0 -12V 1
2 Diode 1N4007 4
3 Decade Resistance Box (10-1kΩ) 1
4 Capacitor 1000μF/25V 1
5 Digital Multimeter (DMM) (0-20V) 1
6 CRO & CRO Probes 1
7 Breadboard and Wires
Introduction :
A device is capable of converting a sinusoidal input waveform into a unidirectional waveform with
non zero average component is called a rectifier. The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage
to dc voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage.
The Bridge rectifier has four diodes connected to form a Bridge. The load resistance is connected
between the other two ends of the bridge. For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diode D1 and D3
conducts whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the
load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL . For the negative half cycle of the input ac
voltage, diode D2 and D4 conducts whereas diodes D1 and D3 remain in the OFF state.
The conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows
through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bidirectional wave is converted into a
unidirectional wave.

Circuit Diagram
Without Filter

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With Filter:

Theoretical calculations for Ripple factor:-

Without filter:
2𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑑𝑐 =
𝜋
𝑉𝑚
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
Ripple factor = √( ) − 1 = 0.48
𝑉𝑑𝑐

With filter:-
1
Ripple factor =
4√3 𝑓𝑐 𝑅𝐿

Where f = 50 Hz
C= 1000µF
𝑅𝐿 = 1kΩ
Experiment (without filter) :
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram of the rectifier without filter.
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary side to the rectifier input.
3. By the Multimeter, measure the ac input voltage of the rectifier and, ac and dc voltage at the output of the
rectifier.
4. Measure the amplitude and time period of the transformer secondary (input waveform) by connecting CRO.
5. Feed the rectified output voltage to the CRO and measure the time period and amplitude of the waveform.

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Experiment (With filter):

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram of the rectifier with filter.
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary side to the rectifier input.
3. By the Multimeter, measure the ac input voltage of the rectifier and, ac and dc voltage at the output of the
rectifier.
4. Measure the amplitude and time period of the transformer secondary (input waveform) by connecting CRO.
5. Feed the rectified output voltage to the CRO and measure the time period and amplitude of the waveform.

Tabular Column:
Without Filter
Using DMM:
Vac Vdc Ripple Factor(ɤ)= Vac/ Vdc
(V) (V)

Using CRO :

RL VL Vm 𝟐𝑽𝒎 𝑽𝒎 𝑽𝒓 (𝒓𝒎𝒔) = 𝐕𝐫(𝐫𝐦𝐬)

𝑽𝒅𝒄= 𝝅 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔= R.F=
(Ω) (V) (V) √𝟐 𝐕𝐝𝐜
(V) (V) √𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔𝟐 − 𝑽𝒅𝒄𝟐
(𝑽)

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With Filter:

Using DMM:
Vac Vdc Ripple Factor(ɤ)= Vac/ Vdc
(V) (V)

Using CRO :
RL VL Vm Vr 𝑽𝒓 𝑽𝒓 𝐕𝐫(𝐫𝐦𝐬)
𝑽𝒅𝒄= Vm – 𝑽r(𝒓𝒎𝒔)=𝟒√𝟑 R.F=
𝟐 𝐕𝐝𝐜
(Ω) (V) (V) (v)
(V) (V)

Model Graph:

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Regulated Graph:

Result:
The input and output waveforms of Full wave rectifier is plotted and the ripple factor and
Ripple factor without Filter =
Ripple factor with Filter =
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the advantages of Bridge rectifiers when compared to other rectifiers?
2. How the regulation is improved in bridge rectifier?
3. What is the necessity of step down transformer?
4. Compare HWR, FWR and Bridge Rectifier.

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Experiment No: 06:

Common Base Configuration
Objective:
To plot the input and output characteristics of a transistor in CB Configuration and to compute the h –
parameters.
Apparatus Required:
S.No Apparatus Type Range Quantity
01 Transistor BC107 01
02 Resistance 1KΩ 02
03 Regulated Power supply (0-30V) 02
04 Ammeter (0-100mA) 02
05 Voltmeter (0-2V),(0-20V) 01
06 Breadboard and Wires

Introduction:
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a 3 terminal (emitter, base, collector) semiconductor device. There
are two types of transistors namely NPN and PNP. It consists of two P-N junctions namely emitter junction
and collector junction.
In Common Base configuration the input is applied between emitter and base and the output is taken
from collector and base. Here base is common to both input and output and hence the name common base
configuration.
Input characteristics are obtained between the input current and input voltage taking output voltage as
parameter. It is plotted between VEB and IE at constant VCB in CB configuration.
Output characteristics are obtained between the output voltage and output current taking input current
as parameter. It is plotted between VCB and IC at constant IE in CB configuration.

