1.

2 Ultrastructure of Cells
Prokaryotes
Define prokaryotic cells.

Draw a prokaryotic cell and describe the functions of each structure.

Cell wall: The layer under the capsule, which protects and maintains the
shape of the cell. It is composed of peptidoglycan, a protein complex of a
carbohydrate, not cellulose.

Plasma membrane: The layer under the cell wall which mostly controls
the transport of materials in and out of the cell. It is the only membrane in
a cell, therefore all cellular process occurs within the cytoplasm.
Flagella: Structure(s) that allows the cell to move
Pili: Hair-like structure outside the capsule that joins bacterial cells to
prepare for the transfer of DNA between cells (sexual reproduction). It can
be used for attachment.

70S Ribosomes: Smaller ribosomes present in prokaryotes that conducts

protein synthesis. When multiple ribosomes are present, the appear
granularly to an electron micrograph

Genophone Nucleoid region): Contain one long, continuous, circular

thread of DNA

What are the disadvantages of having their DNA free? 2 points)

other materials e.g enzymes and products may damage the DNA
more vulnerable and exposed to mutations

worse environment (not tailored) for DNA and enzyme activities

What is meant by "naked" DNA?

the DNA strand is not associated with histones (protein)

What are introns? How are they different in prokaryotes vs eukaryotes?

the non-coding sections of the DNA (sections other than genes)

prokaryotes have shorter DNA than eukaryotes

Which part of prokaryotes is shown the lightest through an electron

microscope? Why?

1.2 Ultrastructure of Cells 1

 nucleoid regions, because they are less dense because are not attached to
protein, unlike the cytoplasm, which contains enzymes and ribosomes

Eukaryotes
Define eukaryotic cells.
Cells that has compartmentalised cell structure to allow for specialisation
of different chemical reactions

What is the range of their diameter?

10100μm

Draw a eukaryotic cell and describe the functions of each structure.

ER (endoplasmic reticulum): extensive network of tubules or channels

that extended throughout the cell, from the nuleus to the plasma
membrane.

Function:

Smooth: produces membrane phospholipids, cellular lipids, sex

hormones (e.g testosterone, oestrogen), detoxifies drugs in the liver,
transports lipid-based compounds, helps the liver release glucose
into the bloodstream when needed. It has unique enzymes
embedded on its surface

Rough: packages and transfers the proteins produced from the

ribosomes on its exterior to the golgi apparatus via vesicles

80S Ribosomes: Site for protein synthesis found free in the cytoplasm or
attached to rough ERs

Lysosomes: Dense, spherical, sac-bounded intracellular digestive centre

that contains up to 40 different enzymes. Their interior is acidic to allow
enzymes to hydrolyse large molecules

Function: the enzymes catalyse the breakdown of protein, nucleic acids,

lipids and carbohydrates, and breaks down and recycles old/damaged
organelles inside the cell

Golgi Apparatus: Stacked cisternae (flattened sacs).

Function: collects, packages, modifies and distributes materials that are

synthesised in the cell.

What are the two sides of the golgi apparatus? Explain their role.

1.2 Ultrastructure of Cells 2

 The cis side recieves products from the ER, transports them to the
opposite side (trans side), then carries the modified products to
wherever needed via vesicles.

Mitochondria: Double membrane-bounded, rod-shaped organelles that has

their own circular chromosome and DNA, and can reproduce
independently of a cell via binary fission, similar to a bacterial cell.

Function: produces ATP usable cellular energy to power the

biochemical reactions in the cell

Describe the inner structures of mitochondria.

 DNA a circular chromosome

 Outer membrane is smooth

 Inner membrane is folded into cristae (singular crista) to

increase production of ATP

 Matrix— semi fluid substance

 70S Ribosomes are produced and contained

Which type of cells may contain a large number of mitochondria?

give examples

Cells that requires high amounts of ATP energy e.g muscle cells

Nucleus: Usually spherical with a double membrane. Contains

chromosomes, where DNA and genetic information resides.

Function: controls, isolates and regulates DNA activities, including the

reproduction process

Where is nucleolus? What is its function? Why is it dark?

inside the nucleus, producing and assembling ribosomes, ribosomes

are associated with proteins

What is the chromosome fundamentally composed of?

when uncoiled, it's called chromatin, which contains strands of DNA

and histones, a type of protein. The structure of DNA and histones
is called nucleosome. Therefore chromosomes are made up of the
DNA and histones.

Draw contrasts between a chromosome and chromatin.

1.2 Ultrastructure of Cells 3

 chromosomes are densely coiled, chromatins are uncoiled

chromosomes are found only during cell division, chromatins

are found throughout interphases
chromosomes exist as pairs, chromatins exist as single,
unpaired fibres

What's different about cells without nuclei? Give an example and

their function.
no reproductive abilities

increased specialisation to carry out a certain function

e.g red blood cells are specialised to transport respiratory gases

Centrosome: a pair of centrioles perpendicular to each other, located at

one end of the cell near the nucleus
Function: assembles microtubules to provide structure during mitosis

Vacuoles: single-membrane storage organelle with fluid interior that are

usually formed from the Glogi Apparatus. They are large and permanent in
plant cells, but small and temporary in animal cells
Function:

Plant: Regulates cytpolasmic ions, pH and water balance—

homeostasis, provide nutrition with stored food, expel toxins and
metabolic wastes from the cell, allow uptake of water— provides
rigidity to the organism via turgor pressure

Animal: Absorbs and digests food and maintain water balance— small
role
Chloroplast: Double membrane-bounded organelle that only occurs in
plant cells. It's size is similar to bacteria cells, and it has its own 70S
ribosomes and DNA which is formed in a ring.

