Hasan Sayginel: Edexcel IAL Physics Unit 2
Hasan Sayginel: Edexcel IAL Physics Unit 2
HASAN SAYGINEL
HS
Waves
1 NATURE OF WAVES
Waves are classified into two different types:
Mechanical waves
Electromagnetic (EM) waves
Mechanical waves
Waves that require a medium through which to travel. Examples include sound waves, water waves, and
seismic waves.
Electromagnetic waves
Transverse waves that combine oscillating magnetic and electric fields. EM waves do not need a medium
to propagate, and so can travel through empty space.
Transverse waves
Longitudinal waves
Transverse waves
A transverse wave consists of particles that oscillate perpendicular to the direction of the propagation of
the wave.
Longitudinal waves
A longitudinal wave consists of particles that oscillate parallel to the direction of the propagation of the
wave.
Key terms
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Wavelength:The distance between two points on a wave that are in phase, such as between two crests
and two troughs.
2 DESCRIPTION OF WAVES
The way in which a wave is described in physics gives some very precise information about it.
Circularwave Plane wave
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4 PHASE
The phase of an oscillation refers to the position within a cycle that
the particle occupies relative to the onset of the cycle.
Making waves
All the waves are produced by oscillations of some sort. Points that
are a whole wavelength apart oscillate in phase, while those that are
λ
a distance 2 apart oscillate in antiphase.
Second picture: Point A on the wave is at a point where compression is occurring- the points to the left
of point A are displaced to the right of their equilibrium position, while those to the right of point A are
displaced to the left of their equilibrium position. The reverse is true of point C, which is a point of
rarefaction.
5 SOUND WAVES
Sound is transmitted using longitudinal waves. Close inspection of the longitudinal wave in the slinky in
the figure above shows the movement of tightly packed coils followed by widely spaced sections. These
sections are called compressions and rarefactions. For sound waves in a gas, they create high and low
pressure regions.
High pressure regions = Compressions Molecules to the left of equilibrium position are
displaced to the left of their equilibrium
Molecules to the left of equilibrium position are
position, while those to the right are displaced
displaced to the right of their equilibrium
to the right of their equilibrium position,
position, while those to the right are displaced
creating low pressure regions.
to the left of their equilibrium position, creating
high pressure regions.
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6 WAVEFRONTS AND RAYS
A wavefront is a line, or surface, in a wave along which all the points are in phase. Rays, on the other
hand, are straight lines drawn to show the direction of travel of a wavefront. The rays are perpendicular
to wavefronts.
7 REFLECTION
Reflection describes what happens when a wave arrives at a barrier and changes direction. The law of
reflection states that the angle between the incident ray and a normal drawn at the point of reflection is
equal to the angle between the reflected ray and the normal, in the plane of reflection. The fraction
reflected depends on the nature of the two media and the angle
at which the wave strikes the interface.
8 REFRACTION
Refraction is a change in direction of a wave as it passes from one medium to another due to a change in
its speed. Experiments show that there is a straightforward relationship between the angle made by the
incident ray with the normal ray (the angle of incidence) and the angle made by the refractive ray with
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the normal ray (the angle of refraction). This relationship gives a constant called the refractive index for
the medium and is called Snell’s law. In moving from medium 1 into medium 2, Snell’s law is written as:
The change in direction, or refraction, that occurs when a wave enters a different medium is due to
change in the speed of the wave. The refractive index is both a measure of how much a ray bends in
moving into a different medium and is equal to the ratio of the speeds in the two media.
When a light ray is refracted as it moves into a less optically dense medium and speeds up, it will be
refracted away from normal. As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction becomes larger
and larger, always being greater than the angle inside the block. A time comes when the escaping ray
leaves at 90°. This happens at the critical angle. If you increase the angle any further, the ray no longer
leaves the glass. It is totally internally reflected, following the law of reflection.
The experiment
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10 THE PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION AND INTERFERENCE
When two or more waves meet, the total displacement at any point is the sum of the displacements
that each individual wave would cause at that point. Since displacement is a vector quantity, in
determining the total displacement it is important to remember to take into account whether each
individual displacement is positive or negative.
The principle of superposition applies to all waves, and depends on the phase difference of the waves
involved. This in turn depends upon the path difference between the waves involved. How far a wave
has travelled determines its phase position, so if different waves individually travel different distances,
they may be out of phase.
