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104 SURVEYING

5. Find the co-ordinates of the point at which a line run from A on a bearing of W 10° E
will cut the given traverse, and find the length of this line.
9
Line Latitude Departure
N. S E w
AB 1650 440
BC 2875 120
326
Levelling
CD 3643
DE 1450 376
EA 0 0 -

6. Surface and underground traverses have been run between two mine shafts A and B. The 9.1. DEFINITIONS ( Ref. Fig. 9.1)
co-ordinates of A and B given by the underground traverse are 8560 N, 24860 W and 10451 N, Levelling. Levelling is a branch of surveying the object of which is j (1) to find
30624 W respectively. The surface traverse gave the co-ordinates of B as 10320 N and 30415 W, the elevations of given points with respect to a given or assumed datum and 72) to establish
those of A being as before. Assuming the surface traverse to be correct, find the error in both
bearing and distance of the line AB, as given by the underground traverse. points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respect to a given or assupied
detain, the first operation is required to enable the works to be designed while the second
7. The following lengths and bearings were recorded in running a theodolite traverse in the
counter clockwise direction, the length of CD and bearing of DE having been omitted. operation is required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering works. Levelling deals
Line Length in m R.B. with measurements in a vertical plane.
AB 281.4 S 69° 11'E
Level Surface. A level surface is defined as a curved surface which at each point
BC 129.4 N2!°49'E
is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at the point. The surface of a still water is
CD ? N 19° 34' W
a truly level surface. Any surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth
DE 144.5 ?
is, therefore, a level surface.
EA 168.7 S74°24' W
Level Line. A level line is a line lying in a level surface. It is, therefore, normal
Determine the length of CD and the bearing of DE,
to the plumb line at all points.
Horizontal Plane. Horizontal plane through a point is a plane tangential to the level
ANSWERS
surface at that point. It is, therefore, perpendicular to the plumb line through the point.
1. 74.82 m ; 180°
2. AB= 322.5 m ; CD = 305.7 m.
3. 66.5 m.
4. (0 378.25 and 383.0
00 zua.D m
(Hi) 45° 21’
5. 1991 N ; 351 E ; 2021.
6. 0° 34'.5 ; 238.
7. 131 m ; S 46° 9'W.

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196 SURVEYING LEVELLING 197 ;i

Horizontal Line. It is straight line tangential to the level line at a point. It is also levelling, a spirit level and a sighting device (telescope) are combined and vertical distances
perpendicular to the plumb line. are measured by observing on graduated rods placed on the points. The method is also
Vertical Line. It is a line normal to the level line at a point. It is commonly known as direct levelling. It is the most precise method of determining elevations and
I
considered to be the line defined by a plumb line. the one most commonly used by engineers.
Datum. Datum is any surface to which elevations are referred. The mean sea level 9.3. LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS
affords a convenient datum world over, and elevations are commonly given as so much The instruments commonly used in direct levelling are :
above or below sea level. It is often more convenient, however, to assume some other
(1) A level
datum, specially if only the relative elevations of points are required.
(2) A levelling staff.
Elevation. The elevation of a point on or near the surface of the earth is its vertical
1. LEVEL
distance above or below an arbitrarily assumed level surface or datum. The difference in
elevation between two points is the vertical distance between the two level surfaces in The purpose of a level is to provide a horizontal line of sight. Essentially, a level
which- the two points lie. consists of the following four parts :
Vertical Angle. Vertical angle is an angle between two intersecting lines in a vertical (a) A telescope to provide line of sight
plane. Generally, one of these lines is horizontal. (b) A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal
Mean Sea Level. Mean sea level is the average height of the sea for all stages (c) A levelling head (tribrach and trivet stage) to bring the bubble in its centre of run
of the tides. Ac any particular place it is derived by averaging the hourly tide heights (d) A tripod to support the instrument.
over a long period of 19 years. There are the following chief types of levels :
Bench Mark. Bench Mark is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation (0 Dumpy level (fi) Wye (or Y) level
with respect to some assumed datum is known. It is used either as a starting point for (iii) Reversible level (iv) Tilting level.
levelling or as a point upon which to close as a check. (f) DUMPY LEVEL
9.2. METHODS OF LEVELLING The dumpy level originally designed by Gravatt, consists of a telescope tube firmly
Three principal methods are used for determining difference in elevation, namely, secured in two collars fixed by adjusting screws to the stage carried by the vertical spindle. f

barometric levelling, trigonometric levelling and spirit levelling.

