Review Questions: Identify The Five Components of A Data Communications System?

1|Page MD.
Saidur Rahman KohinooR
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Review Questions
1. Identify the five components of a data communications system?
Ans: The five components of a data communication system are the sender, receiver,
transmission medium, message, and protocol.
2. What are the advantages of distributed processing?

Ans: The advantages of distributed processing are security, access to distributed databases,
collaborative processing, and faster problem solving.
3. What are the three criteria necessary for an effective and efficient network?
Ans: The three criteria are performance, reliability, and security.
4. What are the advantages of a multipoint connection over a point-to-point connection?

Ans: Advantages of a multipoint over a point-to-point configuration (type of connection)
include ease of installation and low cost.
5. What are the two types of line configuration?

Ans: Line configurations (or types of connections) are point-to-point and multipoint.
6. Categorize the four basic topologies in terms of line configuration.

Ans: We can divide line configuration in two broad categories:
a. Point-to-point: mesh, star, and ring.
b. Multipoint: bus
7. What is the difference between half-duplex and full-duplex transmission modes?

Ans: In half-duplex transmission, only one entity can send at a time; in a full-duplex
transmission, both entities can send at the same time.
8. Name the four basic network topologies, and cite an advantage of each type.
Ans: We give an advantage for each of four network topologies:
a. Mesh: secure
b. Bus: easy installation
c. Star: robust
d. Ring: easy fault isolation
9. For n devices in a network, what is the number of cable links required for a mesh, ring, bus, and
star topology?
Ans: The number of cables for each type of network is:
a. Mesh: n (n – 1) / 2
b. Star: n
c. Ring: n – 1
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d. Bus: one backbone and n drop lines
10. What are some of the factors that determine whether a communication system is a LAN or
WAN?
Ans: The general factors are size, distances (covered by the network), structure, and Ownership
11. What is an internet? What is the Internet?

Ans: An internet is an interconnection of networks. The Internet is the name of a specific
worldwide network
12. Why are protocols needed?

Ans: A protocol defines what is communicated, in what way and when. This provides accurate
and timely transfer of information between different devices on a network.
13. Why are standards needed?

Ans: Standards are needed to create and maintain an open and competitive market for
manufacturers, to coordinate protocol rules, and thus guarantee compatibility of data
communication technologies.
Exercises
14. What is the maximum number of characters or symbols that can be represented by Unicode?
Ans: Unicode uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or a character. We can define 232 different
symbols or characters.
15. A color image uses 16 bits to represent a pixel. What is the maximum number of different colors
that can be represented?
Ans: With 16 bits, we can represent up to 216 different colors.
16. Assume six devices are arranged in a mesh topology. How many cables are needed?
How many ports are needed for each device?
Ans: a. Cable links: n (n – 1) / 2 = (6 × 5) / 2 = 15
b. Number of ports: (n – 1) = 5 ports needed per device
17. For each of the following four networks, discuss the consequences if a connection fails.
a. Five devices arranged in a mesh topology
b. Five devices arranged in a star topology (not counting the hub)
c. Five devices arranged in a bus topology
d. Five devices arranged in a ring topology
Ans:
a. Mesh topology: If one connection fails, the other connections will still be working.
b. Star topology: The other devices will still be able to send data through the hub; there will be
no access to the device which has the failed connection to the hub.
c. Bus Topology: All transmission stops if the failure is in the bus. If the drop-line fails, only the
corresponding device cannot operate.
d. Ring Topology: The failed connection may disable the whole network unless it is a dual ring
or there is a by-pass mechanism.
18. You have two computers connected by an Ethernet hub at home. Is this a LAN, a MAN, or a
WAN? Explain your reason.
Ans: This is a LAN. The Ethernet hub creates a LAN because of we know that a local area
network (LAN) is a computer network that is designed for a limited geographic area such as a
building or a campus or an isolated network to connect computers.
19. In the ring topology in Figure 1.8, what happens if one of the stations is unplugged?
Ans: Theoretically, in a ring topology, unplugging one station, interrupts the ring. However,
most ring networks use a mechanism that bypasses the station; the ring can continue its
operation.
20. In the bus topology in Figure 1.7, what happens if one of the stations is unplugged?
Ans: In a bus topology, no station is in the path of the signal. Unplugging a station has no effect
on the operation of the rest of the network.
21. Draw a hybrid topology with a star backbone and three ring networks.
Ans:
22. Draw a hybrid topology with a ring backbone and two bus networks.
Ans:
23. Performance is inversely related to delay. When you use the Internet, which of the following
applications are more sensitive to delay?
a. Sending an e-mail
b. Copying a file
c. Surfing the Internet
Ans: a. E-mail is not an interactive application. Even if it is delivered immediately, it may stay
in the mail-box of the receiver for a while. It is not sensitive to delay.
b. We normally do not expect a file to be copied immediately. It is not very sensitive to delay.
c. Surfing the Internet is the an application very sensitive to delay. We except to get access to the
site, we are searching.
24. When a party makes a local telephone call to another party, is this a point-to-point or
multipoint connection? Explain your answer.
Ans: In this case, the communication is only between a caller and the caller. A dedicated line is
established between them. The connection is point-to-point.
25. Compare the telephone network and the Internet. What are the similarities? What are the
differences?
Ans: The telephone network was originally designed for voice communication; the Internet was
originally designed for data communication. The two networks are similar in the fact that both
are made of interconnections of small networks. The telephone network, as we will see in future
chapters, is mostly a circuit-switched network; the Internet is mostly a packet-switched network.
CHAPTER 2
Network Models
Review Questions
1. List the layers of the Internet model.
Ans: The layers of TCP or Internet model are:
i. Physical layer
ii. Data link layer
iii. Network layer
iv. Transport layer and
v. Application layer.
2. Which layers in the Internet model are the network support layers?
Ans: Physical, data link, and network layers.
3. Which layer in the Internet model is the user support layer?

Ans: In the Internet Model only Application layer supports the user.
4. What is the difference between network layer delivery and transport layer delivery?
Ans: The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message, but
the network layer oversees host-to-host delivery of individual packets.
5. What is a peer-to-peer process?

Ans: Peer-to-peer processes are processes on two or more devices communicating at a same
layer
6. How does information get passed from one layer to the next in the Internet model?
Ans: Each layer calls upon, the services of the layer just below it using interfaces between each
pair of adjacent layers.
7. What are headers and trailers, and how do they get added and removed?
Ans: Headers and trailers are control data added at the beginning and the end of each data unit at
each layer of the sender and removed at the corresponding layers of the receiver. They provide
source and destination addresses, synchronization points, information for error detection etc.
8. What are the concerns of the physical layer in the Internet model?
Ans: The physical layer is responsible for transmitting bits. Also it is concerned with
a. physical topology
b. representation of bits
c. type of encoding
d. synchronization of bits
e. transmission rate and mode
f. Line Configuration
9. What are the responsibilities of the data link layer in the Internet model?
Ans: The data link layer is responsible for

a. Framing data bits
b. Physical addressing
c. Data rate means flow control
d. Error Control
d. Access Control
10. What are the responsibilities of the network layer in the Internet model?
Ans: The network layer is responsible for transmitting of a packet across multiple networks;
therefore its responsibilities include
a. Logical addressing
b. Routing
11. What are the responsibilities of the transport layer in the Internet model?
Ans: The transport layer oversees the process-to-process delivery of the entire message. It is
responsible for
a. Segmentation and reassembly
b. Connection Control
c. Flow control
d. Error control
12. What is the difference between a port address, a logical address, and a physical address?
Ans: The physical address is the local address of a node; it is used by the data link layer to
deliver data from one node to another within the same network. The logical address defines the
sender and receiver at the network layer and is used to deliver messages across multiple
networks. The port address (service-point) identifies the application process on the station.
13. Name some services provided by the application layer in the Internet model.
Ans: The application layer services include file transfer, remote access, shared database
management, and mail services. Also responsible for dialog control, synchronization, (concern
session layer in OSI model) translation, encryption and compression. (concern presentation layer
in OSI model)
14. How do the layers of the Internet model correlate to the layers of the OSI model?
Ans: The application, presentation, and session layers of the OSI model are represented by the
application layer in the Internet model. The lowest four layers of OSI correspond to the Internet
model layers.
Exercises
15. How are OSI and ISO related to each other?
Ans: The International Standards Organization, or the International Organization of Standards,
(ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. An
ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model.
16. Match the following to one or more layers of the OSI model:
a. Route determination
b. Flow control
c. Interface to transmission media
d. Provides access for the end use
Ans:
a. Route determination: network layer
b. Flow control: data link and transport layers
c. Interface to transmission media: physical layer
d. Access for the end user: application layer
a. Reliable process-to-process message delivery
b. Route selection
c. Defines frames
d. Provides user services such as email and file transfer
e. Transmission of bit stream across physical medium
Ans:
a. Reliable process-to-process delivery: transport layer
b. Route selection: network layer
c. Defining frames: data link layer
d. Providing user services: application layer
e. Transmission of bits across the medium: physical layer.
18. Match the following to one or more layers of the OSl model:
a. Communicates directly with user's application program
b. Error correction and retransmission
c. Mechanical, electrical, and functional interface
d. Responsibility for carrying frames between adjacent nodes
Ans:
a. Communication with user’s application program: application layer
b. Error correction and retransmission: data link and transport layers
c. Mechanical, electrical, and functional interface: physical layer
d. Responsibility for carrying frames between adjacent nodes: data link layer
a. Format and code conversion services
b. Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions
c. Ensures reliable transmission of data
d. Log-in and log-out procedures
e. Provides independence from differences in data representation
Ans:
a. Format and code conversion services: presentation layer
b. Establishing, managing, and terminating sessions: session layer
c. Ensuring reliable transmission of data: data link and transport layers
d. Log-in and log-out procedures: session layer