Path difference is the difference in distance travelled by the two waves from their respective sources to
a given point. When two identical waves travel different distances, they may be out of phase with
respect to each other and this creates a phase difference.
Positions of maximum amplitude occur when the path difference is zero or a whole number of
wavelengths, when the waves are always in phase, and constructive superposition takes place.
𝑃. 𝐷. = 𝑛𝜆
When the path difference is an odd half wavelength, the waves are π radians out of phase and the
amplitude will be zero. This is destructive superposition.
1
𝑃. 𝐷. = (𝑛 − )𝜆
2
Interference
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Interference effects using light were first demonstrated at the beginning of the nineteenth century by
Thomas Young.
Since the light passing through the slits is from the same source, the light waves leave slits A and B in
phase. Since AP=BP, the waves must arrive at P in phase, so constructive interference occurs and a
bright area is seen.
Interferometers
Interferometers use the patterns created by the recombination of a laser beam that has been split into
two separate beams. Small changes in the path difference are detected by a shift in the fringe pattern.
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11 POLARISATION
In contrast to superposition, which is something all waves exhibit, the phenomenon of polarisation is
something that onlytransverse wavesshow. Longitudinal waves cannot be polarised. A wave in which the
oscillations take place in a number of planes is called unpolarised, while a wave in which the oscillations
occur in one plane only is said to be plane polarised in that direction.
Light as a transverse wave, consists of varying electric and magnetic fields at right angles to its motion.
In unpolarised light these variations take place in all planes at right angles to the direction in which
the ray of light is travelling.
In plane polarised light, the variations in electric field take place only in one plane. The variations in
magnetic field are in a plane at right angles to this.
Polarising filters:In polaroid, long molecules are lined up so that only light waves oscillating in a
particular plane can pass through. Two polaroid pieces that have the molecules aligned 90° to each
other will not allow any light through.
Reflection: Unpolarised light sources produce equal vertical and horizontal rays. When light hits a
reflecting surface, vertical waves are refracted while horizontal waves are reflected. The amount of
polarisation depends on the angle of reflection and the refractive index of the surface.
Scattering: The sky seems blue because the short-wave region of the visible spectrum is scattered
much more than the red.
Optical activity: Optically active substances such as sugar solutions rotate the plane of polarisation
by an amount proportional to their concentration and the depth of liquid through which the light
travels. This can be used to measure the concentration of sugar solutions.
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12 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Electromagnetic waves are created when charged particles are accelerated, whereas mechanical waves
are initiated by vibrating objects. EM waves consist of interlocking electric and magnetic fields. They
oscillate in perpendicular planes to each other. A charged particle creates an electric field. When it
accelerates, its electric field oscillates and produces a magnetic
field.
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13 STANDING WAVES
Waves can be classified into progressive and stationary waves.Progressive wavesare waves in which the
positions of peaks and troughs are moving. Stationary waves are also known as standing waves. In such
waves, the positions of the peaks and troughs are not moving.
Standing waves are created by the superposition of two progressive waves of equal frequency and
amplitude moving in opposite directions. Speakers facing each other would produce a standing wave.
The points of zero amplitude are called nodes and the maxima are called antinodes. The separation of
adjacent nodes and antinodes are always half a wavelength.
Standing waves store energy, whereas progressive waves transfer energy from one point to another.
The amplitude of standing waves varies from zero at nodes to a maximum at the antinodes, but the
amplitude of all the oscillations along a progressive wave is constant.
The oscillations are all in phase between nodes, but the phase varies continuously along a travelling
wave.
The formation of a stationary wave on a string relies on the reflection of a progressive wave at the ends
of the string. It also depends on the fact that such a reflection gives rise to a phase change of 180°.
This phase change on reflection occurs only where a hard reflection occurs, where the string is
connected to a massive solid object.
Where the string is joined to a light object reflection also occurs at the boundary between them,
but with no phase change.
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Other waves behave in the same way as waves on a string.
Stringed instruments
Stringed instruments all produce stationary waves on strings stretched between two points. When the
string is plucked at its midpoint, the waves reflected from each end will interfere to set up a standing
wave in the string. As both ends are fixed, they must be nodes, so the simplest standing wave will have
one antinode between two nodes.
