Research Methodology

Chapter 6

Report Writing

Wondwossen Bogale (PhD)

Assistant Professor, Addis Ababa Institute of Technology, AAU
[email protected]
 6. REPORT WRITING
What is Report writing ?
• A report is a clearly structured document in which the
researcher identifies and examines issues, events, or findings of a
research.
• As a matter of fact even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly
well designed and conducted research study, and the most
striking generalizations and findings are of little value unless
they are effectively communicated to others.
• Writing of report is the last step in your research study.
• It requires a separate set of skills to write reports.
• May seek the assistance and guidance of experts for the
purpose.
• Written reports give scope for future references
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 6. REPORT WRITING
1. It is essential to share the results of our findings. Research
costs money and those who supply the money must get something
of value in return.
2.It is through research that the totality of the human body of
knowledge increases.
3. Human knowledge belongs to all humanity, it must be shared
and made available publicly.
4. Knowledge is the only commodity in the world that actually
increases in value and extent only when shared. The
researcher’s duty is to increase knowledge.
5.We must share our experiences with our colleagues to assist
them in their quests.

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 6. REPORT WRITING
6. We must expose our work to critique by those who can evaluate our
work in terms of value, interest and accuracy.
7. We must publish so that we can give credit to those whose work has
been instrumental in us arriving at our findings.
8. We must publish so as researchers’ professional value can only be
evaluated in terms of their output.
Types of research Articles :
Research results may be published in many ways. These are some of the
more traditional ones:
1. A journal article
2. A conference paper
3. An article in a trade or scholarly periodical
4. A thesis
5. A research report

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6. REPORT WRITING

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 6. REPORT WRITING

IT IS USUALLY A LOT EASIER TO

WRITE THESIS OR RESEARCH REPORTS
THAN TO WRITE JOURNAL OR
CONFERENCE PAPERS

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 6. REPORT WRITING
1. Begin writing up the report as soon as you can. Do not leave it
until you have finished your thesis.
2. Write down ideas as soon as you get them, rather than leaving
them to the writing-up stage. Keep a research diary where you can
safely note any ideas. Do not imagine that you will be able to
remember these ideas at a later date.
3. Be aware of the nature of the report and the intended
audience.
4. If you are writing for a journal, ensure that your research fits
within the scope of that journal’s objectives as well as its
editorial requirements.
5. You will not be able to write the final report out first time. You
will need to rewrite it a number of times before it reaches
completion.
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 SIGNIFICANCE OF REPORT WRITING
Research report is considered a major component
of the research study for the research task remains
incomplete till the report has been presented and/
or written.
The purpose of research is not well served unless
the findings are made known to others.
The task of report writing must be accomplished by
the researcher with utmost care and he may seek
the assistance and guidance of the experts.

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 THE IMRAD FORMAT
• IMRAD is an acronym that stands for the common
sections of a scientific research or lab report :
Introduction, Method and Result Discussion
• Introduction : What was the question ?
• Methods : How did you try to answer it ?
• Results : What did you find?
• Discussion : What does it mean?

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THE IMRAD FORMAT

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THE IMRAD FORMAT

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 ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT
• Title
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Literature review
• Problem statement
• Objectives
• Scope or Delimitations
• Methodology
• Results
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• Appendix
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 TITLE
• The title of your research proposal should state your
topic exactly in the smallest possible number of words.

• Good title :Concise title that gives reviewer a general

sense of what you are investigating.

• Bad title : Too long and technical of a title will not

gain the reviewer’s attention or interest.

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 ABSTRACT
• This information should be included in the abstract:
• Introduction/background/problem statement: Give a
basic idea of what the scientific issue(s) are and what
question(s) you are trying to answer
• Methods: Provide a very brief high-level sketch of what
subjects or methods you used to investigate the
research question
• Results: Give KEY results only; What is the “newspaper
headline” or main finding(s) of the study?
• Conclusion: Describe the significance of your key
findings, what they mean, and what their implication is
on the field.
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 ABSTRACT
• An abstract is a shortened version of a research article, thesis, review paper,
conference proceeding, or any in-depth analysis of a particular subject or
discipline and should contain all information necessary for the reader to determine:
(1) Background
(2) Motivation or problem Statement
(3) What the objectives of the study were
(2) How the study was done
(3) What results were obtained
(4) and the conclusion or significance of the results
• Its purpose is to provide a summary of the whole report or thesis
• Frequently, readers of a scientific journal will only read the abstract. Thus, it should
be written carefully to have the greatest impact in as few words as possible.
What does a good abstract do?
• Sparks interest in your project
• Provides a concise description of your research project
• States in a clear and simple way the main points of your project
• Stands alone

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 EXAMPLE 1 : ABSTRACT
By Wondwossen Bogale (Published on African Journal, 2010)

Background: Wood charcoal has been the primary fuel for cooking in Ethiopia because it is
cheap and easily available.
Problem Statement: However, using wood charcoal has consequences on health and
pollution because of smoking.
Objectives : This study aims at providing a biomass as an alternative to wood charcoal using
agricultural wastes (dry leaves, coffee husk, sugarcane trash, grass, etc) converted into
charcoal briquettes to provide much needed source of cheap fuel that is cleaner in burning.
Methods: Simple extruder machine is used as die to make the briquette charcoal. Moreover,
an effective carbonizes to change the agricultural waste into charcoal and an effective stove to
burn and use the charcoal for cooking is used.
Results: The manual extruder machine has a capacity of pressing 30kg/hr and the carbonizer
converts 15kg of input agricultural wastes into 5kg of burned charcoal with in 25 minutes. The
stove is effective so that three meals are cooked at a time using 100g briquette charcoal.
Conclusion: As compared to wood charcoal the charcoal briquette produced from agricultural
wastes are economical, environmentally friendly, healthy (no smoke at all) and reduce impact
of deforestation.
Key words: Pollution, deforestation, extruder, carbonizer, wood charcoal, briquette
charcoal, agricultural wastes, pyrolysis
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 EXAMPLE 2
• A tri-generation system based on polymer electrolyte
fuel cell and desiccant wheel – Part A: Fuel cell system
modelling and partial load analysis