e. Providing independence from different data representation: presentation layer.
20. In Figure 2.22, computer A sends a message to computer D via LANl, router Rl, and LAN2.
Show the contents of the packets and frames at the network and data link layer for each hop
interface.
Ans:
21. In Figure 2.22,(given avobe) assume that the communication is between a process running at
computer A with port address i and a process running at computer D with port address j. Show
the contents of packets and frames at the network, data link, and transport layer for each hop.
Ans:
22. Suppose a computer sends a frame to another computer on a bus topology LAN. The physical
destination address of the frame is corrupted during the transmission. What happens to the
frame? How can the sender be informed about the situation?
Ans: If the corrupted destination address does not match any station address in the network, the
packet is lost. If the corrupted destination address matches one of the stations, the frame is
delivered to the wrong station. In this case, however, the error detection mechanism, available in
most data link protocols, will find the error and discard the frame.
23. Suppose a computer sends a packet at the network layer to another computer somewhere in
the Internet. The logical destination address of the packet is corrupted. What happens to the
packet? How can the source computer be informed of the situation?
Ans: Before using the destination address in an intermediate or the destination node, the packet
goes through error checking that may help the node find the corruption (with a high probability)
and discard the packet. Normally the upper layer protocol will inform the source to resend the
packet.
24. Suppose a computer sends a packet at the transport layer to another computer somewhere in
the Internet. There is no process with the destination port address running at the destination
computer. What will happen?
Ans: Most protocols issue a special error message that is sent back to the source in this case.
25. If the data link layer can detect errors between hops, why do you think we need another
checking mechanism at the transport layer?
Ans: The errors between the nodes can be detected by the data link layer control, but the error at
the node (between input port and output port) of the node cannot be detected by the data link
layer.
CHAPTER 3
Data and Signals
Solutions to Review Questions and Exercises
Review Questions
1. Frequency and period are the inverse of each other. T = 1/ f and f = 1/T.
2. The amplitude of a signal measures the value of the signal at any point. The fre-
quency of a signal refers to the number of periods in one second. The phase
describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero.
3. Using Fourier analysis. Fourier series gives the frequency domain of a periodic
signal; Fourier analysis gives the frequency domain of a nonperiodic signal.
4. Three types of transmission impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.
5. Baseband transmission means sending a digital or an analog signal without modu-
lation using a low-pass channel. Broadband transmission means modulating a
digital or an analog signal using a band-pass channel.
6. A low-pass channel has a bandwidth starting from zero; a band-pass channel has a
bandwidth that does not start from zero.
7. The Nyquist theorem defines the maximum bit rate of a noiseless channel.
8. The Shannon capacity determines the theoretical maximum bit rate of a noisy
channel.
9. Optical signals have very high frequencies. A high frequency means a short wave
length because the wave length is inversely proportional to the frequency (O = v/f),
where v is the propagation speed in the media.
10. A signal is periodic if its frequency domain plot is discrete; a signal is nonperi-
odic if its frequency domain plot is continuous.
11. The frequency domain of a voice signal is normally continuous because voice is a
nonperiodic signal.
12. An alarm system is normally periodic. Its frequency domain plot is therefore dis-
crete.
13. This is baseband transmission because no modulation is involved.
14. This is baseband transmission because no modulation is involved.
15. This is broadband transmission because it involves modulation.
1
2
Exercises
16.
a. T = 1 / f = 1 / (24 Hz) = 0.0417 s = 41.7 u10–3 s = 41.7 ms
b. T = 1 / f = 1 / (8 MHz) = 0.000000125 = 0.125 u 10–6 s= 0.125 Ps
c. T = 1 / f = 1 / (140 KHz) = 0.00000714 s = 7.14 u 10–6 s = 7.14 Ps
17.
a. f = 1 / T = 1 / (5 s) = 0.2 Hz
b. f = 1 / T = 1 / (12 Ps) =83333 Hz = 83.333 u 103 Hz = 83.333 KHz
c. f = 1 / T = 1 / (220 ns) = 4550000 Hz = 4.55u 106 Hz = 4.55 MHz
18.
a. 90 degrees (S/2 radian)
b. 0 degrees ( radian)
c. 90 degrees (S/2 radian)
19. See Figure 3.1
Figure 3.1 Solution to Exercise 19
Frequency domain
0 20 50 100 200
Bandwidth = 200 0 = 200
20. We know the lowest frequency, 100. We know the bandwidth is 2000. The highest
frequency must be 100 + 2000 = 2100 Hz. See Figure 3.2
20
Frequency domain
100 2100
Bandwidth = 2100 100 = 2000
21. Each signal is a simple signal in this case. The bandwidth of a simple signal is
zero. So the bandwidth of both signals are the same.
22.
a. bit rate = 1/ (bit duration) = 1 / (0.001 s) = 1000 bps = 1 Kbps
b. bit rate = 1/ (bit duration) = 1 / (2 ms) = 500 bps
3
c. bit rate = 1/(bit duration) = 1 / (20 Ps/10) = 1 / (2 Ps) = 500 Kbps

23.
a. (10 / 1000) s = 0.01 s
b. (8 / 1000) s = 0. 008 s = 8 ms
c. ((100,000 us 800 s
24. There are 8 bits in 16 ns. Bit rate is 8 / (16 u u= 500 Mbps
25. The signal makes 8 cycles in 4 ms. The frequency is 8 /(4 ms) = 2 KHz
26. The bandwidth is 5 u5 = 25 Hz.
27. The signal is periodic, so the frequency domain is made of discrete frequencies. as
shown in Figure 3.3.
Amplitude
10 volts
... Frequency
10 30
KHz KHz
28. The signal is nonperiodic, so the frequency domain is made of a continuous spec-
trum of frequencies as shown in Figure 3.4.
30 volts
Amplitude
10 volts 10 volts
Frequency
10 20 30
KHz KHz KHz
29.
Using the first harmonic, data rate = 2 u6 MHz = 12 Mbps
Using three harmonics, data rate = (2 u6 MHz) /3 = 4 Mbps
Using five harmonics, data rate = (2 u6 MHz) /5 = 2.4 Mbps
30. dB = 10 log10 (90 / 100) = –0.46 dB
31. –10 = 10 log10 (P2 / 5) o log10 (P2 / 5) = 1 o (P2 / 5) = 101 o P2 = 0.5 W
32. The total gain is 3 u 4 = 12 dB. The signal is amplified by a factor 101.2 = 15.85.
4
33. 100,000 bits / 5 Kbps = 20 s