PIN Assingnment:

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Circuit Diagram:

Precautions:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may lead to damage the
transistor.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the circuit
diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of the transistor.

Experiment
Input Characteristics
1. Connect the transistor in CB configuration as per circuit diagram
2. Keep output voltage VCB = 0V by varying VCC.
3. By varying VEE , vary VEB in steps of 0.1V and note down emitter current IE.
4. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for various values of VCB (VCB=5V and VCB=10V)

Output Characteristics
1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram.
2. By varying VEE keep the base current IE =10mA.
3. By varying VCC, vary VCB in steps of 1V and note down the readings of collector-current (IC).
4. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for different values of IE (IE=15mA & IE=20mA)

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Tabular column
Input Characteristics
VCB= 0 V VCB= 5V VCB = 10 V

VEB (V) IE(mA) VEB (V) IE (mA) VEB (V) IE (mA)

Output Characteristics:
VCB= 0 V VCB= 5V VCB = 10 V

VEB (V) IE(mA) VEB (V) IE (mA) VEB (V) IE (mA)

Model Graph:

Input characteristics Output characteristics

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Calculations from the Graph

Input characteristics
a) Input impedance (hib)= ΔVEB / ΔIE , VCB constant.
b) Reverse voltage gain (hrb)= ΔVEB/Δ VCB , IE constant
Output characteristics
a) Output admittance (hob)= ΔIc / Δ VCB , IE constant
b) Forward current gain (hfb)= ΔIc / ΔIE , VCB constant
Result:
Thus the input and output characteristics of CB configuration are plotted and h parameters are found.
a) Input impedance (hib)=
b) Forward current gain (hfb)=
c) Output admittance (hob)=
d) Reverse voltage gain (hrb)=

VIVA QUESTION:
1. What is Early effect?
2. Draw the small signal model of BJT Common Base Configuration.
3. What is Reach –Through effect?
4. What are the applications of Common Base.
5. What will be the parameters of CB.
6. Explain the Transistor operation?

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Experiment No: 07:

Common Emitter Configuration
Objective:
To plot the input and output characteristics of a transistor in CE Configuration and to compute the h –
parameters.

Apparatus Required:
S.No Apparatus Type Range Quantity
01 Transistor BC107 01
02 Resistance 300K,1KΩ 02
03 Regulated Power supply (0-30V) 02
04 Ammeter (0-100mA)(0-100µA) 02
05 Voltmeter (0-2V),(0-20V) 01
06 Breadboard and Wires

Introduction:
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a 3 terminal (emitter, base, collector) semiconductor device. There
are two types of transistors namely NPN and PNP. It consists of two P-N junctions namely emitter junction
and collector junction.
In Common Emitter configuration the input is applied between base and emitter and the output is taken
from collector and emitter. Here emitter is common to both input and output and hence the name common
emitter configuration.
Input characteristics are obtained between the input current and input voltage taking output voltage as
parameter. It is plotted between VBE and IB at constant VCE in CE configuration.
Output characteristics are obtained between the output voltage and output current taking input current
as parameter. It is plotted between VCE and IC at constant IB in CE configuration.

PIN Assignment:

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Circuit Diagram:

Precautions:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may lead to damage the
transistor.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the circuit
diagram.
4. Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of the transistor.

Experiment Input Characteristics

1. Connect the transistor in CE configuration as per circuit diagram
2. Keep output voltage VCE = 0V by varying VCC.
3. By varying VBB ,vary VBE in steps of 0.1V and note down base current IB .
4. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for various values of VCE (VCE=5V and VCE=10V)
5. Plot the input characteristics by taking VBE on X-axis and IB on Y-axis at constant VCE.