Function: convert light energy into stable chemical energy via

photosynthesis, produce glucose

Describe the inner structures of chloroplasts.

grana (sing granum)— stacks of thylakoids

thylakoids— flattened membrane sacs that are necessary for

absorption of light

1.2 Ultrastructure of Cells 4

 storma— fluid that occurs outside the grana, but within the
membrane. it contains enzymes and chemicals necessary to
complete photosynthesis, similar to the cytosol of a cell

How are chloroplasts similar to mitochondria?

have their own DNA and 70S ribosome

can reproduce independently of the cell
double membrane-bound

produces energy

Why do plant cells need both chloroplast and mitochondria,

considering their similarities?
Once the chloroplasts undergo photosynthesis, mitochondria break
down the glucose to make ATP

Outline 3 advantages of compartmentalisation. What's the overall

achievement?

 enzymes are concentrated in a small volume

 optimum level of pH and other conditions

 no other enzymes to disturb the process

all adds up to more efficient and productive chemical processes

Which organelles have double membranes, which have single membranes?

double: mitochondria, chloroplasts, nucleus

smooth: ERs, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, vacuoles

Ultrascructure
What are vesicles?

a collective term for small, membrane-bound organelles that transports

substances in & out of the cell

Which category do these cell kingdoms belong to? Animal, Bacteria, Plant,
Fungi, Archaea, Protist cells.

Prokaryote: Bacteria and Archaea

Eukaryote: Animal, Plant, Fungi and Protist cells

What does the endosymbiotic theory state? What are the proofs?

1.2 Ultrastructure of Cells 5

 That eukaryotic cells have evolved from the amalgamation of multiple
cells.

mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA, double membrane

(indicating the need for extra protection), 70S ribosomes and can divide
individually of the cell
double membrane bound suggests that it already has 1 bound, and became
double as all other organelles have a bound

Compare and contrast between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Similarities:

Has some sort of outside boundary with plasma membrane

Carries out all functions of life

Presence of DNA

cytoplasm

Differences:

nucleoid region vs enclosed nucleus with nuclear envolope

DNA naked in ring form without protein vs DNA with proteins as

chromosomes/chromatin

presence of introns in eukaryotes

mitochondria

ribosome type

compartmentalisation to form organelles

size

Compare contrast between plant and animal cells.

similarities:

membrane-bound organelles

function of organelles

differences:

flexibility in shape— can easily/hardly differenciate

cholesterols in animal plasma membrane

1.2 Ultrastructure of Cells 6

 cell wall

chloroplasts

vacuoles

What functions of the cell can be deduced based on the abundance of:
mitochondria, ER, lysosomes and chloroplasts? Give examples of cell types
for each deduction.

Mitochondria: energy-consuming processes e.g neurons, muscle cells

ER secretory activities (producing) e.g plasma cells, exocrine gland cells

Lysosomes: digestive processes e.g phagocytes

Chloroplasts: photosynthesis e.g plant leaf tissues

What is exocrine gland?

a gland that secretes substances into a duct for transport

Describe the function of exocrine gland cells of the pancreas. Hence or

otherwise, what structures are abundant?
Gland cells: secretion, pancreas: related to digestion→ secrete digestive
enzymes to the small intestine→ synthesise large quantities of proteins +
transport to plasma membrane

abundant in RER, golgi apparatus, ribosomes and mitochondria

Describe the function of palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf. Hence or

otherwise, what structures are abundant?

leaf=photosynthesis

abundant in chloroplasts, large vacuoles to store sugars as starch

What is secretion?

producing and discharging

Which organelle is the most involved with the transport of proteins?

golgi apparatus

Electron Microscope
Define resolution. What's the difference in resolution of electron
microscopes compared to light microscopes?

1.2 Ultrastructure of Cells 7

 resolution: the smallest distance interval distinguishable by the
microscope, which corresponds to the degree of detail in an image
created by the instrument

light microscope has a lower resolution 400700nm) than electron

microscopes 50pm) due to differences in wavelengths

Explain the relationship between resolution and magnification.

same magnification but higher resolution= more detailed image, but same
frame. some organelles can only be seen in higher resolutions despite the
same magnification.
higher resolution allows for higher magnification while keeping relatively
high detail

What's the difference between how light and electron microscopes

function?
electron beam shot + magnets to focus→shorter wavelength→higher
resolution→ examine subcellular structures

How did the improvement of microscopes advance scientific knowledge?

3mks)
beginning: bacteria, unicellular organisms

mid 19th century: mitosis, meiosis, gamate formation, complexity of

organs, mitochondria etc,

light micoscopes were limited to obeserving only structures larger than

0.2μm

1940s electron microscopes: intricate structures of chloroplast and

mitochondria, other ultrastructure of cells.

1.2 Ultrastructure of Cells 8