34. 480 s u 300,000 km/s = 144,000,000 km
35. 1 Pm u1000 = 1000 Pm = 1 mm
36. We have
4,000 log2 (1 + 1,000) | 40 Kbps
37. We have
4,000 log2 (1 + 10 / 0.005) = 43,866 bps
38. The file contains 2,000,000 u8 = 16,000,000 bits. With a 56-Kbps channel, it takes
16,000,000/56,000 = 289 s. With a 1-Mbps channel, it takes 16 s.
39. To represent 1024 colors, we need log21024 = 10 (see Appendix C) bits. The total
number of bits are, therefore,
1200 u 1000 u 10 = 12,000,000 bits
40. We have
SNR = (200 mW) / (10 u 2 u PW) = 10,000
We then have
SNRdB = 10 log10 SNR = 40
41. We have
SNR= (signal power)/(noise power).
However, power is proportional to the square of voltage. This means we have
SNR = [(signal voltage)2] / [(noise voltage)2] =
[(signal voltage) / (noise voltage)]2 = 202 = 400
We then have
SNRdB = 10 log10 SNR | 26.02
42. We can approximately calculate the capacity as
a. C = B uSNRdB /3) = 20 KHz u40 /3) = 267 Kbps
b. C = B uSNRdB /3) = 200 KHz u4 /3) = 267 Kbps
c. C = B uSNRdB /3) = 1 MHz u20 /3) = 6.67 Mbps
43.
a. The data rate is doubled (C2 = 2 uC1).
b. When the SNR is doubled, the data rate increases slightly. We can say that,
approximately, (C2 = C1 + 1).
44. We can use the approximate formula
C = B u (SNRdB /3) or SNRdB = (3 uC) /B
We can say that the minimum
SNRdB = 3 u 100 Kbps / 4 KHz = 75
5
This means that the minimum

SNR = 10 SNRdB/10 = 107.5 | 31,622,776
45. We have
transmission time = (packet length)/(bandwidth) =
(8,000,000 bits) / (200,000 bps) = 40 s
46. We have
(bit length) = (propagation speed) u(bit duration)
The bit duration is the inverse of the bandwidth.
a. Bit length = (2 u108 m) u [(1 / (1 Mbps)] = 200 m. This means a bit occupies
200 meters on a transmission medium.
b. Bit length = (2 u108 m) u [(1 / (10 Mbps)] = 20 m. This means a bit occupies 20
meters on a transmission medium.
c. Bit length = (2 u108 m) u [(1 / (100 Mbps)] = 2 m. This means a bit occupies 2
meters on a transmission medium.
47.
a. Number of bits = bandwidth u delay = 1 Mbps u 2 ms = 2000 bits
b. Number of bits = bandwidth u delay = 10 Mbps u 2 ms = 20,000 bits
c. Number of bits = bandwidth u delay = 100 Mbps u 2 ms = 200,000 bits
48. We have
Latency = processing time + queuing time +
transmission time + propagation time
Processing time = 10 u 1 Ps = 10 Ps = 0.000010 s
Queuing time = 10 u 2 Ps = 20 Ps = 0.000020 s
Transmission time = 5,000,000 / (5 Mbps) = 1 s
Propagation time = (2000 Km) / (2 u 108) = 0.01 s
Latency = 0.000010 + 0.000020 + 1 + 0.01 = 1.01000030 s
The transmission time is dominant here because the packet size is huge.
CHAPTER 4
Digital Transmission
Review Questions
1. List three techniques of digital-to-digital conversion.
Ans: The three different techniques are line coding, block coding, and scrambling.
2. Distinguish between a signal element and a data element.

Ans:
Signal element Data element
1. A signal element is the shortest unit of a 1. A data element is the smallest entity that can
digital signal. represent a piece of information (a bit).
2. Signal elements are what we can send. 2. Data elements are what we need to send.
3. Signal elements are the carriers. 3. Data elements are being carried.
3. Distinguish between data rate and signal rate.

Ans:
Data rate Signal rate
1. The data rate defines the number of data 1. The signal rate is the number of signal
elements (bits) sent in 1s. elements sent in 1s.
2. The unit is bits per second (bps). 2. The unit is the baud.
4. Define baseline wandering and its effect on digital transmission.

Ans: The baseline is a running average of the received signal power and a drift in the baseline is
called baseline wandering. A long string of 0s or 1s can cause the baseline wandering and make
it difficult for the receiver to decoding a digital signal correctly.
5. Define a DC component and its effect on digital transmission.

Ans: When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while, the spectrum creates very
low frequencies which called DC components. Its present problems for a system that cannot pass
low frequencies.
6. Define the characteristics of a self-synchronizing signal.

Ans: A self-synchronizing digital signal includes timing information in the data being
transmitted. This can be happened if there are transitions in the signal that alert the receiver to
the beginning, middle or end of the pulse.
7. List five line coding schemes discussed in this book.

Ans: In this book, we introduced unipolar, polar, bipolar, multilevel, and Multitransition coding.
Unipolar- NRZ
Polar- NRZ, RZ and biphrase
Bipolar- AMI and psuedoternery
Multilevel- 2B/1Q, 8B/6T and 4D-PAMS
Multitransition - MLT-3
8. Define block coding and give its purpose.

Ans: Block coding provides an excess to ensure synchronization and to provide inherent error
detecting. In general, block coding changes a block of m bits in to a block of n bits, where n is
larger than m.
9. Define scrambling and give its purpose.

Ans: Scrambling provides synchronization without increasing the number of bits.
Scrambling is needed in digital to digital convertion, for modifying part of the rules in a line
coding scheme to create bit synchronization. Two common scrambling are B8ZS and HDB3
10. Compare and contrast PCM and DM.

Ans: Compare: PCM is the most common technique that converts an analog signal to digital
signal. DM iscreated to reduce the complexity of PMC.
Contrast: PCM finds the value of signal amplitude for each sample but DM finds the change
from the previous sample.
11. What are the differences between parallel and serial transmission?
Ans: In serial transmission, the data is sent bit-by-bit with serial communication. (More than one
cable)
In parallel transmission, the data is moved multi bits at a time. (Need only one cable)
12. List three different techniques in serial transmission and explain the differences.
Ans: The three different techniques in serial transmission are: synchronous, asynchronous, and
isochronous.
 Asynchronous - send one start bit (zero) at the beginning and one stop bit (one) at the end
of each byte. There may be a title between each byte.
 Synchronous - send bit one after another without any start or stop bit and title.
 Isochronous - All bits in the whole stream must be synchronized. It guarantee that the
data arrive at the fixed rate.
Exercises
13. Calculate the value of the signal rate for each case in Figure 4.2 if the data rate is 1 Mbps and c =
1/2.
Ans: Given, data rate N = 1 Mbps = 106 bps. Case factor c = ½.

.`. We know the relationship between data rate and signal rate is, s = c × N × (1/r). Now,
a. Here, r = 1
.`. s = ½ × 106 × (1/1) = 0.5 Mbaud
b. Here, r = ½ = 0.5
.`. s = ½ × 106 × (1/0.5) = 1 Mbaud
c. Here, r = 2
.`. s = ½ × 106 × ½ = 0.25 Mbaud
d. Here, r = 4/3
.`. s = ½ × 106 × 1/(4/3) = 0.375 Mbaud
14. In a digital transmission, the sender clock is 0.2 percent faster than the receiver clock. How many
extra bits per second does the sender send if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
Ans: Given, sender clock faster = 0.2 % = 0.2/100 = 0.002
The data rate = 1 Mbps = 106 bps
.`. extra bits = 0.002 × 106 = 2000 bits
15. Draw the graph of the NRZ-L scheme using each of the following data streams, assuming that the
last signa11evel has been positive. From the graphs, guess the bandwidth for this scheme using the
average number of changes in the signal level.
Compare your guess with the corresponding entry in Table 4.1.
a. 00000000
b. 11111111
c. 01010101
d. 00110011
Ans:
Average Number of Changes = (0 + 0 + 8 + 4) / 4 = 3 for N = 8

.`. bandwidth, B → (3 / 8) N
16. Repeat Exercise 15 for the NRZ-I scheme.

Ans:
Average Number of Changes = (0 + 9 + 4 + 4) / 4 = 4.25 for N = 8
.`. bandwidth, B → (4.25 / 8) N
17. Repeat Exercise 15 for the Manchester scheme.

Ans:

.`. bandwidth, B → (12.5 / 8) N
18. Repeat Exercise 15 for the differential Manchester scheme.