𝑇
Using the expression, 𝑣 = √ , and 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓, the frequency of the note emitted by the wire in this mode
𝜇
1 𝑇
will be: 𝑓 = 2𝑙 √𝜇 . This equation tells the frequency is greater for:
Shorter strings
Strings with greater tension
Strings that have a lower mass per unit length.
The fixed ends of vibrating strings must be nodes and the simplest standing wave has a single antinode
at the midpoint, as mentioned. The frequency of the note emitted from such a wave is called the
fundamental frequency of the string. The fundamental vibration has the longest wavelength and the
others reduce in sequence. The notes emitted by vibrations other than the fundamental are called
overtones. Overtones that have whole number multiples of the fundamental frequency are harmonics.
Given that a string is fixed on both ends, it can be shown that the only waves possible on the string are
those where:
2𝑙
𝜆=
𝑛
where l = the length of the string and n is a whole
number
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Wind instruments
14 DIFFRACTION
When a wave passes through a gap or is partially obstructed by a barrier, the wavefront spreads out.
The amount of diffraction that occurs depends on the relationship between the size of the gap or the
object and the wavelength of the wave – when the two are similar in size, substantial diffraction occurs
and the wavefronts are almost circular.
Huygens’ Construction
This scientist explained the spreading out of a wave from a point source by considering each point on a
wavefront as the source of a new set of disturbances. Huygens’ construction is an explanation for the
way in which a circular wave spreads out, eventually leading to a plane wave as the radius of the circular
wave becomes very large.
The electron beams must have diffracted through the layers of atoms in the
crystal, which suggests that electrons behave like waves. For significant
diffraction, the wavelength of the wave must be of a similar size to the gap the wave is passing through.
Thus, to achieve electron diffraction by passing them through the gaps between atoms in a crystal, the
electron wavelength must be of the order of 10-10 metres. Electrons were initially thought to be particles,
but diffraction experiments confirmed that they can also behave like waves.
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16 THE DOPPLER EFFECT
The Doppler effect describes changes in the frequency and wavelength of
waves caused by the relative movement of source and detector. It explains
why the siren of a fire engine sounds in higher pitch as it comes towards
us, then sounds lower after the vehicle has driven past.
We have developed similar technologies. Waves reflect from a boundary between two media. The
greater the difference in density between two materials, the stronger the reflection. Pulse – echo
techniques are used to detect the position and/or the motion of a boundary between two materials. *A
pulse is required so that the time interval between the incident pulse and the reflected pulse can be
measured.
18 ULTRASOUND
Ultrasound is sound waves with frequencies above the threshold of human hearing. An ultrasound scan
of a fetus is usually taken at about 12 weeks. Reflected pulses of ultrasound are used to determine
where the boundaries are between different tissues and then build an image.
The resolution can be improved by reducing the wavelength of the sound used. Resolution can also be
improved by using pulses of very short time interval. Note that shorter waves are absorbed more readily
and the useful range is reduced.
Doppler ultrasound
If the ultrasound pulse in a medical scan were to encounter a moving reflector, flowing blood for
example, it would be reflected so the position could be determined. However, there would be a Doppler
shift in the frequency of the sound waves being used. If the Doppler shift is measured, then the speed of
movement of blood could be calculated.
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19 ISSUES WITH ANTENATAL SCANNING
Antenatal scanning of babies is now a routine part of pregnancy in many counties. Antenatal scanning
using X-rays is not permitted because these waves are known to be a cause of cancer with extensive
exposure. Might the same not be true of ultrasound?
Very few scientific studies were done to discover the long-term effects of ultrasound exposure. Only
recent studies have shown some bad effects including, lower birthweight babies, premature births and
infants taking longer to develop speech.
When developing and trialing new medical techniques, doctors must decide whether the benefits of the
new technique outweigh its possible harmful consequences.
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Nature of light
1 HISTORY OF LIGHT
The behaviour of light can be modelled as a wave or as a photon and these two are linked by the
following relationship. If the frequency of a wave is f, the energy of the photons in it is given by the
relationship:
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
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Radiation flux
If we know the energy of each photon in abeam, and the number of photons in the beam, we can
calculate the rate that it delivers energy. How intensely light shines on something is measured by the
quantity radiation flux, which is a measure of the amount of energy landing on unit area in a unit time.