• Behzad Najafi, Stefano De Antonellis, Manuel Intini,

Matteo Zago, Fabio Rinaldi, Andrea Casalegno

• Department of Energy, Politecnico di Milano, Via

Lambruschini 4, 20156 Milano, Italy

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 EXAMPLE 2
• Background : Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell
(PEMFC) based systems have recently received
increasing attention as a viable alternative for meeting
the residential electrical and thermal demands.
• Problem Statement : However, as the intermittent
demand profiles of a building can only be addressed by
a tri-generative unit which can operate at partial loads,
the variation of performance of the system at partial
loads might affect its corresponding potential benefits
significantly. Nonetheless, no previous study has been
carried out on assessing the performance of this type of
tri-generative systems in such conditions.
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 EXAMPLE 2
• Objectives : The present paper is the first of a two part
study dedicated to the investigation of the performance
of a tri-generative system in which a PEMFC based
system is coupled with a desiccant wheel unit. This
study is focused on evaluating the performance of the
PEMFC subsystem while operating at partial loads.
• Methodology : Accordingly, a detailed mathematical
model of the fuel cell subsystem is first developed and
validated using the experimental data obtained from the
plant’s and the fuel cell stack’s manufacturer. Next, in
order to increase the performance of the plant, two
modifications have been proposed and the resulting
performance at partial load have been determined.
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 EXAMPLE 2
• Result : The obtained results demonstrate that applying both
modifications results in increasing the electrical efficiency of
the plant by 5.5%. It is also shown that, while operating at
partial loads, the electrical efficiency of the plant does not
significantly change; the fact which corresponds to the trade-
off between the increment in the gross electrical efficiency and
the lower slope of decrement in the auxiliary losses.
• Conclusion: The obtained results are suitable to be
employed to assess the performance of the overall tri-
generative system, conducted in the second part of the study,
while meeting intermittent load profiles.
• Keywords: Tri-generation, Fuel cell, Proton exchange
membrane, Fuel processor, Partial load analysis
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 EXAMPLE 3 : ABSTRACT
A Preliminary Comparative Performance Evaluation of Highly Efficient Waste-to-Energy Plants
Wondwossen Bogale a,b, Federico Vigano a,b
a Department of Energy, Politecnico di Milano, Via Lambruschini 4, 20156 Milan, Italy

b LEAP(Laboratorio Energia Ambiente Piacenza),Via Bixio 27/C, 29121, Piacenza, Italy

When looking for sustainable energy systems, Waste-to-Energy plants play a relevant role.
Therefore performance evaluation of these plants in order to increase their efficiency is of great
relevance to the field of engineering. In the present paper, highly efficient Waste-to-Energy plants
are modeled and analyzed from the thermodynamic and technological points of view. Four existing
plants constructed in Amsterdam/the Netherlands, Reo Nord/Denmark, Brescia/Italy and Germany
were considered. The different methods aiming at increasing the efficiency adopted in these plants
have been discussed and compared by using available data in the literature. The performance
evaluation was carried out using a proprietary code developed at Politecnico di Milano. A
sensitivity analysis was performed to investigate the effects of the plant size, condenser pressure,
oxygen content and flue gas temperature at boiler exit on the efficiency of the plants. The results
show that adopting a new configuration for steam cycle increases the efficiency of the plant, thus
also reducing the corrosion of boiler tubes. It is also demonstrated that the proposed configuration
leads to a net lower heating value efficiency of 33% .

Keywords : Efficiency, Combustion, Grate, Waste-to-Energy

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 EXAMPLE 4 : ABSTRACT
Estimation of wind energy potential in complex terrain using Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) – A case Study for the Province of Parma, Italy
Wondwossen Bogale
Abstract
In this paper, Computational Fluid Dynamics model is used to asses the wind energy potential
of the province of Parma, Italy. Due to the complexity of the terrain, wind energy
assessment is a challenging task compared with flat terrain since several factors that
affect wind flow like turbulence, flow separation, and high inflow angles result in a variable
distribution of wind speed over a small distance. To get a better accuracy, Computational
Fluid Dynamics model is used since it takes into account also the turbulence caused by
mountains. Existing data collection, domain preparation, mesoscale simulations and detailed
micro-siting considering legal and environmental restrictions have been employed to build
the wind map of the province. The simulation result is also validated using available data in
the literature. Based on the micro-siting and mesoscale simulation results, six locations are
selected and the optimal positions for wind turbines are determined considering higher wind
speed locations as well as the dominant wind directions. This study also show that the total
rated wind power and the expected total energy that can be harnessed from the six selected
wind farms is 25.5MW and 70.78GWh/yr respectively.
Key words: Wind energy, Complex terrain, CFD, mesoscale, micro-siting
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 INTRODUCTION
• The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary
background or context for your research problem.
• How to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest problem in
proposal writing.
• The introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem
area, with a focus on a specific research problem, to be followed by
justification of study.
The introduction generally covers the following elements :
• State the research problem
• Provide the context and set the stage for your research question in such a
way as to show its necessity and importance.
• Clearly indicate why it is worth doing.
• Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed
• Identify the key independent and dependent variables of your research
• State your hypothesis or theory

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INTRODUCTION

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 INTRODUCTION
• The first section of the paper is the Introduction.
Here is where you summarize what questions or
hypotheses you are pursuing and why. What are the
missing gaps in the scientific database that this
work fills? This section also gives readers an
opportunity to understand the major points of
content background in the field. Typically, the
introduction can be organized in the following way:
• Paragraph 1: Context—Explain why this research is
important to public health, science, or technology;
Tell the readers why this topic is an important one
to study
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 INTRODUCTION
• Paragraph 2: Gaps—Describe what gaps exist in
the knowledge base that this research was
designed to address; Explain the scientific “hole”
in knowledge or controversy that this research is
attempting to fill or solve
• Paragraph 3: Hypothesis being tested—Explain
what you set out to do and why (what is the
hypothesis to be tested?).