Ans:
Average Number of Changes = (16 + 8 + 12 + 12) / 4 = 12 for N = 8

.`. bandwidth, B → (12 / 8) N
19. Repeat Exercise 15 for the 2B 1Q scheme, but use the following data streams.
a. 0000000000000000
b. 1111111111111111
c. 0101010101010101
d. 0011001100110011
Ans:

.`. bandwidth, B → (5.25 / 8) N
20. Repeat Exercise 15 for the MLT-3 scheme, but use the following data streams.
a. 00000000 c. 01010101
b. 11111111 d. 00011000
Ans:

.`. bandwidth, B → (4.5 / 8) N
21. Find the 8-bit data stream for each case depicted in Figure 4.36.
Ans: The 8 bit data stream can be found as

a. NRZ-I: 10011001.
b. Differential Manchester: 11000100.
c. AMI: 01110001.
22. An NRZ-I signal has a data rate of 100 Kbps. Using Figure 4.6, calculate the value of the
normalized energy (P) for frequencies at 0 Hz, 50 KHz, and 100 KHz.
Ans:
The data rate is 100 Kbps. For each case, we first need to calculate the value f / N. We then use
Figure 4.6 in the text to find P (energy per Hz). All calculations are approximations.
a. f /N = 0/100 = 0 → P = 1.0
b. f /N = 50/100 = 1/2 → P = 0.5
c. f /N = 100/100 = 1 → P = 0.0
23. A Manchester signal has a data rate of 100 Kbps. Using Figure 4.8, calculate the value of the
normalized energy (P) for frequencies at 0 Hz, 50 KHz, 100 KHz.
Ans:
The data rate is 100 Kbps. For each case, we first need to calculate the value f/N. We then use
Figure 4.8 in the text to find P (energy per Hz). All calculations are approximations.
a. f /N = 0/100 = 0 → P = 0.0
b. f /N = 50/100 = 1/2 → P = 0.3
c. f /N = 100/100 = 1 → P = 0.4
d. f /N = 150/100 = 1.5 → P = 0.0
24. The input stream to a 4B/5B block encoder is 0100 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001.
Answer the following questions:
a. What is the output stream?
b. What is the length of the longest consecutive sequence of 0s in the input?
c. What is the length of the longest consecutive sequence of 0s in the output?
Ans: a. The output stream is 01010 11110 11110 11110 11110 01001.
b. The maximum length of consecutive 0s in the input stream is 21.
c. The maximum length of consecutive 0s in the output stream is 2.
25. How many invalid (unused) code sequences can we have in 5B/6B encoding? How many in
3B/4B encoding?
Ans: In 5B/6B, we have 25 = 32 data sequences and 26 = 64 code sequences. The number of
unused code sequences is 64 − 32 = 32. In 3B/4B, we have 23 = 8 data sequences and 24 = 16
code sequences. The number of unused code sequences is 16 − 8 = 8.
26. What is the result of scrambling the sequence 11100000000000 using one of the following
scrambling techniques? Assume that the last non-zero signal level has been positive.
a. B8ZS
b. HDB3 (The number of nonzero pules is odd after the last substitution)
Ans: See this figure where the last non-zero signal is positive and the first bit is positive.
27. What is the Nyquist sampling rate for each of the following signals?
a. A low-pass signal with bandwidth of 200 KHz?
b. A band-pass signal with bandwidth of 200 KHz if the lowest frequency is 100 KHz?
Ans:
a. Here, Bandwidth = 200 KHz = 200000Hz.
We know that, in a low-pass signal, the minimum frequency = 0.
.`. fmax = 0 + 200000 = 200000 Hz.
 fs = 2 × 200000 = 400000 samples/s
b. Here, the lowest frequency = 100 KHz = 100000 Hz.
And, Bandwidth = 200 KHz = 200000Hz
.`. fmax = 100000 + 200000 = 300000 Hz.
 fs = 2 × 300000 = 600000 samples /s
28. We have sampled a low-pass signal with a bandwidth of 200 KHz using 1024 levels of
quantization.
a. Calculate the bit rate of the digitized signal.
b. Calculate the SNRdB for this signal.
c. Calculate the PCM bandwidth of this signal.
Ans:
a. Here, Bandwidth = 200 KHz = 200000Hz.
We know that, in a low-pass signal, the minimum frequency = 0
.`. fmax = 0 + 200000 = 200000 Hz
 fs = 2 × 200000 = 400000 samples/s
The number of bits per sample, and the bit rate are
nb = log21024
= 10 bits/sample
.`. N = 400000 × 10 = 4×106 bps = 4 Mbps
b. We get, the value of nb = 10.
.`. SNRdB = 6.02 × nb + 1.76 = 61.96
c. We get, the value of nb = 10.
.`. The minimum bandwidth can be calculated as,
BPCM = nb × Banalog = 10 × 200000 = 2 MHz
29. What is the maximum data rate of a channel with a bandwidth of 200 KHz if we use four
levels of digital signaling.
Ans: Here, bandwidth = 200 KHz = 200000 Hz
.`. The maximum data rate can be calculated as
Nmax = 2 × B × nb = 2 × 200000 × log24 = 8 × 108 bps = 800 Kbps.
30. An analog signal has a bandwidth of 20 KHz. If we sample this signal and send it through a
30 Kbps channel what is the SNRdB ?
Ans: Given, Bandwidth = 20 KHz = 20000 Hz.
.`. fmax = 0 + 4 = 4 KHz
 fs = 2 × 4 = 8000 sample/s
We then calculate the number of bits per sample.
 nb = 30000 / 8000 = 3.75
We need to use the next integer nb = 4. The value of SNRdB is
.`. SNRdB = 6.02 × nb + 1.72 = 25.8
31. We have a baseband channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. What is the data rate for this channel
if we use one of the following line coding schemes?
a. NRZ-L b. Manchester
c. MLT-3 d. 2B1Q
Ans: Here, bandwidth = 1 MHz = 1000 Hz
a. NRZ-L => N = 2 × B = 2 × 1000 = 2000 bps
b. Manchester => N = 1 × B = 1 × 1000 = 1000 bps
c. MLT-3 => N = 3 × B = 3 × 1000 = 3000 bps
d. 2B1Q => N = 4 × B = 4 × 1000 = 4000 bps
32. We want to transmit 1000 characters with each character encoded as 8 bits.
a. Find the number of transmitted bits for synchronous transmission.
b. Find the number of transmitted bits for asynchronous transmission.
c. Find the redundancy percent in each case.
Ans:
a. For synchronous transmission, transmitted bits = 1000 × 8 = 8000 bits.
b. For asynchronous transmission, transmitted bits = 1000 × 10 = 10000 bits.
N.B. ( 8 bits + 1 stop bit & 1 start bit)
c. For case a, the redundancy is 0%.
For case b, we send 2000 extra for 8000 required bits. The redundancy is 25%.
1 | Page MD. Saidur Rahman KohinooR
CHAPTER 5
Analog Transmission
Review Questions
1. Define analog transmission.
Ans: Analog transmission means the transmission of analog signals using a band-pass channel.
More specifically, Analogue data transmission consists of sending information over a physical
transmission medium in the form of a wave.
2. Define carrier signal and its role in analog transmission.

Ans: A carrier signal is a single-frequency signals that has one of its characteristics like as
amplitude, frequency, or phase. Its role in analog transmission is changed to represent the
baseband signal.
3. Define digital-to-analog conversion.

Ans: Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics of an
analog signal based on the information in digital data. The baseband digital signal representing
the digital data modulates the carrier to create a broadband analog signal.
4. Which characteristics of an analog signal are changed to represent the digital signal in each of the
following digital-to-analog conversion?
a. ASK
b. FSK
c. PSK
d. QAM.
Ans:
a. ASK changes the amplitude of the carrier.
b. FSK changes the frequency of the carrier.
c. PSK changes the phase of the carrier.
d. QAM changes both the amplitude and the phase of the carrier
5. Which of the four digital-to-analog conversion techniques (ASK, FSK, PSK or QAM) is the most
susceptible to noise? Defend your answer.
Ans: I think that, ASK is the most susceptible technique among the four digital-to-analog
conversion techniques. Because of the amplitude is more affected by noise than the phase or
frequency.
6. Define constellation diagram and its role in analog transmission.

Ans: A constellation diagram can help us define the amplitude and phase of a signal element,
particularly when we are using two carriers. The diagram is useful when we are dealing with
multilevel ASK, PSK, or QAM. In a constellation diagram, a signal element type is represented
as a dot. The bit or combination of bits it can carry is often written next to it. The diagram has
two axes. The horizontal X axis related to the in-phase carrier; the vertical Y axis is related to the
quadrature carrier.
7. What are the two components of a signal when the signal is represented on a constellation
diagram? Which component is shown on the horizontal axis? Which is shown on the vertical axis?
Ans: The two components of a signal are called I and Q. The I component, called inphase, is
shown on the horizontal axis; the Q component, called quadrature, is shown on the vertical axis.
8. Define analog-to-analog conversion?