Output Characteristics
1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram.
2. By varying VBB keep the base current IB = 0μA.
3.By varying VCC , vary VCE in steps of 1V and note down the readings of collector-current (IC)
4. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for different values of IB
5.Plot the output characteristics by taking VCE on x-axis and IC on y-axis by taking IB as a constant
parameter.
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Tabular column
Input Characteristics:
VCE= 0 V VCE= 5 V VCE = 10 V

VBE (V) IB (μA) VBE (V) IB (μA) VBE (V) IB (μA)

Output Characteristics:
IB = 0 μA IB = 10 μA IB = 20 μA

VCE (V) IC (mA) VCE (V) IC (mA) VCE (V) IC (mA)

Model Graph:

Input characteristics

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Output characteristics

Calculations from graph:

Input characteristics
a) Input impedance (hie)= ΔVBE / ΔIB , VCE constant.
b) Reverse voltage gain (hre)= ΔVBE/Δ VCE , IB constant
Output characteristics
a) Output admittance (hoe)= ΔIc / Δ VCE , IB constant
b) Forward current gain (hfe)= ΔIc / ΔIB , VCE constant

Result:
Thus the input and output characteristics of CE configuration is plotted.
a) Input impedance(hie)=
b) Forward current gain(hfe)=
c) Output admittance(hoe)=
d) Reverse voltage gain(hre)=
VIVA QUESTION:
1. Why CE configuration is most widely used?
2. Draw the equivalent Circuit of C.E
3. What is the Current Gain, voltage gain, i/p and o/p impedance in CE?.
4. Relation between α and β and γ
5. Give the condition to operate the given Transistor in active, saturation &Cut-off Regions
6. What is Emitter Efficiency?

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Experiment No: 08:

Frequency response of CE amplifier using voltage Divider Bias
Objective:
1. To obtain Frequency response characteristics of Common emitter amplifier and
2. To determine Bandwidth.

Apparatus required:
S.No Apparatus Type Range Quantity
01 Transistor BC107 01
02 Resistance 33KΩ,4.7 KΩ,2.2 KΩ 01
8.2 KΩ,1 KΩ
03 Regulated Power supply (0-30V) 01
04 Capacitor 10μF 03
05 Signal Generator 10-1M Hz 01
06 CRO 01
07 Breadboard and Wires ,CRO
Probes
Introduction:
The CE amplifier provides high gain &wide frequency response. The emitter lead is common to both
input & output circuits and is grounded. The emitter-base circuit is forward biased. The collector current is
controlled by the base current rather than emitter current. The input signal is applied to base terminal of the
transistor and amplifier output is taken across collector terminal. A very small change in base current produces
a much larger change in collector current.
When +ve half-cycle is fed to the input circuit, it opposes the forward bias of the circuit which causes
the collector current to decrease, it decreases the voltage more –ve. Thus when input cycle varies through a -
ve half-cycle, increases the forward bias of the circuit, which causes the collector current to increases thus the
output signal is common emitter amplifier is in out of phase with the input signal.

Circuit Diagram:

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Experiment:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. A 10V supply is given to the circuit.
3. A certain amplitude of input signal (say 20mv at 1 kHz) is kept constant using signal generator and for
different frequencies, the output voltage (V0) from CRO are noted.
𝑉𝑜
4. Gain for with and without feedback is calculated using Gain(dB) = 20 log 𝑉𝑖

Where Vo is output voltage, Vi is input voltage.

5.Plot the graph between Gain (in dB) and frequency.

Tabular Column:
SL.No. Input frequency o/p voltage(Vo) voltage gain 𝑉𝑜
Gain(dB) = 20 log
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑖
(Hz) (mv) Av=
𝑉𝑖

Model Graph:

Calculations from Graph

1. Draw a line at maximum gain (dB) less than by 3dB parallel to the X-axis as shown in the figure
2. Draw two lines at the intersection of the characteristic curve and the 3dB line onto the X-axis which gives
the (fH) and (fL)
3. The difference between fH and fL gives the Bandwidth of the amplifier.

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Precautions:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may lead to damage the
transistor.
2. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the circuit
diagram.
3. Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of the transistor.

Result:
Frequency response of CE amplifier was plotted and Bandwidth was determined and it is given as BW=

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is an amplifier?
2. Explain the effect of capacitors on frequency response?
3. why gain is constant in mid frequency region?
4. what is bandwidth.
5. what is the relation between bandwidth and gain?

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