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 Methods to write Introduction
• Broad theme or topic of the study
• Narrowing the topic
• Make it specific
• Literature review
• Point out of the gap
• Reveal the research question
• Significance of solving this problem
• Objectives

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 INTRODUCTION – EXAMPLES
• When seeking sustainable energy systems, Waste-to-Energy plants play a
great role. However, bringing long-term solutions in solid waste
management that are highly efficient, environmentally safe, socially
acceptable, extremely reliable and cost effective is a very challenging task.
…………
• From the waste management perspective, Waste-to-Energy represents a
very effective and easily manageable way to divert large amount of waste
from landfills [1]. From energy perspective, energy recovery from waste
can contribute up to 10 % of the energy needs of industrialized countries
[2]. From an environmental perspective, modern WTE technologies can
achieve levels of pollutant emissions among the lowest once imposed by the
various legislations [3].
• However, the energy performance of these plants is highly affected by so
many factors….Thus, performance evaluation of Waste-to-Energy plants in
order to increase the efficiency, reduce the cost of investment without
facing corrosion problems of boiler tubes in an environmental friendly way
has a great engineering relevance. Thus, it is worth doing this..
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 Example 2 : Introduction - Alternative organic fluid to enhance the
performance of Aluto Langano geothermal power plant in Ethiopia
Samson Alemayehu, Wondwossen Bogale
• Broad them or topic of the study : The expected rapidly increasing energy demand of the globe and the unexpected
rapid industrial and economic development of developing countries, like China and India, have resulted in a significant
increase in energy demand and worldwide energy consumption. This ever increasing energy demand has led humankind
on a quest for sufficient and efficient power sources. The desire to find sufficient energy by using power generation
plants has led to overexploitation of resources. At the same time, power plant equipments have been improved more
efficiently. However, these solutions have also resulted in resource depletion, environmental pollution, and excess
carbon dioxide emission. Consequently, given all the present and future challenges of the planet, the World Commission
on Environment and Development presented a conceptual report in 1987 entitled “Our Common Future” (WCED, 1987).
The report focuses on global issues and addresses the problems from three different angles; economic growth,
environmental protection and social equity and proposed “Sustainable Development” as the general solution to these
problems. Since then, people, more specifically, scholars and environmentalists across the globe have shown their
concern to the environment by fighting all devastating actions and proposing alternative ways to deal with these
situations. Accordingly, hunting for cleaner, cheaper and more sustainable energy resources for replacing traditional
fossil fuel dependent energy systems with sustainable energy systems has got worldwide attention in the past few
decades [1]. Wind, solar, hydropower and geothermal energies are among the sustainable and/or renewable energy
sources that could satisfy our energy demands while least affecting the balance of the ecosystem. While nuclear energy
has been used as an alternative source of energy for over half a century, recently bio-fuels (such as ethanol, biodiesel,
etc.) have also become widely accepted alternatives to fossil fuels [2].
• Narrowing the topic: Geothermal energy is one of the proven renewable energy sources for direct heat and reliable
base load power generation. The earth’s geothermal energy was originally conceived from the formation of planets, and
is replenished at approximately 80% by radioactive decay of minerals (i.e. uranium, thorium and potassium) at a rate of
30 TW [3], and 20% by residual heat from the earth’s interior such as volcanic activities and solar energy absorbed by
earth surface [3,4]. Thus, the geothermal energy is the earth’s internal heat, naturally present in the earth’s core,
mantle and crust, and flowing to the surface by conduction [5, 6].
• Make it Specific: Ethiopia, one of the few countries with geothermal potential in Africa, is endowed with a substantial
amount of this energy system which is found scattered along the Ethiopian Rift Valley and the Danakil Depression. Since
the late 1970’s, geo-scientific surveys mostly comprising geology, geochemistry, and geophysics, were carried out at, from

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 Example 2 : Introduction - Alternative organic fluid to enhance the
performance of Aluto Langano geothermal power plant in Ethiopia
Samson Alemayehu, Wondwossen Bogale
• south to north, the Abaya, Corbetti, Aluto-Langano, Tulu Moye and Tendaho prospects [7]. In addition, a reconnaissance
survey of ten sites in the central and southern Afar has been carried out, some of these being followed up by more detailed
surface investigation. The geothermal potential of Ethiopia is approximated to be well over 1.0 GW [8]. Parsons Brinckerhoff
(PB) has also carried out a project about development potential of geothermal in Ethiopia on the sites considered for
development (2013) [9]. Even though Ethiopia has a huge geothermal potential, Aluto-Langano is the first geothermal power
plant with a net capacity of 7.2 MWel that is installed power plant. This implies, Ethiopia is using only 0.002 % of its
geothermal potential.
• Literature review on Aluto-Langano: Number of researches and studies has been made on the problems and current
situation of Aluto-Langano geothermal power plant. Feasibility study for the expansion of the Aluto-Langano Geothermal power
has been recently completed by Japanese researcher. The study indicated expansion of the Aluto Geothermal power plant to
can give additional 35 MW el [10].
• Point out the gap: Even if, the cumulative results and findings of these studies and researches are the ground for making the
plant operational, they focused on identifying and clearing out of the root cause problems of the existing system and
hydrothermal properties of the geothermal fluid [12, 13].
• Reveal the research question: Even though, analysis of all and main problems related to the hydrothermal properties of the
geothermal fluid and related technical problems of Aluto- Langano geothermal power plant has been discovered enough, it is
very hard to find a detailed study of the plant performance, real thermodynamic causes of malfunctioning of the geothermal
power plant and possibility of maximizing the energy performance of Aluto-Langano has not been studied.
• Significance of solving this problem: Therefore, understanding the real cause of the plant, knowing how the plant behaves at
different operating conditions and the possibility of maximizing the plant performance will benefits the future intended
geothermal projects in Ethiopia.
• Objectives: This study aims to contemplate on propose possible alternative solutions for non-revitalized hydrothermal
properties of the production wells and their corollary problems related to the power production. The focus of this study is on
thermodynamic analysis of the system for different working conditions and parameters (i.e. working fluid pressure and
temperature, organic fluids, condenser pressure and insulations), by creating different simulation scenarios with different
boundary conditions. The first objective is to design simulation layout and parameter fixing the factory design outcome as initial
boundary condition. The second objective is to design alternative optimized parameters and technical renovations for
reactivating Aluto -Langano geothermal power plant with feasibly acceptable and possible maximized output.
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 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of a research project summarize what is to be achieved by
the study.
• should be closely related to the statement of the problem
• General objectives states what is expected to be achieved by the study
in general terms
Specific objectives
• These are a breakdown of the general objectives
• Systematically address the various aspects of the problem
SMART Objectives
• Specific
• Measurable
• Achievable/attainable
• Realistic
• Time bound
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 DELIMITATIONS
• All research has limitations and thus certain work that will not
be performed
• The work that will not be undertaken is described as the
delimitations of the research
Example :
• This research project was intended to find innovative grate
combustor + steam cycle configuration based Waste-to-Energy
plants with the objectives of increasing the efficiency of the
plant, reducing the cost of electricity production without
facing corrosion problems of boiler tubes in an environmentally
friendly way. Waste gasification and pyrolysis are not
included in this research project. However, a detailed
comparison of each technology has been presented in the
introduction section.
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 LITERATURE REVIEW

• A literature review is both a summary and

explanation of the complete and current state of
knowledge on a limited topic as found in academic
books and journal articles.

