Chapter 1

Relativity
Relativity deals with measurement of events: where and when they happen, and
by how much any two events are separated in space and time. In addition,
relativity also deals with transforming such measurements between reference
frames that move relative to each other, hence the name relativity.

The theory of relativity will take us into a world far beyond that of ordinary
experience – the world of objects moving at speeds close to the speed of light.
Among other surprises, Einstein’s theory predicts that the rate at which a clock
runs depends on how fast the clock is moving relative to the observer: the faster
the motion, the slower the clock rate. This and other predictions of the theory
have passed every experimental test, which led us to a deeper view of the nature
of space and time.

A reference frame is a coordinate system relative to which physical

measurements are taken. An inertial frame of reference is one which moves
with constant velocity (or one which is not accelerating).

The special theory of relativity deals only with inertial reference frames in
which Newton’s Laws are valid while the general theory of relativity deals with
the more challenging situation in which the reference frames accelerate.

1.1 Special Theory of Relativity

The special theory of relativity was introduced by Albert Einstein in 1905 in an

attempt to propose drastic revisions in the Newtonian concepts of space and
time. This theory was based on two simple postulates:

1. The Relativity Postulate: The laws of physics are the same for observers in
all inertial reference frames. –No frame is preferred.

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2. The Speed of light Postulate: The speed of light in vacuum has the same
value c in all directions and in all inertial reference frames.

Note that c = 299,792,458 m/s = 3.0 x 108 m/s

These propositions have the following implications:

1. Events that are simultaneous for one observer may not be simultaneous for
another.

2. When two observers moving relative to each other measure a time interval or
a length, they may not get the same results.

3. For the conservation principles of momentum and energy to be valid in all

enertial systems, Newton’s second law and the equation for momentum and
kinetic energy have to be revised.

Relativity has important consequences in all areas of physics, including

thermodynamics, electromagnetism, optics, atomic and nuclear physics, and high
energy physics. Although many of the results derived in this section seem
counter to our intuition, the theory is in good agreement with experimental
observations.

1.2 Inertial Frames of Reference

S’
y S y’
O

O s O

s x’
s
Sx
O

S O P
ys y’
O O
x O x’
O O
O’ O

Figure 1.1 Two reference frames S and S’. The S-frame is defined by x- and y-
axis while the S’-frame is defined by x’ and y’ axes.

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The position of particle P can be described by the coordinates x and y in the S-
frame or by x’ and y’ in the S’-frame. S if for observers on Earth and S’ is for the
moving spacecraft. S’ moves relative to S with constant velocity u along the
common x-x’-axis. The two origins O and O’ coincide at time t = t’ = 0. Figure 1
shows that the position of particle P as described in S and S’ are related by

x = x’ + ut y = y’ z = z’ (Galilean coordinate transformation) (1.1)

This relation described by equation 1.1 is called the Galilean coordinate

transformation. If particle P moves in the x-direction, its velocity component as
measured by and observer in S is given by v=dx/dt. Its velocity component in S’
is v’=dx’/dt’. It follows that

dx/dt = dx’/dt’ + u or v = v’ + u (Galilean velocity transformation) (1.2)

Equation 1.2 is called the Galilean velocity transformation, where dx/dt is the
derivative of x with respect to time t, dx’/dt’ is the derivative of x’ with respect to t’,
and u is the velocity of frame S’.

1.3 Relativity of Simultaneity

Suppose that one observer (Jing) notes that two independent events (event red
and event blue) occur at the same time. Suppose also that another observer
(Dudz), who is moving at a constant velocity v with respect to Jing, also records
these same two events. Will they get the same result? The answer is no.

“Whether or not two events at different locations are simultaneous

depends on the state of motion of the observer.”

According to the principle of relativity, no inertial frame of reference is more

correct than any other in the formulation of physical laws. “Each observer is
correct in his/her own frame of reference”. In other words, simultaneity is not an
absolute concept but a relative one depending on the motion of the observer. It
follows that the time interval between two events may be different in different
frames of reference.

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1.4 Relativity of Time Intervals

If observers who move relative to each other measure the time interval (or
temporal separation) between two events, they generally will find different
results. Why? Because the spatial separation of the events can affect the time
intervals measured by the observers.