Energy in a unit time is the definition of power, which means that radiation flux F is defined as the
power P per area A:
𝑃
𝐹=
𝐴
Thus, the unit for radiation flux is W m-2.
The fact that light behaves like a wave under some circumstances and like a particle under others
demonstrates that neither the wave model nor the particle model of classical physics is adequate for
understanding the behaviour of light. For a full understanding of light we have to regard it as a wavicle, a
wave-particle object that behaves sometimes like a classical wave and at other times like a classical
particle – and other times like a mixture of the two!
Conclusion: Ultraviolet light is capable of transferring sufficient energy to electrons in a metal so that
they could escape. Electrons liberated this way are called photoelectrons.
Photoelectrons: Electrons emitted from the surface of a metal as a result of interaction between
light and the electrons in the metal.
Photoelectric effect: The emission of electrons from the surface of a metal when a beam of light
of sufficient energy is shone on the metal.
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Despite being much more intense and therefore having more energy than UV light, how can we
explain why visible light cannot liberate photoelectrons?
Einstein was able to show that a complete explanation of the photoelectric emission of electrons is
possible if is light assumed to be quantised. When photons of light strike the surface of the metal, one
may strike the electron. As a result of this collision the photon’s energy may be transferred to the
electron, and it may now have sufficient energy to escape from the metal. The emission of
photoelectrons from a metal surface and their subsequent kinetic energy both depend on the frequency
of the incident light. For a given surface there is a minimum frequency below which no emission of
photoelectrons occurs.
Threshold frequency (hf0): The minimum frequency of light that will release a photoelectron from the
surface of a metal.
This accounts for visible light having no effect on the electroscope. (Visible light has a lower
frequency than the threshold frequency.
An electron absorbs energy from an incident photon in order to escape from the metal. Any energy
remaining after the electron has done the work necessary to escape from the metal remains as the
electron’s kinetic energy.
Work function: In the photoelectric effect, the energy required to remove an electron completely from
the surface of a metal. It is equal to Planck’s constant multiplied by the threshold frequency. 𝜙 = ℎ𝑓0
4 ELECTRONVOLT
An electronvolt is the work done on (or the energy gained by) an electron when it moves through a
potential difference of 1 volt. When considering energy and sub-atomic particles it is convenient to use a
unit of energy called the electronvolt (eV). 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
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5 STOPPING VOLTAGE
The investigation of the photoelectric effect may be carried
out using the apparatus. Light of a known frequency is shone
onto a metal electrode M. Photoelectrons from M travel
towards a collecting cathode C and then flow round the
external circuit.
Stopping voltage: For photoelectrons, the value of the stopping potential allows the maximum kinetic
energy of the photoelectrons to be calculated.
1 2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉𝑆
2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝜙 + 𝑒𝑉𝑆
Hence, ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑓0 + 𝑒𝑉𝑆
This can be rearranged in the form of the general equation of a straight line.
ℎ ℎ𝑓0
𝑉𝑆 = ( ) 𝑓 − ( )
𝑒 𝑒
So a graph of 𝑉𝑆 (y-axis) against 𝑓 (x-axis) will have gradient h/e and intercept –hf0/e.
Rearranging,
1 2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝜙 + 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
gives,
1 2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙
2
So, h will be the gradient of the graph and – 𝜙
will be the intercept.
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6 ATOMIC SPECTRA
Types of spectra
Emission spectra
o Line spectra
o Continuous spectra
Absorption spectra
Emission spectra: Spectrum of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation emitted when the electrons in
an atom make a transition from a high-energy state to a lower-energy state.
Line emission spectra consist of a set of coloured lines against a dark background, each line being a
particular wavelength of light emitted by the source. These lines also extend beyond the visible
spectrum in many cases. The line spectrum from a sample of an element is characteristic of that element,
and can be used for identification purposes.
The continuous range of colours seen in continuous spectra can be observed using light from a tungsten
filament lamp. This type of spectrum was first produced by artificial means by Sir Isaac Newton, using a
prism. Unlike line spectra, continuous spectra cannot be used to identify their source, although the
wavelength of maximum intensity of the spectrum is linked to the temperature of the source.
Absorption spectrum is due to the absorption of light by a sample and instead of coloured lines on a
dark background, it consists of dark lines at the place of coloured lines on a coloured background for a
given element.