• It is an assessment of the literature and provides a

summary, classification, comparison and
evaluation.

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 Purpose of the Literature Review
• It gives readers easy access to research on a
particular topic by selecting high quality articles
or studies that are relevant, meaningful,
important and valid and summarizing them into
one complete report
• It provides an excellent starting point for
researchers beginning to do research in a new area
by forcing them to summarize, evaluate, and
compare original research in that specific area
• It ensures that researchers do not duplicate work
that has already been done.
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 Purpose of the Literature Review

• It can provide clues as to where future research is

heading or recommend areas on which to focus

• It highlights key findings

• It identifies inconsistencies, gaps, contradictions in

the literature

• It provides a constructive analysis of the

methodologies and approaches of other researcher

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 Why do we write literature reviews?
• Determine what has already been written on a
topic
• Provide an overview of key concepts
• Identify major relationships or patterns
• Identify strengths and weaknesses
• Identify any gaps in the research
• Identify any conflicting evidence
• Provide a solid background to a research paper’s
investigation

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 LITERATURE REVIEW
• The balls in the top of the funnel are
categories of works that are relevant
to your investigation, but do not
specifically address what you are
doing.
• The next layer of works will be works
that are closer to what you are doing,
but still do not match directly.
• As you move down in your literature
review funnel, the categories should
get closer and closer to the research
that you are going to undertake.
• Eventually you may find that a
category contains only two or three, or
possibly even one work.
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 METHODS FOR ORGANIZING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

• By subject (if lit review covers more than one subject)

• Chronologically
• By theme, idea, trend, theory, or major research studies
• By author
• By argumentative stance
Note : In all methods, relationships between elements (e.g.,
subject, theme, author, etc.) must be shown.

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 A good literature review
• Demonstrates that the author is knowledgeable
about the prior work on the relevant topic(s)

• Identifies research gaps

• Develop precisely stated research questions for their

own further research

• Positions an empirical article or a thesis with

respect to prior literature

• Develops theory.
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 Demonstrating knowledge
• The literature review shows reviewers or examiners that
the author is familiar with relevant prior and current
relevant research. If at all possible, researchers MUST
read the actual material they are citing. If one merely
includes a paper based on what someone else said
about it, one runs the risk of reporting on, and/or
using, or even citing that paper incorrectly.
• If I had then referenced either article incorrectly,
knowledgeable readers could perceive that I was a lazy
and careless author or even worse, that I was unethical
in pretending to read what I had not. Reviewers of
submitted work will be familiar with the papers in the area
and once they detect an error in someone’s work, they will
doubt that author’s overall credibility.
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 Identifying research gaps
• A research gap might be viewed as something that
has not been formally researched before. When
reviewing prior work it is good to check a “call for
future research”. This is when the author(s) note a
limitation in their own work, or prior work on the
topic as a whole and suggest that future research
should be done, to fill this gap. These calls can
give you (and other researchers who read your
review) future research ideas.
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Generating specific research questions
• Most research is motivated by a general research
purpose or observed practical problem that the
researcher wants to address
• Literature reviews can provide justification for the
importance of the overall research purpose.
• The research gaps noted in the review can be used to
develop specific research questions
• Asking specific research questions that can be
answered by the proposed research are important, be
cause reviewers and examiners will judge the finished
work partly on whether the researcher actually
answered the questions they promised to answer.

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 Positioning research
• Reviewing the literature exposes the researcher to the
various current problems and issues and more importantly,
the ongoing debates in their area.
• This may then suggest to them which discussion(s) they
want to join, and which journal(s) might be suitable
outlets for their work (since those journals are currently
interested in those discussions).
• To clearly establish which conversation is being joined and
extended, researchers need to know what has already
been done, what is wrong with what has already been
done, and how they are contributing to what has
been done – this is called “positioning” one’s work
with respect to prior literature.
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 Developing theory
• A deep familiarity with the literature is essential when
drawing out implications of the research in the
discussion section and answering the all important
question of how the new work informs, extends or even
changes what is already known about the focal
concept(s), relationships and/or issues.
• The knowledge the authors gain from doing their
literature reviews will help researchers to develop the
hypotheses that they intend to test.
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 THE LITERATURE REVIEW WRITING PROCESS

• Step 1 : Choose a topic – Focus and Explore this topic

– Topics you are familiar with and interested in
– Topics your readers and other researchers interested in
• Step 2 : Research – collect scholarly information and
sources
• Step 3 : Analyze the network of information and select
works
– Uses though maps and charts to identify intersections of the
research and outline important categories
– Select the material most useful for your review
• Step 4 : Describe and summarize each selected articles
– Determine 2-3 important concepts or findings in each articles
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 THE LITERATURE REVIEW WRITING PROCESS

• Step 5 : Demonstrate – how concepts in the literature

relate to results ; establish how the literature is
connected
– Identify the missing parts in previous studies that your study
addresses
– Highlight concepts that support your hypothesis, methods
,results and conclusions
– Identify unaddressed issues in previous studies
• Step 6 : Identify relationships in the literature and
connect your own ideas to previous studies
– Focus on the connections b/n the literature and the current
study or guiding concept/argument

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 Literature review Matrix
• The main point of the analysis

• Summarize the article you read

• Present in a table these important points

1. Number
No Reference Study Focus Research Findings
Parameters gap

2. Reference 1
2
3. Study parameters 3

4. Focus 4
5
5. Research Gap 6

6. Findings
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 TIPS FOR CREATING A STRONG LITERATURE REVIEW

• Clearly define your topic and audience first

• Read many literature reviews and articles

• Focus more on current sources

• Take notes while reading literature

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LITERATURE REVIEW : BE ORIGINAL. FIND A GAP

• Value of a research lies in its contribution to

knowledge
• Should strive to show clearly how the previous
research is lacking in some way
• This lack is called a “ gap ”
• Your research contributes to “fill” the gap.
• Ask yourself : What is the gap in that specific area ?
• Why is the gap you have identified so important?
• Why is it worth to investigate this particular gap?
• What is the benefit from studying that gap ?