“The time interval between two events depends on how far apart they
occur, in both space and time, that is, their spatial and temporal
separations are entangled.”

If two successive events occur at the same place in an inertial reference frame,
the time interval Δt0 between them, measured on a single clock where they occur
at the same point, is a proper time between the events. Observers in frames
moving relative to that frame will measure a larger value for this interval. For an
observer moving with relative speed v, the measured time interval is

t 0 t 0
t   or t  t 0 (Time dilation) (1.3)
1  v / c  1  2
2

This effect (described by equation 1.3) is called time dilation. Here, β is the
speed parameter given by

β=v/c (speed parameter) (1.4)

1
 (Lorentz factor) (1.5)
1  2

 is called the Lorentz factor.

Note that “there is only one frame of reference in which a clock is at rest and
there are infinitely many in which it is moving.”

An important consequence of time dilation is that moving clocks run slow as

measured by an observer at rest.

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Example 1.1 You are on Earth as a spaceship flies past at a speed of 0.99c
(about 2.97 x 108 m/s) relative to the Earth. A high-intensity signal light (perhaps
a pulsed laser) on the ship blinks on and off; each pulse lasts 2.20 x 10 -6 s as
measured on the spaceship. What do you measure as the duration of each light
pulse?

Solution/Answer: Let S be the Earth’s frame of reference and let S’ be that of

the spaceship. The time between laser pulses measured by an observer on the
spaceship (in which the laser is at rest) is Δt0 = 2.20 x 10-6 s. This is the proper
time in S’, referring to two events, the starting and stopping of the pulse, that
occur at the same point relative to S’. The corresponding interval Δt that you
measured on Earth (or the S frame) is given by

t 0 2.20 x10 6 s
t    15.6 x10 6 s
1  1  0.99 
2 2

This result is a factor of seven greater than that of Δt0.

1.4.1 The Twin Paradox

There are twin astronauts named Almira and Hamila. Almira remained on Earth
while Hamila takes off on a high-speed trip through the Galaxy. Because of time
dilation, Hamila is younger than Almira when she returns to Earth.

Example 1.2 Two twins Roy and Joy are 25 years old when one of them (Joy)
sets out on a journey through space at nearly constant speed. The twin in the
spaceship measures time with an accurate watch. When she returns to Earth,
she claims to be 31 years old, while the twin left on Earth (Roy) knows that she is
43 years old. What was the speed of Joy’s spaceship?

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Solution/Answer: The spaceship clock as seen by the space-twin reads the trip
time to be Δt0 which is 6 years long. The Earth bound twin sees his sister age 6
years but his clock tell him that a time Δt = 18 years has actually passed. Hence
Δt = γΔt0 becomes

 c
2
2 v
6  18 1  v from which    1  0.111
c

or v  0.943c  2.83x10 8 m s

1.5 Relativity of Length

A length measured in the frame in which the body is at rest (the rest frame of the
body) is called a proper length; thus the length L0 is a proper length in S’ and
the length measured in any other frame moving relative to S’ is less than L0. This
can be expressed as

v 2 L0
L  L0 1   (1.6) (Length contraction)
c2 

This effect (described by equation 1.6) is called length contraction. When v is

very small compared to c,  approaches 1. Thus in the limit of small speeds,
equation 1.6 reduces to L = L0, a relation approaching Newtonian mechanics. This
and the corresponding result for time dilation (equation 1.3) show that the
Galilean coordinate transformation are sufficiently accurate for relative speeds
smaller than c.

Note that length contraction only occurs when L is parallel to L0. There is no
length contraction when L is perpendicular to L0.

Example 1.3 A crew member on the spaceship measures the spaceships length
to be 400 m. If the spaceship’s speed is 0.99c, what length do observers
measure on Earth?

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Solution/Answer: The 400-m length of the spaceship is the proper length L0
because it is measured in the frame in which the spaceship is at rest. To get the
length L measured by observers on Earth, we use equation 1.5 and get

v2
L  L0 1   400m 1  0.99   56.4m
2
2
c

This value of L = 56.4 m is smaller (contracted) than that of the proper length L0 =
400 m.