Solar spectrum
The presence of dark lines in the spectrum of sunlight means that there is strong absorption of
particular wavelengths. These wavelengths correspond to the lines in the emission spectra of hydrogen
and helium. This shows the presence of these elements in the mantle of hot gas around the Sun.
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7 ATOMIC ELECTRON ENERGIES
Why do the spectra of elements only show emission and absorption of light at particular
wavelengths?
From the photoelectric effect and Einstein’s photon theory, we know that a photon with a particular
wavelength represents a fixed amount of energy. So each line in an emission spectrum corresponds to
the atom losing a fixed amount of energy, given out as a photon of light. When an electron drops from a
higher energy level, it gives out the energy difference in the form of one quantum of radiation, hf.
𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
This relationship is used to calculate the frequency of radiation that is emitted in a transition across a
known energy band gap or between known energy levels.
The shortest wavelength in the hydrogen spectrum is 9.17 x 10-8 m, and this light also has the highest
frequency. ∆E is given by:
As this is the largest energy change in the spectrum, it must correspond to the electron moving from a
state where the atom has the most energy to one where it has the least.
The state in which the atom/electron has least energy is n = 1, called the ground state.
The state in which the atom/electron has most energy is n = ∞.
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The same amount of energy, 13.6 eV, is absorbed by a hydrogen atom when it is ionised from its ground
state. Ionisation energy is the energy that must be supplied for an electron in the lowest energy level to
just escape from the atom. Ionisation Transition from n = 1 to n = ∞.
The spectrum has many lines of longer wavelength, which correspond to electron transitions with
smaller energy changes. These correspond to transitions between the intermediate energy levels. The
spectral lines with the longest wavelength from a transition involving the ground state is due to a
transition between the levels n = 1 and n = 2.
When the atom absorbs energy, and the electron moves from a lower energy level to a higher one
(excitation), it can only absorb energy that corresponds exactly to the energy difference between two
energy levels. So absorption also only occurs for fixed wavelengths of light (quantum). A quantum is a
fixed, or discrete, amount of energy, 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓. This is the basis of the quantum theory. This approach can
explain the most important aspects of atomic spectra:
The production of lines is due to the existence of distinct energy levels within the atom.
A unique line is produced for each transition between any two electron energy levels within the
atom, and the frequency/wavelength of that line corresponds to the energy difference between
those two levels. Thus, when an electron drops from energy level 𝐸2 to a level 𝐸1 :
ℎ𝑓 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1
Absorption spectra are due to the absorption of light and transition of an electron within the
atom from a lower energy level to a higher one.
Because the precise energy-level structure is different for each element, each element’s line spectrum is
a unique and identifies that element. This principle is used to determine the chemical composition of
stars.
Electrons, which are thought to be particles, could be diffracted and therefore could behave like a wave.
Therefore, particles can sometimes behave like waves and waves can sometimes behave like particles
(complementarity principle)! These ideas emerged from the idea of quantum mechanics. Waves and
particles are linked by the formula:
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝
where 𝜆 is the wavelength corresponding to a particle of momentum p (i.e. a particle of mass m
travelling with a velocity v). The complementarity principle says that sometimes electrons have the
properties of particles and sometimes the properties of waves, but never both together.
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HSW – Laser light and energy transitions
Laser light is emitted when atoms undergo similar energy transitions at the same time. This is achieved
by promoting a large number of atoms to an energy level above the ground state. As an electron in one
of the excited atoms jumps down from its higher energy level it emits a photon. As this photon travels
past another atom in an excited state it causes the electron in this atom to jump down to the lower level.
The passage of light thus stimulates the emission of radiation from other atoms producing the intense,
coherent beam of light characteristic of the laser.
Photovoltaic efficiency
Photovoltaic cells produce an electric current through the interaction of light photons with
semiconductor materials. In certain materials, like silicon, a photon may excite an electron from an
energy level where it is fixed to an atom up to one in which it can move through the material as a
conduction electron. These materials cost a lot and cost, in comparison with the quantity of energy
derived is critically important. Thus, efficiency is crucial in determining whether people will use cells.
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
How does society choose its energy sources?
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DC Electricity
1 ELECTRIC CURRENT
Electric current is the rate of flow charged particles. This can mathematically be expressed as:
ΔQ
𝐼=
Δt
where I is the current and ΔQ is the amount of charge flowing in time Δt. Current is measured in
amperes. This equation can also be expressed as:
ΔQ = IΔt
This tells us the amount of charge flowing in a certain time is given by multiplying the current with time.