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LITERATURE REVIEW : BE ORIGINAL. FIND A GAP

Five Types of Gaps

• Knowledge-based : Most common, occurs when we

don’t know (enough) about a phenomenon

• Relationship – based : occurs when we know about

certain issues but are unsure about their relationship

• Theory – based : occurs when a theory or an aspect

of a theory has not been investigated thoroughly, or
not been tested in a particular way
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LITERATURE REVIEW : BE ORIGINAL. FIND A GAP

• Methodological : occurs when a research design or

methodology has not been applied to a particular
phenomenon

• Analytical : occurs when a phenomenon has not

been investigated using a particular analytical
approach i.e., qualitative vs. quantitative

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 LITERATURE REVIEW

• Three key points

1. What does what you are studying matter ?

2. What has been done before ?

3. What are you doing that is novel or interesting ?

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 What does what you are studying matter ?

• Why does what you are studying matter ?

– Don’t expect the reader to work this out

– Examples :

• Reduced fuel burn is good for the Environment

• Improved hip joints will allow grannies to get to the shops

• Building a flight simulator will result in better educated

engineers

• Provide references for your assertions

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 Example
• Improving turbine efficiency is very important
as it saves fuel.
• Rose (1994) reported that a 0.1 % improvement
in specific fuel consumption was worth around $
22,000 a year on a Boeing 747 airplane.

Then in references list :

• Rose, M. (1994). Non axisymmetric endwall profiling
in the hp nvgs of axial flow gas turbine. ASME paper
94-GT-249.

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 What has been done before ?

• Probably the longest section

• Summarize the key points from previous work

• Be analytical :
– What is the advance ?

– What were the authors not able to do ?

• Aim is to convince the reader that you know what

has been gone in this field before you.

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EXAMPLE

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EXAMPLE

57
EXAMPLE

58
What are you doing that is novel or interesting ?

• Probably the most important section

• Justify your research
• Explain why what are you doing is an advance on
what has been done before
– Pervious research have not explored the influence of
trailing edge modeling
– No one has carried out thus experiment before
– This organization don’t have a flight simulator and the
research is to design and build one
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Example

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 CONTENT OF THE REVIEW

• The literature review should have : An introduction,

body and conclusion
• The length of each section depends on whether you
are writing a brief literature review for a research
paper or a whole chapter as part of a dissertation.

• The introduction should provide the reader with the

scale and structure of your review. It serves as a kind
of map.
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 Content of the Review

• The body of the review depends on how you have

organized your key points.

• The conclusion of the review needs to sum up the

main findings of your research into the literature.
The findings can be related to the aims of the
study you are proposing to do. The reader is thus
provided with a coherent background to the
current study.
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 Example – Introduction
• This section of the thesis reviews the various research activities
that have been done before in order to increase the efficiency of
Waste-to-Energy plants, highlights unsolved problems and/or the
gap in this research area together with the recommended
solutions by the authors. Not only the efficiency but also the
economic and environmental analysis has been thoroughly
reviewed. These plants operate over a large portion of their life
span in off-design conditions, especially when they operate in
combined heat and power mode. Therefore, each of the above-
mentioned points shall be reviewed and presented in a
chronological order by giving much more attention on what has
already been done before, the gap in this research area with the
objective of finding the ultimate performance of Waste-to-
Energy plants as well as technical, economic and environmental
implications of the proposed configurations.
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 Example – Body
• High temperature proton exchange membranes were first proposed for fuel cell
applications in 1995 [Ref 1] and demonstrated in 1996 [Ref 2] with hydrogen as a
fuel.The electrolyte membrane is made of phosphoric acid (PA) doped
polybenzimidazole (PBI). .. In the last decade many efforts contributed in
researching membrane physical-chemical properties [Ref 3], proton conductivity
[Ref 4], water drag [Ref 5], degradation [Ref 6], resistance to carbon monoxide
[Ref 7] and methanol oxidation [Ref 8].
• Fewer works are related to the study of anode polarization and pure hydrogen
operation is widely employed on laboratory scale [Ref 9]. Unfortunately, in his
work, the author tested PEFC with high excess of reactants (>10) and very high
CO concentration in the feed (up to 30 %), with the intent of avoiding the
presence of local effects. Unfortunately, in real systems, low stoichiometry is
desired (from 1.2 to 1.3) and thus the onset of local effects is unavoidable
and the resistance to fuel impurities becomes crucial. What’s more, high
temperature promotes the tolerance to fuel impurities, from 0.1% at 120°C to 3%
at 200°C. Recent degradation studies [13] showed however that above 160°C
operation is possible only for limited time. Thus in real system, poisoning of
anode catalyst could become an issue if not properly addressed.
64
 Example : Conclusion
• The importance of finding a new innovative Waste-to-Energy plant
configuration that can increase the energy recovery potential from waste
without facing corrosion problems of boiler tubes in an economical and
environmentally friendly way benefits these facilities a lot. Increasing
efficiency of conversion increases the amount of energy that can be
extracted from solid waste fuel, generates as much sustainable energy as
possible, counterbalances the huge investment cost of the plant by
maximizing the economic income (more power and higher revenue) and
reduces the CO2 emissions. It is important to note that the current waste
policies or legislatives forced the Waste-to-Energy facilities to increase
their energetic efficiencies to tackle the challenges of global climate
change and to secure a reliable energy supply. In this perspective, this
thesis aims to fill the research gap in these areas by finding new ways
to increase the efficiency of the state-of-the-art and highly efficient
Waste-to-Energy plants beyond 30 % (net electric efficiency on LHV
basis) , which is the maximum efficiency achieved nowadays [23] by
proposing a new configurations.
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 Most frequently used sentences in conclusion
part of your literature review
• However, to the best of our knowledge, it is very hard to
find researches that focuses in four of the above
mentioned points at the same time, i.e. : increasing
efficiency beyond the state-of-the-art Waste-to-Energy
plant ( > 30 % on LHV basis), finding cost effective
configuration, reducing the CO2 emissions and most
importantly avoiding the serious problem of corrosion in
boiler tubes. Thus, in this thesis different innovative and
cost effective configuration has been proposed by focusing
on the grate combustor, steam cycle and by contributing
additional measures to further increase the efficiency and
reduce the cost of the plant. This goal has been achieved
by performing a detailed modeling and simulation of the
plants.
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 Most frequently used sentences in conclusion
part of your literature review
• Even though several literatures can be found for biogas
upgrading, it is still needs special attention in reducing the
operational cost of the upgrading system and disseminate the
technologies for a wider use. Especially in Ethiopia, more than
82 % of the population is living in the rural areas and most of
them are farmers. At the same time the rural electrification
rate in Ethiopia is less than 10 % [Ref]. Thus, if we use the waste
from cattle to produced biogas and upgrade it, it can be used for
various applications: compressed gas, electricity generation,
transportation etc. Thus, in this paper, a chemical absorption
method is used to upgrade the biogas (Activated carbon to
remove H2S, Potassium hydroxide and Sodium hydroxide to
remove CO2 and Silica gel to remove H2O). Detailed analysis of
the food waste, raw Biogas and upgraded biogas were
performed.
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 Most frequently used sentences in conclusion
part of your literature review
• Nevertheless, the systems developed in this regard have not
been much successful. However, the use of devices to increase
the mass flow rate through the rotor blades has been proven
feasible through many researches. This study focuses on
conducting a research on performance improvement of small
wind turbine using computational fluids dynamics (CFD) and
experimental analysis. It involves identifying the important
parameters in diffuser designs and their relationship with
velocity increase and, thus, augmentation in power. It focuses on
the parametric relationships of a diffuser for a small, horizontal
axis wind turbine. The output of the research result will range
from being an input for commercial product development
endeavors to an input for other researches on performance
improvement of small wind turbine for rural electrification.