1.6 The Lorentz Transformation

The Lorentz coordinate transformation is a relativistic generalization of the

Galilean coordinate. It also relates the spacetime coordinates of a single event as
seen by observers in two inertial frames, S and S’, where S’ is moving relative
to S with velocity u in the positive x-x’ direction. The four coordinates are related
by

x'   x  ut  y'  y z'  z 

t '   t  ux c 2  (1.7)

If we wish to go the other way, we get

x   x'ut ' and 

t   t ' ux' c 2  (1.8)

1
The Lorentz factor  
u2
1
c2

For one-dimensional motion, a particle’s velocity v in S and velocity v’ in S’ are

related by

vu v'u
v'  and v (1.9) (relativistic velocity transformation)
1  uv c 2 1  uv' c 2

Equation 1.9 is called relativistic velocity transformation. In this equation, it is

assumed that t  t '  0 when the origin of S and S’ coincide. Note that the spatial
value x and the temporal value t are bound together as shown in equation 1.7.

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This entanglement of space and time was a prime message of Einstein’s theory,
a message that was long rejected by many of his contemporaries.

Example 1.4 A spaceship moving away from the Earth with speed 0.90c fires a
robot space probe in the same direction as its motion, with peed 0.70c relative to
the spaceship. What is the probe’s speed relative to the Earth?

Solution/Answer: Let the Earth’s frame of reference be S, and that of the

spaceship be S’. Then u=0.90c and v’=0.70c. The nonrelativistic Galilean velocity
addition formula would give a speed relative to the Earth of 1.60c; but this value
is greater than the speed of light and must be incorrect. The correct relativistic
result from equation 1.8 is

v'u 0.70c  0.90c

v   0.98c
1  uv ' c 2
1
0.90c 0.70c 
c2

Example 1.5 A scoutship from the Earth tries to catch up with the missile-firing
spaceship of example 1.4 by traveling at 0.95c relative to the Earth. What is its
speed relative to the spaceship?

Solution/Answer: Again we let the Earth’s frame of reference be S and that of

the spaceship be S’. Again we have u=0.90c, but now v=0.95c. According to
nonrelativistic velocity addition, the scoutship’s velocity relative to the spaceship
would be 0.05c. We get the correct result from equation 1.8 as

vu 0.95c  0.90c

v'    0.34c
1  uv c 2
1
0.90c 0.95c 
c2

Here, the relativistically correct value of the relative velocity is nearly even times
as large as the incorrect Newtonian value.

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1.7 The Doppler Effect for Electromagnetic Waves

The Doppler Effect is the frequency shift from a source due to the relative motion
of source and observer. For sound waves traveling in air, the Doppler effect
depends on two velocities: the velocity of the source and the velocity of the
detector with respect to the air. Air is the medium which transmits the waves.

That is not the situation with light waves, for they and other electromagnetic
waves require no medium, being able to travel even through vacuum. The
Doppler effect for light waves depend only on one velocity, the relative velocity
between source and detector a measured from the reference frame of either.

1.7.1 Relativistic Doppler Effect

If a source emitting light waves of frequency f0 moves directly away from a

detector with relative radial speed v (and speed parameter β = v/c), the frequency
f measured by the detector is

1 
f  f0 (1.10) (source and detector separating)
1 

If the source moves directly toward the detector, the signs in front of both β
symbols in equation 1.10 are reversed.

1 
f  f0 (1.11) (source and detector moving closer)
1 

1.7.2 Astronomical Doppler Effect

In astronomical observations of stars, galaxies, and other sources of light, we

can determine how fast the sources are moving, either directly away from us or
directly toward us, by measuring the Doppler shift of the light that reaches us.

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For astronomical observations, the Doppler Effect is measured in wavelengths λ.
For speeds much less than c, equation 1.10 leads to


v c (1.12)


where Δλ is the Doppler shift in wavelength (the magnitude of the change in

wavelength) due to the motion. Here f=c/λ and f0 = c/λ0. Here, λ0 is the proper
wavelength.