Ans: The process of changing one of the characteristics of an analog signal to represent the
instantaneous amplitude of a baseband signal is called analog-to-analog conversion. It is also
called the modulation of an analog signal; the baseband analog signal modulates the carrier to
create a broadband analog signal.
9. Which characteristics of an analog signal are changed to represent the lowpass analog
signal in each of the following analog-to-analog conversions?
a. AM
b. FM
c. PM.
Ans: In analog to analog conversion,
a. AM changes the amplitude of the carrier
b. FM changes the frequency of the carrier
c. PM changes the phase of the carrier
10. Which of the three analog-to-analog conversion techniques (AM, FM, or PM) is the most
susceptible to noise? Defend your answer.
Ans: I think that, AM, FM, PM, among this three analog to analog conversion techniques, the
most susceptible technique is AM because the amplitude is more affected by noise than the phase
or frequency.
Exercises
11. Calculate the baud rate for the given bit rate and type of modulation.
a. 2000 bps, FSK
b. 4000 bps, ASK
c. 6000 bps, QPSK
d. 36,000 bps, 64-QAM
Ans: For baud rate (S), we know that the formula is:
N
S=
r
Here, N = Bit rate, which is given in each case.

r = number of elements, which is unknown. So, at first we need to calculate r for each case.
We know, r = log2L.
2000
S=
a. For FSK, r = log22 = 1 .’. 1 = 2000 baud
4000
S=
b. For ASK, r = log22 = 1 .’. 1 = 4000 baud
6000
S=
c. For QPSK, r = log24 = log222 = 2 log22 = 2 .’. 2 = 3000 baud
36000
S=
d. For 64-QAM, r = log264 = log226 = 6 log22 = 6 .’. 6 = 6000 baud
12. Calculate the bit rate for the given baud rate and type of modulation.
a. 1000 baud, FSK
b. 1000 baud, ASK
c. 1000 baud, BPSK
d. 1000 baud, 16-QAM
Ans: For baud rate (S), we know that the formula is:
N
S=
r
.’. N = S * r
Here, N = Bit rate, which we find out in each case.
r = number of elements, which is unknown. So, at first we need to calculate r for each case.
We know, r = log2L.
a. For FSK, r = log22 = 1 .’. N=1000∗1 = 1000 bps
b. For ASK, r = log22 = 1 .’. N=1000∗1 = 1000 bps
c. For BPSK, r = log22 = 1 .’. N=1000∗1 = 1000 bps
d. For 16-QAM, r = log216 = log224 = 4 log22 = 4 .’. N=1000∗4 = 4000 bps
13. What is the number of bits per baud for the following techniques?
a. ASK with four different amplitudes
b. FSK with 8 different frequencies
c. PSK with four different phases
d. QAM with a constellation of 128 points.
r=log 2 L
Ans: For the number of bits (r) per baud, we use the formula:
Here, L = type of the signal element, which is given in each case.
a. For ASK, r = log24 = log222 = 2 log22 =2

b. For FSK, r = log28 = log223 = 3 log22 =3
c. For PSK, r = log24 = log222 = 2 log22 =2
d. For QAM, r = log2128 = log227 = 7 log22 =7
14. Draw the constellation diagram for the following:

a. ASK, with peak amplitude values of 1 and 3
b. BPSK, with a peak amplitude value of 2
c. QPSK, with a peak amplitude value of 3
d. 8-QAM with two different peak amplitude values, I and 3, and four different phases.
Ans: Apologies, Later will solve.
15. Draw the constellation diagram for the following cases. Find the peak amplitude value for each
case and define the type of modulation (ASK, FSK, PSK, or QAM). The numbers in parentheses
define the values of I and Q respectively.
a. Two points at (2, 0) and (3, 0).
b. Two points at (3, 0) and (-3, 0).
c. Four points at (2, 2), (-2, 2), (-2, -2), and (2, -2).
d. Two points at (0 , 2) and (0, -2).
Ans: Apologies, Later will solve.
16. How many bits per baud can we send in each of the following cases if the signal
constellation has one of the following number of points?
a. 2
b. 4
c. 16
d. 1024.
r=log 2 L
Ans: For the number of bits (r) per baud, we use the formula:
Here, The number of points define the number of levels, (L) for each case.
a. r = log22 = 1
b. r = log24 = log222 = 2 log22 = 2
c. r = log216 = log224 = 4 log22 = 4
d. r = log21024 = log2210 = 10 log22 = 10
17. What is the required bandwidth for the following cases if we need to send 4000 bps?
Let d = 1.
a. ASK
b. FSK with 2∆f =4 KHz
c. QPSK
d. 16-QAM.
Ans: Given, bit rate, N = 4000 bps
factor, d = 1
N 4000
B= ( 1+d ) S ( 1+d ) ( 1+1 )
a. For ASK, r = 1 .’. Bandwidth, = r = 1 = 8000
bps
N 4000
B=( 1+d ) +2 ∆ f ( 1+1 ) +4
b. For FSK, r = 1, .’. r = 1 *103 = 12000
bps
N 4000
B=( 1+d ) ( 1+1 )
c. For QPSK, r = 2 .’. r = 2 = 4000 bps
N 4000
B=( 1+d ) ( 1+1 )
d. For 16-QAM, r = 4 .’. r = 4 = 2000 bps
18. The telephone line has 4 KHz bandwidth. What is the maximum number of bits we
can send using each of the following techniques? Let d = 0.
a. ASK
b. QPSK
c. 16-QAM
d.64-QAM.
N B∗r
B=( 1+d ) N=
Ans: We know the formula, r .’. ( 1+d )
Given, B = 4 KHz; d=0

4∗1
N=
a. r = 1 .’. ( 1+0 ) = 4 kbps
4∗2
N=
b. r = 2 .’. ( 1+0 ) = 8 kbps
4∗4
N=
c. r = 4 .’. ( 1+0 ) = 16 kbps
4∗6
N=
d. r = 6 .’. ( 1+0 ) = 24 kbps
19. A corporation has a medium with a 1-MHz bandwidth (lowpass). The corporation needs to
create 10 separate independent channels each capable of sending at least 10 Mbps. The company
has decided to use QAM technology. What is the minimum number of bits per baud for each
channel? What is the number of points in the constellation diagram for each channel? Let d =O.
Ans: Given, umber of channel = 10
10 Mbps
.’. Bit rate for each channel= 10 = 1 Mbps
1 MHz
.’. bandwidth for each channel = 10 = 105 Hz. = 100 KHz
Now, We find the value of r for each channel:

N N 1 Mbps
B=( 1+d ) => r=( 1+ d ) = ( 1+0 ) = 10
r B 100 KHz
r=log 2 L r 10
.’. For the number of levels, we know formula: => L = 2 =2
= 1024 This means that we need a 1024-QAM technique to achieve this data rate.
20. A cable company uses one of the cable TV channels (with a bandwidth of 6 MHz)
to provide digital communication for each resident. What is the available data rate
for each resident if the company uses a 64-QAM technique?
Ans: Given Bandwidth, B = 6 MHz
r=log 2 64
For 64-QAM, =6
N B∗r 6 MHz∗6
B=( 1+d ) N= ¿
Now, we can use the formula: r => ( 1+d ) (1+0 ) = 36 Mbps
So, Data rate is 36 Mbps.
21. Find the bandwidth for the following situations if we need to modulate a 5-KHz voice.
a. AM
b. PM (set β =5)
c. PM (set β =1).
Ans: Given, FCC bandwidth, B = 5 KHz
a. AM Bandwidth formula, BAM = 2 × B =2×5 = 10 KHz
b. FM Bandwidth formula, BFM = 2 (1 + β) B = 2×(1 + 5)×5 = 60 KHz
c. PM Bandwidth formula, BPM = 2 (1 + β) B = 2×(1 + 1)×5 = 20 KHz
22. Find the total number of channels in the corresponding band allocated by FCC.
a. AM
b. FM
Ans:
a. According to FCC Bandwidth (5 KHz),
AM Bandwidth is 10 KHz per channel.
We know, carrier frequency of AM stations between 530 KHz to 1700 KHz
1700−530
n=
.’. Number of Channel, 10 = 117
b. According to FCC, FM Bandwidth is 200 KHz per channel

We know, carrier frequency of FM stations between 88 MHz to 108 MHz
( 1 0 8−88 ) MHz 20 MHz
.’. Number of Channel, n= 200 KHz = 200 KHz = 100
CHAPTER 6
Bandwidth Utilization
Review Questions
1. Describe the goals of multiplexing.
Ans: Multiplexing is a term used to refer to a process where multiple analog message signals or
digital data streams are combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share an
expensive resource. Multiplexing is provided by the Physical Layer of the OSI model, while
multiple access also involves a media access control protocol, which is part of the Data Link
Layer.
2. List three main multiplexing techniques mentioned in this chapter.