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 Literature review writing approaches
• There are three ways to combine an idea and its
source with your own voice:

• Direct quote

• Paraphrase

• Summary

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 Literature review writing approaches
• Direct quoting: repeats exact wording and directly
represents the author:
– E.g. 'Rain is likely when the sky becomes overcast' (Smith,1988)

• Paraphrasing is repeating an idea in your own

words, with no loss of the author's intended
meaning:
– E.g. As Smith (1988) pointed out in the late eighties, rain may well
be indicated by the presence of cloud in the sky.

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 Literature review writing approaches

• Summarizing - shorten or crystallize a detailed piece

of writing by restating the main points in your own
words
– E.g. Referring to the possible effects of cloudy weather,
Smith (1988) predicted the likelihood of rain.

– Smith (1988) claims that some degree of precipitation

could be expected as the result of clouds in the sky, by
clearly discounted findings of Jones (1986).
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 Method

• If you consider a research study as a delicate

dish of knowledge, a paper’s methods section
would be like a recipe that lists all the
necessary ingredients of the study and how they
need to be combined during cooking.
• Ideally, it allows the dish to be prepared again
with the same result.
• The methods section ties the introduction to the
results section to create a clear story line; it
should present the obvious approach to answer the
research question and define the structure in
which the results will be presented later.
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 Method Section
• The methods section of a paper presenting original
research from a quantitative study has four basic
elements:
– Study design
– Selection of participants – selection criteria/ selection methods
– Data collection
– Data analysis
• It is quite common to use such subheadings to structure the
section (the target journal may offer specific guidance).
• After you have drafted the methods section, ask yourself,
‘‘Would a researcher be able to reproduce our study with
the information I provide in this paper?’’

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 Method Section

Checklist for the methods section

• Include basic information on study design, setting and
subjects, data collection, data analysis, and ethical
approval
• Refer to previous publications from the same large
research project, such as a study protocol, for additional
information (if applicable)
• Consider providing detailed information on the methods as
supplementary materials
• Ask yourself, ‘‘Would a researcher be able to reproduce
the study with the information I provide in this paper?’’
• Note : To master the writing of the methods section it is important to look at many
other examples of methods sections in articles with similar scopes and aims as ours
74
EXAMPLE 1 – WIND ENERGY ASSESSMENT

75
 Example 2 : Method - Alternative organic fluid to enhance the
performance of Aluto Langano geothermal power plant in Ethiopia
Samson Alemayehu, Wondwossen Bogale

• Description of the plant

• Mathematical model

• Modeling and simulation : Matlab

• Initial design state parameters and specifications.

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 Result Section

• The results section of an article presents a clear,

concise, and objective description of the findings
from a particular study and is mostly written in
the past tense.
• The findings are presented without interpretation,
as this should occur in the discussion section only.
• You may think of the results section as
mirroring the methods section: For every
method (what you did), there should be a
corresponding result (what you found) and vice
versa.
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 Result Section

• Keep the story line of your paper in mind:

Findings in the results section should match and
answer the research questions from the
introduction, using the procedures explained in
the methods section.
• Retaining this focus will help you to be more
concise, that is, to decide which findings to
present and which to leave out.

78
 Result Section
Checklist for the results section
• Write the results section in the past tense.
• Structure it by highlighting your key findings
• Match the results section with the methods section.
• Present findings without interpretation.
• Highlight findings from tables and figures in the text.
• Present estimates with 95% confidence intervals.
• Consider providing additional results in tables and
figures as supplementary material.
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 RESULT SECTION
• What did you find out from the method you had employed ?
• The core of the research work
• Often includes tables, figures, or both
• Should present results but not comment on them
To write effective result section :
1. Determine which results to present by deciding which are relevant to the
question(s) presented in the Introduction
2. Organize the data in the Results section in either chronological order
according to the Methods or in order of most to least important.
3. Determine whether the data are best presented in the form of text, figures,
graphs, or tables.
4. Summarize your findings and point the reader to the relevant data in the
text, figures and/or tables.
5. Describe the results and data of the controls and include observations not
presented in a formal figure or table, if appropriate.