1.7.3 Transverse Doppler Effect

If the relative motion of the light source is perpendicular to a line joining the
source and detector, the Doppler frequency formula is

f  f0 1   2 (1.13) (Transverse Doppler Effect)

Equation 1.13 is called transverse Doppler Effect which is due to time dilation. If
we rewrite equation 1.10 in terms the period T of oscillation of the emitted light
wave instead of the frequency, we have

T0
Since T = 1/f then T  T0 (1.14)
1  2

in which T0 = 1/f0 is the proper period of the source. If we compare equation 1.3
with that of equation 1.13 this equation is simply the time dilation formula, since a
period is a time interval.

For low speeds (β<1) equation can be expanded in a power series in β and
approximated as

 1 
f  f 0 1   2  (1.15) (For low speeds)
 2 

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1.8 Relativistic Momentum

For momentum conservation in collisions to hold in all inertial frames of

reference, the definition of momentum must be generalized. For a particle of rest
mass m moving with velocity v, the momentum p is defined as

mv
p  mv (1.16) (relativistic momentum)
1 v2 c2

In Newtonian mechanics, the most generalized form of Newton’s second Law is

given by

dp d d mv
F  mv  (1.17)
dt dt dt 1  v 2 c 2

That is the net force F on a particle equals the time rate of change of its
momentum p. From equation 17, it follows that

F = γ3ma (1.18) (F and v along the same line)

m
F a  ma (1.19) (F and v perpendicular)
1 v2 c2

1.9 Relativistic Energy

Applying the work-energy relation gives the relativistic equation for kinetic energy
K. For a particle of rest mass m moving with peed v,

mc 2
K  mc 2    1mc 2 (1.20)
1 v2 c2

This form suggests assigning a rest energy mc2 to a particle. Therefore, the total
energy E can be expressed as

mc 2
E  K  mc  2
 mc 2 (1.21)
1 v c 2 2

E can also be expressed as

E  K  E0 (1.22)

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 γmc2 = K + mc2 or K = γmc2 - mc2 = mc2 (γ-1) (1.23)

where E is the total energy, K is the kinetic energy, and E0 is the rest energy
equal to E0 = mc2. The total energy E and magnitude of momentum p for a particle
of rest mass m are related by


E 2  mc 2    pc 
2 2
(1.24)

Example 1.6 Determine the energy required to give an electron a speed 0.90
that of light, starting from rest.

Solution/Answer: We are given v=0.90c and we have to find the kinetic energy
K. From equation 1.23 above, K is given by

   
K  mc 2   1  mc 2 
1 1
 1  (9.11x10 31 kg )(3.0 x10 8 m s ) 2   1
 1  v 2 c 2   1  0.90 2 
 

K  1.06 x10 13 Joules  0.66 MeV

Note that 1 Joule = 6.24 x 1018 eV and 1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 Joules. Note also
that 1MeV = 1.0 x 106 eV.

Example 1.7 An electron is accelerated from rest through a potential difference

of 1.5 MeV and thereby acquires 1.5 MeV of energy. Find its final speed.

Solution/Answer: Using K = γmc2 - mc2 from equation 1.23, and the fact that
K = ΔU, we have

 1.6 x10 19 J 


K  1.5 x10 eV  
6
   2.4 x10 13 J
 1eV 
Then

2.4 x10 13 J

m  m  K
2
 8 2
 2.67 x10 30 kg but m = 9.11x10-31 kg and so
c (3.0 x10 m s)

1
γm = 3.58 x10-30 kg. To find it speed, we use   which gives us
v2
1 2
c

12
 2
 v   m   0.91 
2 2
1
 1           0.0646
2  c   m   3.58 

Example 1.8 An electron (rest mass 9.11x10-31 kg, charge -1.6x10-19 C) is

moving opposite to an electric field of magnitude E=5.0x105 N/C. All other forces
are negligible in comparison to the electric force. Find a) the magnitudes of
momentum and acceleration at the instants when v1=0.010c, v2=0.90c, and
v3=0.99c. b) Find the corresponding acceleration a if a net force F of the same
magnitude is perpendicular to the velocity.

Solution/Answer:

a) Solving first for the Lorentz factor γ using the equation

1

v2
1
c2

For the 3 speeds given, we find γ = 1.0, γ = 2.29, and γ = 7.09. The values of
momentum p are

p1 = γ mv1 = (1) (9.11x10-31 kg) (0.010) (3.0x108 m/s) = 2.7x10-24 kg. m/s

p2 = γ mv2 = (2.29) (9.11x10-31 kg) (0.90) (3.0x108 m/s) = 5.6x10-22 kg. m/s

p3 = γ mv3 = (7.09) (9.11x10-31 kg) (0.99) (3.0x108 m/s) = 1.9x10-21 kg. m/s

At higher speeds, the relativistic values of momentum differ greatly from that of
the nonrelativistic values computed from p = mv.