Ans: In chapter six, three multiplexing techniques mentioned. Such as:
i. Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
ii. Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)
iii. Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
3. Distinguish between a link and a channel in multiplexing.

Ans: In multiplexed system n-lines (channels) share bandwidth of one link. That means, link
refers to the physical path and channel refers to the portion of a link that carries a transmission
between a given pair of lines.
4. Which of the three multiplexing techniques is (are) used to combine analog signals? Which of the
three multiplexing techniques is (are) used to combine digital signals?
Ans: The Wave division multiplexing and the Frequency division multiplexing are used to
combine analog signals. The Time division multiplexing is used to combine digital signals.
5. Define the analog hierarchy used by telephone companies and list different levels of the hierarchy.
Ans: Telephone companies have multiplexing analog signal from low-bandwidth to high-
bandwidth line. The analog hierarchy uses voice channels (4 KHz), groups (48 KHz), super-
groups (240 KHz), master groups (2.4 MHz), and jumbo groups (15.12 MHz).
6. Define the digital hierarchy used by telephone companies and list different levels of the hierarchy.
Ans: Telephone companies have multiplexing digital signal from low rate data tohigh-bandwidth
line. The digital hierarchy uses DS-0 (64 Kbps),DS-1 (1.544 Mbps), DS-2 (6.312 Mbps), DS-3
(44.376 Mbps) and DS-4 (274.176 Mbps).
7. Which of the three multiplexing techniques is common for fiber optic links? Explain the reason.
Ans: Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is common for fiber optic links because it
allows the multiplexing of signals with a very high frequency. Optic fiber data rate is higher than
metallic transmission cable.
8. Distinguish between multilevel TDM, multiple slot TDM, and pulse-stuffed TDM.
Ans:
Multilevel TDM Multiple slot TDM Pulse-stuffed TDM

Multilevel TDM is used when Multi slot TMD is used when Pulse-stuffed TMD is used
the data rate of an input line is many slot in a frame produce when bit rate sort are not
a multiple of others 1 singleline. multiple. So we add dummy to
make it the same.
make it lower make it higher make it equal
9. Distinguish between synchronous and statistical TDM.

Ans:
Parameter Synchronous TDM Statistical TDM
Working In Synchronous TDM data flow of In Statistical TDM slots are allotted
each input connection is divided into dynamically. i.e. input line is given
units and each input occupies one slots in output frame if and only if it
output time slot has data to send.
No. of Slots In Synchronous TDM number of In Statistical TDM, Number of slots in
slots in each frame are equal to each frame are less than the number of
number of input lines. input lines.
Synchronizatio Synchronization bits are used at the No synchronization bits are used
n beginning of each frame.
Capacity Max. Bandwidth utilization if all The capacity of link is normally is less
inputs have data to send. than the sum of the capacity of each
channel.
Buffers Buffering is not done, frame is sent Buffering is done and only those
after a particular interval of time inputs are given slots in output frame
whether someone has data to send or whose buffer contains data to send.
not.
10. Define spread spectrum and its goal. List the two spread spectrum techniques discussed in this
chapter.
Ans: Spread spectrum is when multiplexing combined signal from several sourceachieve
bandwidth efficiency. Spectrums are design to used in wireless application. Two spectrum
techniques are FHSS and DDSS.
11. Define FHSS and explain how it achieves bandwidth spreading.

Ans: The frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) technique uses M different carrier
frequencies that are modulated by the source signal. At one moment,the signal modulates one
carrier frequency; at the next moment, the signalmodulates another carrier frequency.
12. Define DSSS and explain how it achieves bandwidth spreading.

Ans: The direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) technique expands the bandwidth of the
original signal. It replaces each data bit within bits using a spreading code.
Exercises
13. Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz. We need to multiplex 10 voice
channels with guard bands of 500 Hz using FDM. Calculate the required bandwidth .
Ans: Given, Channel Bandwidth = 4 KHz
Number of Channel = 10
Guard bands = 500 Hz = 0.5 KHz
To multiplex 10 voice channels, we need 9 guard bands.
.’. required bandwidth, B = 4×10 + 0.5×9 = 44.5 KHz
14. We need to transmit 100 digitized voice channels using a pass-band channel of 20 KHz. What
should be the ratio of bits/Hz if we use no guard band?
20 KHz
B=
Ans: Here, the bandwidth allocated to each voice channel, 100 = 200 Hz.
We know that, data rate of each digitized voice channel = 64 Kbps.

64 K bps 64000
.’. Modulation technique uses the ratio is, 2 00 = 200 = 320 bits/Hz
15. In the analog hierarchy of below Figure, find the overhead (extra bandwidth for guard band or
control) in each hierarchy level (group, supergroup, master group, and jumbo group).
Ans:
a. Group level: Given, Number of channel =12 , Each channel Bandwidth = 4 KHz
Group Level Bandwidth = 48 KHz .’. overhead = 48 − (12 × 4) = 0 Hz.
b. Supergroup level: Given, Number of group =5 , Each group Bandwidth = 48 KHz
Supergroup Level Bandwidth = 240 KHz .’. overhead = 240 − (5 × 48) = 0 Hz.
c. Master group: Here,Number of supergroup =10 , Each supergroup Bandwidth = 240 KHz
Mastergroup Level Bandwidth = 2.52 MHz = 2520 KHz
.’. overhead = 2520 − (10 × 240) = 120 KHz.
d. Jumbo Group: Here,Number of mastergroup=6,Each mastergroup Bandwidth= 2.52 MHz
Mastergroup Level Bandwidth = 16.984 MHz
.’. overhead = 16.984 − (6 × 2.52) = 1.864 MHz
16. We need to use synchronous TDM and combine 20 digital sources, each of 100 Kbps. Each
output slot carries 1 bit from each digital source, but one extra bit is added to each frame for
synchronization. Answer the following questions:
a. What is the size of an output frame in bits?
b. What is the output frame rate?
c. What is the duration of an output frame?
d. What is the output data rate?
e. What is the efficiency of the system (ratio of useful bits to the total bits).
Ans:
a. Number of digital Source = 20 output slot carries = 1 bit Synchronizing extra bit = 1
.’. Frame size = 20 × 1 + 1 = 21 bits.
b. Each frame carries 1 bit from each source. Source bandwidth = 100 Kbps = 100000 bps
.’. Frame rate = 100000 frames/s.
1 1
c. Frame duration = Frame rate = 100000 = 10-5 s = 10 μs
d. Data rate = frame rate × frame size = 100000 × 21 = 2.1 Mbps

20
×100
e. In each frame 20 bits out of 21 are useful. .’. Efficiency = 21 = 95%
17. Repeat Exercise 16 if each output slot carries 2 bits from each source.
Ans:
a. Number of digital Source = 20 output slot carries = 2 bit Synchronizing extra bit = 1
.’. Frame size = 20 × 2 + 1 = 41 bits.
b. Each frame carries 2 bit from each source. Source bandwidth = 100 Kbps = 100000 bps
100000
.’. Frame rate = 2 = 50000 frames/s
1 1
-5
c. Frame duration = Frame rate = 50000 = 2 × 10 s = 20 μs
d. Data rate = frame rate × frame size = 50000 × 41 = 2.05 Mbps

40
×100
e. In each frame 40 bits out of 41 are useful. .’. Efficiency = 4 1 = 97%
18. We have 14 sources, each creating 500 8-bit characters per second. Since only some of these
sources are active at any moment, we use statistical TDM to combine these sources using character
interleaving. Each frame carries 6 slots at a time, but we need to add four-bit addresses to each slot.
Answer the following questions:
a. What is the size of an output frame in bits?
b. What is the output frame rate?
c. What is the duration of an output frame?
d. What is the output data rate?
Ans:
a. Given, per second = 8 bit, add more 4 bit Frame carries = 6 slots
.’. Frame size = 6 × (8 + 4) = 72 bits.
b. Here, number of slot = 6, that means 6 input lines.