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 RESULT- EXAMPLES
Description Unit Design point Optimal point
Msw mass flow rate kg/s 4.45 4.45
Electrical net power kW 10,037.3 10,568.5
Exergy destruction, total kW 35,149.5 34,617.9
Steam mass flow rate kg/s 16.17 16.08
First law efficiency % 21.7153 22.8646
Second law efficiency % 17.5803 18.5108
R1 Index - 0.6500 0.6783
Product exergetic cost toe/h 4.91 4.75
Product spec exergetic cost - 5.69 5.40
Product economic cost €/h 1,937.8 1,932.5
Product spec economic cost €/toe 2,245.4 2,126.7
Per hour revenues €/h 2,775.4 2,850.1
Specific investment costs €/kW,lhv 1,366.2 1,360.9
Specific o&m costs €/kW,lhv 167.5 167.2
Net present value M€ 77.3 83.9
Payback time y 7 6
Deareator pressure bar 2.79 2.79
Turbine inlet steam temperature °C 390.0 415.0
CO2 production kg of CO2/MWhnet 1,609.6 1,528.6
of which non renewable CO2 kg of CO2/MWhnet 805.1 764.6

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RESULT- EXAMPLES

82
 RESULT- EXAMPLES

1300

1200
Non-Biogenic CO2
Biogenic CO2
1100

1000
554.7
900 Coal
kg of CO2 /MWhelnet

800

700 CO2avoided 517.9

600

500

400

300
Natural Gas
587.9 488.6
200 Combined Cycle
100

0
Benchmark case RHQ-170 bar

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Crucial point to be incorporated while writing result section

1. Background information
2. Reporting results
3. Summarizing results
4. Commenting on results
– Step 1: Interpreting results
– Step 2: Comparing results with the literature
– Step 3: Accounting for results
– Step 4: Evaluating results
5. Summarizing the study
6. Evaluating the study
– Step 1: Indicating limitations
– Step 2: Indicating significance/advantage
– Step 3: Evaluating methodology
7. Deductions from the research
– Step 1: Making suggestions
– Step 2: Recommending further research
– Step 3: Drawing pedagogic implication

84
 Result and discussion section
• Background information
– It is used by authors to prepare readers for the report or
discussion of the results that follow. It therefore contained
some important statements such as research questions, the
aims and purposes of a study, the theoretical background or
established knowledge, and the study's research methodology.
• Example 1.This paper reports the results of the detail study of
continuous pyrolysis system for biochar production.
• Reporting results (Obligatory)
– This is to announce the main research finding to the readers. It
is considered to be one of the most important parts in the
writing of research articles.
• Example 2. Regarding the exante design characteristics, we find a
nonlinear, inverted U-shaped relationship between..

85
 Result and discussion section
• Summarizing reports
• Commenting on results (Obligatory)
– The purpose of this section is to establish the meaning
and significance of the research results in relation to the
relevant field and it was realized by four different choices
• Interpreting results
• Comparing results with the literature
• Accounting for results
• Evaluating results
• Comparing results with the literature was the most
important step used while writing research articles.

86
 Result and discussion section
• Summarizing the study
• Evaluating the study (obligatory)
• Indicating limitations
– Example 9. Like every study, our study is subject to a number of
limitations that offer opportunities for future research. First, due
to the relatively small sample size of our study, we were only able
to investigate the direct effects of target achievement and
subjectivity emphasis on fairness perceptions.
• Indicating significance/advantage
– This means the authors tried to claim that to some extent their
research findings were of importance or contributory to the field.
This means that authors tended to state that their research
findings were noteworthy to the field for a number of reasons.
– Example 10. Our findings may help redirect the discussion
surrounding the risk associated with auditors' lack of…
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 Result and discussion section
• Recommending further research
– The authors tried to encourage other researchers to further investigate
or study closely particular areas.

– Example 11: Future research might investigate potential

interactions between the two variables as well as interactions
with the organization's internal policies or external environmental
characteristics.

88
 Result and discussion section
• Deductions from the research
• Making suggestions
– It is was used to draw inferences about the
results by suggesting what can be done to solve
the problems identified by the research.
• Example 5. Our findings suggest that if management wants
to attract high achievers, next to adequate contract design
including performance incentives, management should
regard control aspects.
• Recommending further research
– Pointing out the line of further study
• Example 6. Future research might illuminate whether MA
practice is in need of improvement of control systems or..

89
 Result and discussion section
• Drawing future implication
– Drawing future implication
• Example 7. The implication of our study is that when
determining bonus payouts, supervisors who care about

90
 Result and discussion section
• The purpose of the discussion section is :
– To give the reader a summary of the main findings
– To put them into context by comparing with literatures
– To discuss future implications
– To state any shortcomings of the research design.
• Although the structure of the introduction can be
visualized as a funnel, the discussion can be visualized
as an inverted funnel.
• Thus, the introduction and discussion together form an
hourglass shape.
• The discussion starts with the narrowest part by
answering the research question in the summary of
91
 Result and discussion section
• main findings, and it then gradually widens out to
comparisons with other studies and the interpretation
of the study findings in the wider context of the study
topic.
• Although the results section merely presents data, the
discussion section offers an interpretation of the data,
and should never present new results.
• A typical discussion section consists of:
– Main findings
– Comparison of findings with literatures
– Strengths and limitations
– Implications of the research.
92
 Result and discussion section
• Start by presenting the main findings, by answering
the research question in exactly the same way as you
stated it in the introduction section (see
‘‘Introduction’’).
• If you cannot present the main findings in three
sentences, it may mean that you have forgotten the
storyline of the paper.
• Do not waste words by repeating results in detail, and
only use numbers or percentages if they are really
necessary for your message.
• Do not ignore or cover up inconvenient results.