The magnitude of the force on the electron is

F = |q|E = (1.6x10-19 C) (5.0x105 N/C) = 8.0x10-14 N

Using equation 1.18, we calculate the corresponding accelerations a1, a2, and a3
for the three speeds v1, v2, and v3 as

F 8.0 x10 14 N

a1    8.8 x1016 m s 2
 3 m 13 9.11x10 31 kg 

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 F 8.0 x10 14 N
a2    7.3x1015 m s 2
 m 2.29  9.11x10 kg 
3 3 31

F 8.0 x10 14 N

a3    2.5 x1014 m s 2
 3 m 7.09 3 9.11x10 31 kg 

b) Here, we calculate the accelerations using equation 1.19 as

F 8.0 x10 14 N

a1    8.8 x1016 m s 2

m 1 9.11x10 kg
31

F 8.0 x10 14 N
a2    3.8 x1016 m s 2

m 2.29  9.11x10 31 kg 
F 8.0 x10 14 N
a3    1.2 x1016 m s 2

m 7.09  9.11x10 kg
31

These accelerations are larger than that of part (a).

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1.10 Exercises
1.1 a) What is the total energy E of a 2.53 MeV electron?
b) What is the magnitude p of the electron’s momentum, in the unit MeV/c?

1.2 The most energetic proton ever detected in the cosmic rays coming to Earth
from space had an astounding kinetic energy of 3.0x1020 eV.
(a) What were the proton’s Lorentz factor γ and speed v (both relative to the
ground-based detector)?
(b) Suppose that the proton travels along a diameter (9.8x104 ly) of the
Milky Way Galaxy. Approximately, how long does the proton take to
travel that diameter as measured from the common reference frame of
Earth and the Galaxy?
(c) How long does the trip take as measured in the reference frame of the
proton?

1.3 Compute the value of γ for a particle traveling at half the speed of light.

1.4 Determine the energy required to give an electron a speed 0.90 that of light,
starting from rest.

1.5 A rod lies parallel to the x-axis of reference frame S’, moving along this axis
at a speed of 0.63c. Its rest length is 1.70 m. What will be its measured
length in frame S?

1.6 A spaceship of rest length 130 m races past a timing station at a speed of
0.74c.
(a) What is the length of the spaceship as measured by the timing station?
(b) What time interval will the station clock record between the passage of
the front and back ends of the ship?

1.7 A particle moves along the x’ axis of frame S’ with a speed of 0.40c. Frame
S’ moves with a speed of 0.60c with respect to frame S. What is the
measured speed of the particle in frame S?

1.8 Galaxy A is reported to be receding from us with a speed of 0.35c. Galaxy

B, located in precisely the opposite direction, is also found to be receding
from us at this same speed. What recessional speed would an observer on
Galaxy A find: (a) for our Galaxy? (b) for Galaxy B?

1.9 Find the speed parameter β and Lorentz factor γ for an electron that has a
kinetic energy of (a) 1.0 keV; (b) 1.0 MeV; and (c) 1.0 GeV

1.10 A certain particle of mass m has momentum of magnitude mc. What are
(a) its speed, (b) its Lorentz factor, and (c) its kinetic energy?

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1.11 Answers to Exercises

1.1 (a) 3.04 MeV; (b) 3.0 MeV/c

1.2 (a) 3.2x1011 ; 0.999c ; (b) 9.8x104 yr; (c) 9.7 s

1.3 1.15

1.4 0.66 MeV

1.5 1.32 m

1.6 (a) 87.4 m; (b) 394 ns

1.7 0.81c

1.8 (a) 0.35c ; (b) 0.62c

1.9 (a) 0.0625, 1.00196; (b) 0.941, 2.96; (c) 0.999 999 87, 1960

1.10 Ans. (a) 0.707c; (b) 1.41; (c) 0.414 mc2

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