If a current of 1A flows for 1s, the quantity of charge flowing is said to be 1 coulomb.
Electric charge
All matter contains electric charges and if these charges were made to move, an electric current is
created. The difference between metallic conductors, semiconductors and insulators depends on the
mobility of charges. All matter consists of atoms and these are made up of protons and neutrons
forming the nucleus that is surrounded by a cloud of electrons. Protons and electrons have the property
of charge, which gives rise to electrical forces. Under normal circumstances we do not observe any
effects due to these charges, because most of the time the charges cancel out. Only when charges move
in some way does their effect become apparent.
Charge is measured in coulombs. One coulomb is the amount of charge on 6.25 x 1018 electrons, which
means the charge of an electron (q) is:
𝑞 = 1.60 × 10−19
Circuits
For an electric current to flow a complete circuit is needed. Energy is transferred to the system at one
point and transferred from it at another, and appears to be carries from one place in the circuit to
another by the charge carriers that move round the circuit. In metallic conductors, free electrons in
metals make up the current in an electrical circuit. Electric current is not always the flow of electrons,
however. For example, in an electrolyte positive and negative ions act as charge carriers.
By convention, electric current flows in the direction of the flow of positive charge, so electrons flow
one way round a circuit while conventional electric current flows in the other.
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2 ENERGY AND ELECTRICITY
Moving electric charge gives rise to an electric current. But, what makes charges move?
A cell produces an electromotive force from its chemical energy, which creates a potential
difference in a circuit. The charges in the circuit components and connecting wires experience a
force, causing the charges to move round the circuit. The potential difference therefore does
work on the charges, thus developing power in the circuit.
The electromotive force of an electrical source is defined as the energy per unit charge converted into
electrical energy by the source. (The amount of energy supplied to each unit of charge is called the
electromotive force or emf of the cell.) The unit of emf is volt (V). A cell is said to have an emf of 1 V
when it supplies 1 J of energy to each to 1 C of charge flowing through it, in other words:
As the emf of an electrical source is defined as the energy per unit charge converted into electrical
energy, it can be expressed as:
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑒𝑚𝑓 =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑊
𝜀=
𝑄
Potential difference
The potential difference between two points in a circuit is the electrical energy per unit charge
converted into other forms of energy.
Just as the energy stored in the chemicals of a cell can cause charges to flow through a circuit, the
energy carried by moving charges can cause other things such as a lamp glowing. Potential difference
has the same units as emf. Remember that energy transferred is equal to work done so this gives us the
definition of potential difference as work done per unit charge:
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑄
Remember:
Emf and p.d. are both measured in volts, or joules per coulomb.
Emf is the creation of electrical energy from other forms of energy.
P.d. is the conversion of electrical energy into other forms of energy.
Note: Think of emf as being the cause and p.d. as the effect.
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3 MEASURING CURRENT AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
The current in a component can be measured by connecting an ammeter in series with the component.
Ammeters have a low resistance so that they do not affect the current they are measuring.
The potential difference between two points in a circuit is measured by connecting a voltmeter between
the points. They are connected across (or in parallel with) the component. Voltmeters must take some
current to operate and in order to keep it as small as possible, voltmeters should have a very high
resistance.
Nowadays, current and voltage sensors are often connected to a computer. Advantages include:
Record the current and potential difference Readings can be taken at more frequent
over time automatically. intervals.
Take many more readings than a human. Produce graph of readings quickly and easily.
Fewer errors. Improves reliability and validity of the data.
4 RESISTANCE
The resistance of an electrical component can be thought of as its opposition to an electric current
flowing in it. This resistance is caused by collisions of electrons with the vibrating lattice ions as the
electrons drift through the material of the conductor. As a result of these collisions, electrical energy is
dissipated as thermal energy and the component heats up.
Experiments have shown that there is a simple relationship between current and p.d.:
Provided the temperature and other physical factors remain constant, the current through a wire
is proportional to the potential difference across its ends.
This is known as the Ohm’s Law. Any electrical component for which the current is proportional to the
voltage is said to be ohmic. This law is mathematically expressed as:
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω) which is equivalent to V A-1.