93
 Result and discussion section
• Reviewers will pick them up anyway, and it weakens
your paper if you try to hide them.
• Also, do mention unexpected findings by explicitly
stating that they were unexpected and did not relate
to a prior hypothesis; such honesty will strengthen
your paper.
• Include a separate subsection about the strengths and
weaknesses of the study.
• Every study has its limitations, and you should make
sure to mention them.
• Sometimes it is possible to counterbalance a limitation
with a specific strength.
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 Result and discussion section
Checklist for the discussion
• Check if the discussion has a clear inverted funnel shape with
distinct sections providing:
• A summary of main findings (What did we find?);
• Comparisons with other studies (What is known?, What is new? and How
does this fit in?)
– When comparing with other studies, discuss the reasons for differences
and similarities with your results and do mention the limitations of those
studies, but be respectful and objective.
• Strengths and limitations (Are the findings true?
• Implications (Are the findings important? What can we do with them?).
• Answer the research question in the first paragraph and check if
this is in line with the research question posed in the introduction.
• Check if the discussion section does not present new results.
• Be frank about acknowledging limitations.
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 Result and discussion section
• This discussion is where you interpret and explain the
significance of your results, and how they fit into the
wider picture of what has already been observed and
reported on the same topic.
• The discussion should start with a brief recap of the
main findings of your study.
• This can be followed by the interpretation of your
results. Pay attention when interpreting not to simply
repeat the results, or at the other end of the scale, not to
over-interpret.
• You should present your findings factually; after all, this
is a scientific article, not a prose novel.
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 Result and discussion section
• Paragraph One : Summarize the key findings in the first
paragraph, but take care not to repeat what was already
included in the previous sections of the paper. Relate
these key findings to the a priori hypothesis that was
stated in the Introduction section.
• Paragraph Two : After you summarize your key findings,
use the second paragraph to state your case: explain your
interpretation of the results and how it relates to what is
already known or more importantly not known in the
literature. Use this section to refer to other reviews and
published papers, but sparingly cite your own work in this
field when relevant to avoid excessive self- referencing.
Clarify what your study adds to the knowledge
97
 Result and discussion section
• Paragraph Three and Four : Use paragraphs three and
four to discuss the possible mechanisms that explain the
results these are key paragraphs of the paper.
• Paragraph Five and Six : Strengths/limitations and
Implications

98
 Conclusions

• What are the larger implications of your work?

• What is the bigger picture?

• Work on incorporating these implications into your

very last sentence

99
 Components of conclusion

• Context of the study

• Stating the main findings

• Compare your result/Validate

• State importance of your findings

• Limitation

• Future work

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 Example 1: Conclusion
• Context of the study: In this study a detailed
experimental analysis to upgrade raw Biogas has
been performed in order to increase the calorific
value and remove unwanted components from the
raw biogas.
• Stating the main findings: Based on the
experimental result shows these innovative
technologies reduce the acidic content (H2S) by 99
% and removes the CO2 by 82 %. Thus, the Methane
content has been increased from 56.7 % to 85 %.
The CO2 content reduces from 36 % to 10 %.
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 Example 1: Conclusion
• Compare your result/Validate: The experimental has
been validated by using data coming from literatures.
• State importance of your findings:
• Limitation: It is highly recommended to do
economic analysis to prove that the additional cost to
upgrade biogas can be returned back by selling the
upgrade Biogas.
• Future work: Future works can be performed by
using different Biogas upgrading technologies to
better select the right technologies that are
efficient, economical and environmental friendly.
102
 Example 2 : Conclusion - Alternative organic fluid to enhance the
performance of Aluto - Langano geothermal power plant in Ethiopia
Samson Alemayehu, Wondwossen Bogale
• Context of the study: In this study a detailed alternative
solution to reactivate and maximize the energy potential of the
Aluto-Langano power plant was suggested by performing
thermodynamic analysis of the system for different working
conditions and parameters.
• Stating the main findings: Based on the result, changing working
fluid, Isobutane instead of Isopentane gives the system better
efficiency and net electric power. Besides, decreasing condenser
pressure up to some acceptable (below the atmospheric pressure
of the location) also improves the efficiency of the power plan to
some measurable units.
• Compare your result/Validate: The model has been validated by
using data coming from the plant operators. The results show
that approximately 0.1 % variations exist between the model and
the real plant net electric power output.
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 Example 2 : Conclusion - Alternative organic fluid to enhance the
performance of Aluto - Langano geothermal power plant in Ethiopia
Samson Alemayehu, Wondwossen Bogale
• State importance of your findings: The method presented in this
article can be applied for modeling of geothermal power plants,
to understand the real cause of the geothermal power plants, to
know how the plant behaves at different operating conditions
and to find possibilities that maximize the energy performance of
the plant.
• Limitation: It is highly recommended to do economic and
environmental analysis to know cost of electricity and avoided
CO2 emissions while maximizing the energy perfume of
geothermal power plant.
• Future work: Future works can be performed to solve the
mechanical problems of the plant, part load performance analysis
and a detailed assessment of temperature and pressure drop
locations on the pipe network of the power plant.

104
 REFERENCES
• Each reference must include the names of all authors
(in the same sequence in which they appear in the
research proposal or thesis), the article and journal
title, book title, volume number, page numbers, and
year of publication.
• The exact format for depicting references within the
body of the text and as well as the end of the research
proposal varies from one discipline to another
• The information you give in the reference list must be
enough for readers to find the books and papers in the
library or a database.

105
 REFERENCES
• Science moves forward by building on the research
work of others, so it is important to appropriately
cite previous work to acknowledge your sources,
underpin your hypothesis, show that you are
familiar with the relevant field, and give credit
to the work of others, as well as avoid being
charged with plagiarism.
• Correct citations will allow readers to get an
overview of the main work done previously within
the field (the web).

106
 REFERENCES
• If you have several references that back up a specific
statement, choose the one you think is most
appropriate. Consider choosing the reference which
1. Provides the highest level of evidence,
2. Is open-access available,
3. Has been most recently published, or
4. Has been published in the journal to which you are
submitting your manuscript.
• The latter will demonstrate to editors that you know
and read their journal (which you should anyway, if
you want to successfully publish with them).
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 REFERENCES
Checklist for citing and references
• Use reference management software at all times.
• Find the requested output style in the author
instructions of the target journal and adhere to it 100%.
• Always cite the original source behind a statement.
• Use your own words to describe facts derived from
references, never copy paste sentences.
• If you need to choose among several references, select
one by considering the level of evidence, open-access,
year of publication, and published in the target journal.
• Check the final reference list for errors.

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REMARKS : CONTRIBUTION

Lucy Academy
THE END

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