Each frame needs to carry 1character (8 bit) from each of these lines.
500
.’. The frame rate = 1 = 500 frames/s.
1 1
c. Frame duration frame rate = = 500 = 2 × 10-3 s = 2 ms
d. Data rate = frame rate × frame size = 500 × 72 = 36 kbps.
19. Ten sources, six with a bit rate of 200 kbps and four with a bit rate of 400 kbps are to be
combined using multilevel TDM with no synchronizing bits. Answer the following questions
about the final stage of the multiplexing:
a. What is the size of a frame in bits?
b. What is the frame rate?
c. What is the duration of a frame?
d. What is the data rate?
Ans:
We combine six 200-kbps sources into three 400-kbps. Now we have seven 400-kbps channel.
a. Each output frame carries 1 bit from each of the seven 400-kbps line.
.’. Frame size = 7 × 1 = 7 bits.
b. Each frame carries 1 bit from each 400-kbps source.
.’. Frame rate = 400000 frames/s.
1 1
c. Frame duration = frame rate = 400000 = 2.5 μs.
d. Output data rate = frame rate × frame size = 400,000 × 7 = 2.8 Mbps..
20. Four channels, two with a bit rate of 200 kbps and two with a bit rate of 150 kbps, are to be
multiplexed using multiple slot TDM with no synchronization bits. Answer the following
questions:
Ans:
a. From first two sources frame carries 4 bits
From second two sources frame carries 3 bits.
.’. Frame size = 4 × 2 + 3 × 2 = 14 bits.
b. In first two sources, frame carries 4 bits from each 200-kbps
In second two sources, frame carries 3 bits from each 150 kbps.
200000 150000
.’. Frame rate 4 = 3 = 50000 frames/s.
1 1
c. Frame duration = frame rate = 50000 = 20 μs.
d. Output data rate = frame rate × frame size = 50,000 × 14 = 700 kbps.
21. Two channels, one with a bit rate of 190 kbps and another with a bit rate of 180 kbps, are to
be multiplexed using pulse stuffing TDM with no synchronization bits. Answer the following
questions:
Ans: Given, first source bit rate = 190 kbps

Second source bit rate = 180 kbps
Now, we add extra bits to the second source to make both rates = 190 kbps.
a. The frame carries 1 bit from each source. Frame size = 1 + 1 = 2 bits.
b. Each frame carries 1 bit from each 190-kbps source. Frame rate = 190000 frames/s.
1 1
c. Frame duration = frame rate = 190000 = 5.3 × 10-6 s = 5.3 μs
d. Output data rate = frame rate × frame size = 190000 × 2 = 380 kbps.
Here the output bit rate is greater than the sum of the input rates (370 kbps) because of
extra bits added to the second source.
22. Answer the following questions about a T-1 line:

a. What is the duration of a frame?
b. What is the overhead (number of extra bits per second)?
Ans:
1 1
a. T-1 line sends 8000 frames/s. .’. Frame duration = frame rate = 8000 = 125 μs.
b. Each frame carries one extra bit. .’. Overhead = 8000 × 1 = 8 kbps
23. Show the contents of the five output frames for a synchronous TDM multiplexer that
combines four sources sending the following characters. Note that the characters are sent in the
same order that they are typed. The third source is silent.
a. Source 1 message: HELLO
b. Source 2 message: HI
c. Source 3 message:
d. Source 4 message: BYE
Ans: TDM multiplexar: 4 input
24. Figure shows a multiplexer in a synchronous TDM system. Each output slot is only 10 bits
long (3 bits taken from each input plus 1 framing bit). What is the output stream? The bits arrive
at the multiplexer as shown by the arrows.
Ans:
25. Figure 6.35 shows a demultiplexer in a synchronous TDM. If the input slot is 16 bits long (no
framing bits), what is the bit stream in each output? The bits arrive at the demultiplexer as shown
by the arrows.
Ans:
26. Answer the following questions about the digital hierarchy in Figure 6.23:
a. What is the overhead (number of extra bits) in the DS-l service?
b. What is the overhead (number of extra bits) in the DS-2 service?
c. What is the overhead (number of extra bits) in the DS-3 service?

d. What is the overhead (number of extra bits) in the DS-4 service?
Ans:
27. What is the minimum number of bits in a PN sequence if we use FHSS with a channel
bandwidth of B =4 KHz and Bss =100 KHz?
Ans:
28. An FHSS system uses a 4-bit PN sequence. If the bit rate of the PN is 64 bits per second,
answer the following questions:
a. What is the total number of possible hops?
b. What is the time needed to finish a complete cycle of PN?
Ans:
29. A pseudorandom number generator uses the following formula to create a random series:
Ni+1 =(5 +7Ni) mod 17-1
In which Nj defines the current random number and Nj +1 defines the next random number. The
term mod means the value of the remainder when dividing (5 + 7Nj ) by 17.
Ans:
30. We have a digital medium with a data rate of 10 Mbps. How many 64-kbps voice channels
can be carried by this medium if we use DSSS with the Barker sequence?
Ans:
CHAPTER 7
Transmission Media
Review Questions
1. What is the position of the transmission media in the OSI or the Internet model?
Ans: The transmission media is located beneath the physical layer and controlled by the physical
layer.
2. Name the two major categories of transmission media.

Ans: The two major categories of transmission media are guided media and unguided media.
3. How do guided media differ from unguided media?
Ans:
guided media Unguided media
Guided media have physical boundaries unguided media are unbounded
4. What are the three major classes of guided media?.

Ans: The three major classes of guided media are twisted-pair cables, coaxial cables, and fiber
optic cables.
5. What is the significance of the twisting in twisted-pair cable?

Ans: The main reason for twisting in a twisted pair cable is cancelling out any electromagnetic
interference (EMI) that may be given out by external sources. These external sources could
include crosstalk from other nearby pairs of cables or electromagnetic radiation given out by
pairs of twisted cables that are not shielded (UTP - unshielded twisted pair). This method was
created by Alexander Graham Bell.
6. What is refraction? What is reflection?

Ans:
Reflection: This occurs when a wave travelling in one medium strikes the surface of a different
medium and changes direction so that it returns back into the medium in which it was originally
travelling in. Simply put the waves bounce back. Examples of reflection are light waves striking
a mirror or echoes in which sound waves are reflected of a solid surface.
Refraction: The speed at which a wave travels is dependent upon the medium in which it travels
along or through. The speed of a wave changes when a wave moves from one medium to
another. This change in wave speed is accompanied by a change in wavelength and change in
direction. It is this change of direction or bending of the wave as it passes from one medium to
another that is called refraction. Example, light travelling from air into water.
7. What is the purpose of cladding in an optical fiber?

Ans: Optical fiber transmits optical signals using refraction of that signal. For refraction to
happen the densities at the refracting media should be different. For this purpose a cladding is
used. Cladding is of higher density so that optical signal can undergo refraction and transmit the
signal to long distances.
8. Name the advantages of optical fiber over twisted-pair and coaxial cable.
Ans: Advantages of optical fiber over twisted-pair and co -axial cable are:
i. Higher Bandwidth
ii. Less signal attenuation and other losses
iii. Electromagnetic isolation
iv. Less weight
v. Smaller in the size but Great capacity.
9. How does sky propagation differ from line-of-sight propagation?

Ans: Sky propagation is not limited to send signals to receivers, line-of-sight is dependent on
direction, range and objects which may occur between sender and receiver.
Sky propagation is not limited in sense of distance of source and destination and not restricted by
being in range or in direction with antennas. In this case, signals are sent towards space and then
signals have vast range to reach receivers back to the earth. We should consider this thing, Sky is
the beyond the troposphere and ionosphere. When signals gone beyond these spheres so when
satellite will reflect those signals back, they will have much vast access to receivers.
On other hand line-of-sight propagation is limited because of earth curvature. If antennas (source
and target) are not directional, not facing each other or something preventing to establish the
connection so communication won’t be made.
10. What is the difference between Omnidirectional waves and unidirectional waves?
Ans:
Omnidirectional waves Unidirectional waves
omnidirections meant that ‘different directions’ unidirectional means waves having single
direction.
Omnidirectional devices broadcast or receive Unidirectional devices are focused on picking
their signals from all directions. up or transmitting their signals in one
direction.
Example: Cell phone antennas will pick up Example: Having a microphone that will give
signals from everywhere around the device. you and your subject undivided attention.
Exercises
11. Using Figure 7.6, tabulate the attenuation (in dB) of a 18-gauge UTP for the indicated
frequencies and distances.
Ans: Attenuation/or I8-gauge UTP:

Distance dB at 1 KHz dB at 10 KHz dB at 100 KHz
1 Km -3 -5 -7
10 Km -30 -50 -70
15 Km -45 -75 -105
20 Km -60 -100 -140
12. Use the result of Exercise 11 to infer that the bandwidth of a UTP cable decreases with an
increase in distance.
Ans: As the Table 7.1 shows, for a specific maximum value of attenuation, the highest frequency
decreases with distance. If we consider the bandwidth to start from zero, we can say that the
bandwidth decreases with distance. For example, if we can tolerate a maximum attenuation of 50
dB (loss), then we can give the following listing of distance versus bandwidth.
Distance Bandwidth
1 Km 100 KHz
10 Km 50 KHz
15 Km 1 KHz
20 Km 0 KHz
13. If the power at the beginning of a 1 KIn 18-gauge UTP is 200 mw, what is the power at the end
for frequencies 1 KHz, 10 KHz, and 100 KHz? Use the result of Exercise 11.
Ans: We can use Table 7.1 to find the power for different frequencies:
1 KHz dB = -3 P2 = P1 ×10−3/10 = 100.23 mw
−5/10
10 KHz dB = -5 P2 = P1 ×10 = 63.25 mw
100 KHz dB = -7 P2 = P1 ×10−7/10 = 39.90 mw
14. Using Figure 7.9, tabulate the attenuation (in dB) of a 2.6/9.5 mm coaxial cable for the indicated
frequencies and distances
Ans: Attenuation/or 2.6/9.5 mm coaxial cable:

Distance dB at 1 KHz dB at 10 KHz dB at 100 KHz
1 Km -3 -7 -20
10 Km -30 -70 -200
15 Km -45 -105 -300
20 Km -60 -140 -400
15. Use the result of Exercise 14 to infer that the bandwidth of a coaxial cable decreases with the
increase in distance.
Ans: As Table 7.2 shows, for a specific maximum value of attenuation, the highest frequency
decreases with distance. If we consider the bandwidth to start from zero, we can say that the
bandwidth decreases with distance. For example, if we can tolerate a maximum attenuation of 50
dB (loss), then we can give the following listing of distance versus bandwidth.
Distance Bandwidth
1 Km 100 KHz
10 Km 1 KHz
15 Km 1 KHz
20 Km 0 KHz
16. If the power at the beginning of a 1 KIn 2.6/9.5 mm coaxial cable is 200 mw, what is the power
at the end for frequencies 1 KHz, 10KHz, and 100 KHz? Use the result of Exercise 14.
Ans: We can use Table 7.2 to find the power for different frequencies:
1 KHz dB = -3 P2 = P1 ×10−3/10 = 100.23 mw
−7/10
10 KHz dB = -7 P2 = P1 ×10 = 39.90 mw
100 KHz dB = -20 P2 = P1 ×10−20/10 = 2.00 mw
17. Calculate the bandwidth of the light for the following wavelength ranges (assume a propagation
speed of 2 x 108 m):
a. 1000 to 1200 nm
b. 1000 to 1400 nm.
c
f=
Ans: We can use the formula λ , Here, c is the speed of propagation
a. B = [(2 × 108)/1000×10−9] − [(2 × 108)/ 1200 × 10−9] = 33 THz

b. B = [(2 × 108)/1000×10−9] − [(2 × 108)/ 1400 × 10−9] = 57 THz
18. The horizontal axes in Figure 7.6 and 7.9 represent frequencies. The horizontal axis in Figure
7.16 represents wavelength. Can you explain the reason? lfthe propagation speed in an optical fiber is
2 x 108 ill, can you change the units in the horizontal axis to frequency? Should the vertical-axis
units be changed too? Should the curve be changed too?
Ans:
a. The wave length is the inverse of the frequency if the propagation speed is fixed. This means
all three figures represent the same thing.
b. We can change the wave length to frequency. For example, the value 1000 nm can be written
as 200 THz.
c. The vertical-axis units may not change because they represent dB/km.
d. The curve must be flipped horizontally.
19. Using Figure 7.16, tabulate the attenuation (in dB) of an optical fiber for the indicated
wavelength and distances.
Ans: Attenuation for optical fiber:

Distance dB at 800 nm dB at 1000 nm dB at 1200 nm
1 Km -3 -1.1 -0.5
10 Km -30 -11 -5
15 Km -45 -16.5 -7.5
20 Km -60 -22 -10
20. A light signal is travelling through a fiber. What is the delay in the signal if the length of the
fiber-optic cable is 10 m, 100 m, and 1 Km (assume a propagation speed of 2 x 108 ill)?
distance
The delay=
Ans: propagation speed . Therefore, we have:
10
Delay=
a. 2∗108 = 0.05 ms
100
Delay=
b. 2∗108 = 0.5 ms
1000
Delay=
c. 2∗108 = 5 ms
21. A beam oflight moves from one medium to another medium with less density. The critical
angle is 60°. Do we have refraction or reflection for each of the following incident angles? Show
the bending of the light ray in each case.
a. 40°
b. 60°
c. 800
Ans:
a. The incident angle (40 degrees) is smaller than the critical angle (60 degrees). We have
refraction. The light ray enters into the less dense medium.
b. The incident angle (60 degrees) is the same as the critical angle (60 degrees). We have
refraction. The light ray travels along the interface.
c. The incident angle (80 degrees) is greater than the critical angle (60 degrees).We have
reflection. The light ray returns back to the more dense medium.

Review Questions: Identify The Five Components of A Data Communications System?

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1|Page MD.

Saidur Rahman KohinooR

2. What are the advantages of distributed processing?

4. What are the advantages of a multipoint connection over a point-to-point connection?

5. What are the two types of line configuration?

6. Categorize the four basic topologies in terms of line configuration.

7. What is the difference between half-duplex and full-duplex transmission modes?

d. Bus: one backbone and n drop lines

11. What is an internet? What is the Internet?

12. Why are protocols needed?

13. Why are standards needed?

3. Which layer in the Internet model is the user support layer?

5. What is a peer-to-peer process?

Ans: The data link layer is responsible for

d. Log-in and log-out procedures: session layer

Figure 3.1 Solution to Exercise 19

Bandwidth = 200  0 = 200

Figure 3.2 Solution to Exercise 20

c. bit rate = 1/(bit duration) = 1 / (20 Ps/10) = 1 / (2 Ps) = 500 Kbps

Figure 3.3 Solution to Exercise 27

Figure 3.4 Solution to Exercise 28

33. 100,000 bits / 5 Kbps = 20 s

This means that the minimum

2. Distinguish between a signal element and a data element.

3. Distinguish between data rate and signal rate.

4. Define baseline wandering and its effect on digital transmission.

5. Define a DC component and its effect on digital transmission.

6. Define the characteristics of a self-synchronizing signal.

7. List five line coding schemes discussed in this book.

8. Define block coding and give its purpose.

9. Define scrambling and give its purpose.

10. Compare and contrast PCM and DM.

Ans: Given, data rate N = 1 Mbps = 106 bps. Case factor c = ½.

Average Number of Changes = (0 + 0 + 8 + 4) / 4 = 3 for N = 8

16. Repeat Exercise 15 for the NRZ-I scheme.

17. Repeat Exercise 15 for the Manchester scheme.

Average Number of Changes = (15 + 15 + 8 + 12) / 4 = 12.5 for N = 8

18. Repeat Exercise 15 for the differential Manchester scheme.

Average Number of Changes = (16 + 8 + 12 + 12) / 4 = 12 for N = 8

Average Number of Changes = (0 + 7 + 7 + 7) / 4 = 5.25 for N = 16

Average Number of Changes = (0 + 7 + 4 + 3) / 4 = 4.5 for N = 8

Ans: The 8 bit data stream can be found as

2. Define carrier signal and its role in analog transmission.

3. Define digital-to-analog conversion.

6. Define constellation diagram and its role in analog transmission.

8. Define analog-to-analog conversion?

Here, N = Bit rate, which is given in each case.

a. For FSK, r = log22 = 1 .’. N=1000∗1 = 1000 bps

b. For ASK, r = log22 = 1 .’. N=1000∗1 = 1000 bps

c. For BPSK, r = log22 = 1 .’. N=1000∗1 = 1000 bps

d. For 16-QAM, r = log216 = log224 = 4 log22 = 4 .’. N=1000∗4 = 4000 bps

a. For ASK, r = log24 = log222 = 2 log22 =2

14. Draw the constellation diagram for the following:

Given, B = 4 KHz; d=0

Now, We find the value of r for each channel:

So, Data rate is 36 Mbps.

b. According to FCC, FM Bandwidth is 200 KHz per channel

2. List three main multiplexing techniques mentioned in this chapter.

3. Distinguish between a link and a channel in multiplexing.

Bandwidth = 200 0 = 200