To show proportionality, when a graph of current against voltage is drawn it should be straight and pass
through the origin. Resistance of an ohmic resistor is constant within conditions specified and thereby
the gradient of the graph is constant.
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I –V characteristics for a metallic conductor
A potential divider circuit is set up to provide variable p.d.
and a 1 m length of the wire is connected to the circuit by
means of crocodile clips.
o It is important to ensure that the clips make a good
connection.
The p.d. is set to its minimum value and switched on.
The p.d. is gradually increased and corresponding V and I
values are recorded.
The experiment is repeated with the terminals of the cell reversed.
The p.d. across the wire and the current in the wire are now in the
opposite direction to that in the first experiment and are therefore
recorded as having negative values.
The data are plotted on a set of axes.
Deductions from the graph: As the graph is a straight line through the origin we can deduce that the
current is proportional to the p.d. The wire therefore obeys Ohm’s law, irrespective of the direction of
the current.
Deductions from the graph: As the current increases, the filament heats
up and its resistance increases. This can be deduced from the graph by
observing that the rate at which the current increases with voltage gets
less as the voltage increases. This means that the resistance must be
getting greater and that is because resistance is equal to the inverse of
the gradient of a I – V graph.
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I –V characteristics for a semiconductor diode
The circuit is set up as shown in the figure. It is essential to observe the
polarity of the diode.
The diode is said to be forward biased when connected this way around.
The resistor is included to limit the current in the diode and prevent is
being damaged.
The circuit is switched on and the p.d. is very slowly increased. Values of I
and V up to the maximum current obtainable are recorded.
The power supply connections are now reversed so that the diode is
reverse biased and the experiment is repeated. A graph of I against V is
drawn.
Note: The current in the diode when it is reverse biased seems to be zero. In
reality, a very small current flows, but it is so small that it is not detected by
the milliammeter.
Deduction: Past a certain voltage, the resistance of a diode drops very steeply provided that it is forward
biased.
Deductions from the graph: Resistance values indicate that the resistance of the thermistor gets less as
the current increases. This is because the current causes the thermistor to warm up and the resistance
of a thermistor decreases with temperature. This is illustrated by the shape of the graph; as the current
increases, the line curves upwards. This means that the rate of increase in current is increasing, i.e. the
resistance is decreasing. (V = IR)
Note: It is not advised to use high currents because there is a danger that the thermistor may over-heat
and get damaged. When the current increases, the resistance gets less and so the current will get even
bigger. The temperature will therefore increase, causing a further decrease in resistance, and so an even
greater increase in the current and so on… This can produce what is known as thermal runaway.
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6 POWER AND WORK IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
If we consider a lamp in a circuit, the potential difference across it measures the energy transferred to
the lamp per unit charge flowing through it, while the current measures the rate of flow of charge
through it:
If we multiply the p.d. and the current together we get the rate at which energy is transferred to the
lamp:
The rate at which energy is transferred to an element like a lamp in a circuit is called the power
dissipation. It is measured in watts. Use of relationship between V, I and R gives us two other
relationships for power dissipation:
Power is dissipated in a resistor, particularly if the resistor is in the form of the filament of a lamp or the
element of an iron or kettle. The electrical energy transferred in the resistor increases the potential
energy and random kinetic energy of the atoms of the material of a resistor. (Internal energy)
Power is the rate at which energy is transferred, so we can find out the total amount of energy
transferred – or the work done – by multiplying the equation for power by time that the device operates
for:
This is an alternative way of combining the equations that define voltage and current:
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7 THE TRANSPORT EQUATION
In order for current to flow in a material, suitable charge carriers such as electrons or ions must be
present within the material.
In a metallic conductor, the charge carriers are delocalised electrons. These electrons move with
random thermal movement. When a potential difference is applied to a circuit, an electric field is
created and exerts a force on free electrons, which causes them to drift in the direction of the force. In
accordance with Newton’s second law, the electrons would accelerate continuously if it were not for the
fact that they collide with the regularly spaced atoms with a positive charge. These collisions cause an
equal and opposite force to be exerted on electrons, which by Newton’s first law, continue with a
constant drift velocity, giving rise to a constant current.
As the charge carriers are electrons, which a negative charge, they drift towards the positive terminal of
the cell. The conventional current, however, is in the opposite direction to the flow of electrons.
𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑞
Drift velocity of electrons is so slow. Despite this, when a bulb is switched on, it instantly gives light.
This is because although the electrons themselves are travelling so slowly, the electric field that
causes them to move travels at nearly the speed of light. All of the electrons start to move
almost instantly.
Secondly, although the individual electrons are moving along the wire very slowly, there is
simply an enormous number of them and therefore the charge flowing per second equates to a
significant current.
8 RESISTIVITY
Investigations show that the resistance of a uniform conductor depends on:
1-) Its length 2-)Its cross-sectional area 3-)The material of which it is made
If the wire is longer, it will be more difficult for the electrons to drift from one end to the other. If the
wire has a larger cross-sectional area, it will be easier for the electrons to flow.
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9 UNDERSTANDING CONDUCTION
Conduction in metals
High thermal and electrical conductivity of metals is explained by the idea that the outermost electrons
in the atoms of a metal are delocalised and form a sea of electrons which is sometimes referred as
electron gas. These electrons are free to move around through the body of the metal.
Any solid is a lattice with atoms regularly arranged and bonded together. When a source of emf is
connected to the ends of a conductor this causes an electric field through the conductor. This field has
the effect of causing the electrons in the conductor to move with an average velocity known as the drift
velocity.
Resistance of metallic conductors increases with increasing temperature. This is the case in a filament
lamp, where the gradient of the I-V graph is not constant.
Resistance is caused by the vibrating positive ions in the crystal lattice of the metal impeding the flow of
electrons. When the temperature of the metal is raised, the amplitude of vibration of the lattice ions
increases. As a result, the number of collisions of lattice ions with the conduction electrons is increased,
reducing the current flow.
In terms of the transport equation, 𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑞, A and q are constant for a given wire. For a metallic
conductor, n does not depend on the temperature and so n is also constant. As the temperature rises,
the increased vibrations of the lattice will reduce the drift velocity, v, of the electrons and so I will also
decrease – that is, the resistance increases with temperature.
Metallic conductors are, therefore, referred to as having positive temperature coefficient. A material
has a positive temperature coefficient if its resistivity increases when its temperature increases.
Semiconductors have resistivities between those of insulators and those of conductors. Pure
semiconductors are usually referred to as intrinsic semiconductors. In an intrinsic semiconductor electric
current is carried by moving electrons, as in metals. The number of these electrons is much less than in a
conductor, however.
If the temperature is raised, more electrons in the semiconductor will be freed and the conductivity
increases. The resistivity goes down. Thermistors are semiconductors, for example.
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In semiconductors with positive temperature coefficient, the resistance increases with
increasing temperature. PTC semiconductors are achieved by doping, whereby a pure
semiconductor such as germanium or silicon has atoms of impurity added to it. Doping results in
an extrinsic semiconductors, because the impurity introduces extra charge carriers to the
semiconductor lattice.
Note: If the temperature is high enough, even some materials that we normally think of as insulators
can begin to conduct. This is because the energy associated with the very high temperature breaks
down the atomic structure so that more charge carriers are released.
10 INTERNAL RESISTANCE
Unfortunately, not all of the chemical energy converted to electrical energy inside a
cell emerges at the terminals of the cell. The internal resistance of a cell, or other
power supply, opposes the flow of charge through the cell. Some of the energy
converted by the cell, or power supply, will be used up inside the cell to overcome
this resistance. If there is a current, I, in a circuit:
Rate of energy Rate of work done against Rate of work done lighting
converted in cell internal resistance lamp
𝜀𝐼 = 𝐼2 𝑟 + 𝐼2 𝑅
𝜀 = 𝐼𝑟 + 𝐼𝑅
Rearranging: 𝐼𝑅 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟
𝑉 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟
𝜀
𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟
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12 CURRENT IN SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
In a series circuit, the current is the same in each component. This is because the rate at which electrons
leave any component must be the same as the rate at which they enter the component – if this were
not the case, electrons would be lost from the circuit, which would contravene the principle
conservation of charge.
Conservation of charge: a principle stating that the total electric charge of an isolated system is fixed.
In a parallel circuit, electrons spread depending on the total resistance on each branch, so the current
differs, however, total current is fixed.
Remember that charge and therefore current must always be conserved at a junction.
By the principle of conservation of energy, when a charge, Q, flows round the circuit:
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Resistors in parallel
Tip: When deriving the equations for resistors in series and parallel, remember:
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