Barometric levelling. Barometric levelling makes use of the phenomenon that difference
in elevation between two points is proportional to the difference in atmospheric pressures
at these points. A barometer, therefore, may be used and the readings observed at different
points would yield a measure of the relative elevations of those points.
At a given point, the atmospheric pressure does not remain constant in the course
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and is little used in surveying work except on reconnaissance or exploratory surveys.

Trigonometric Levelling (Indirect levelling) :
Trigonometric or Indirect levelling is the process of levelling in which the elevations
of points are computed from the vertical angles and horizontal distances measured in the
field, just as the length of any side in any triangle can be computed from proper trigonometric
relations. In a modified form called stadia levelling, commonly used in mapping, both the
difference in elevation and the horizontal distance between the points are directly computed FIG. 9.2. DUMPY LEVEL
from the measured vertical angles and staff readings. 1. TELESCOPE 7. FOOT SCREWS
Spirit Levelling (Direct Levelling) : 8. UPPER PARALLEL PLATE (TRIBRACH)
2. EYE-PIECE
It is that branch of levelling in which the vertical distances with respect to a horizontal 9. DIAPHRAGM ADJUSTING SCREWS
3. RAY SHADE
line (perpendiculartothe^direction of gravTtyJjnay^be usedTtd determine the relative'~difference
4. OBJECTIVE END 10. BUBBLE TUBE ADJUSTING SCREWS
uTelevation between two adjacent points. A horizontal plane of sight tangent to level surface
5. LONGITUDINAL BUBBLE 11. TRANSVERSE BUBBLE TUBE
at any point is^readily established by means , of a spirit level or a level vial. In spirit
6. FOCUSING SCREWS 12. FOOT PLATE (TRIVET STAGE).

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SURVEYING LEVELLING 199
198

The modem form of dumpy level has the telescope tube and the vertical spindle cast in The advantages of the dumpy level over the Wye level are:
one piece and a long bubble tube is attached to the top of the telescope. This form is (i) Simpler construction with fewer movable parts.
known as solid dumpy. (ii) Fewer adjustments to be made.
* Fig. 9.2 shows the diagrammetic sketch of a dumpy level. Fig. 9.3 shows the section (iii) Longer life of the adjustments.
of a dumpy level. Figs. 9.4 and 9.5 show the photographs of dumpy levels manufactured 00 WYE LEVEL
by M/s Wild Heerbrugg and M/s Fennel Kessel respectively. Fig. 9.6 shows a dumpy The essential difference between the dumpy level and the Wye level is that in the
level by M/s W.F. Stanley & Co. The name ‘dumpy level’ originated from the fact that former case the telescope is fixed to the spindle while in the Wye level, the telescope
formerly this level was equipped with an. inverting eye-piece and hence was shorter than is carried in two vertical ‘Wye’ supports. The Wye support consists of curved clips. If
Wye level of the same magnifying power. However, modem forms generally have erecting the clips are raised, the telescope can be rotated in the Wyes, or removed and turned
eye-piece so that inverted image of the staff is visible in the field of view. end for end. When the clips are fastened, the telescope is held from turning about its
In some of the instruments, a clamp screw is provided to control the movement axis by a lug on one of the clips. The bubble tube may be attached either to the telescope
of the spindle about the vertical axis. For small or precise movement, a slow motion screw or to the stage carrying the wyes. In the former case, the bubble tube must be of reversible
(or tangent screw) is also provided. type.
The levelling head generally consists of two parallel plates with either three-foot screws Fig. 9.7 shows the essential features of Y-level. The levelling head may be similar
or four-foot screws. The upper plate is known as tribrach and the lower plate is known to that of a dumpy level. In some cases, the instrument is fitted with a clamp and fine
as trivet which can be screwed on to a tripod. * z motion tangent screw for controlled movement in the horizontal plane. Fig. 9.8 shows the
photograph of a Wye level by Fennel Kessel.
The Wye level has an advantage over the dumpy level in the fact that the adjustments
can be tested with greater rapidity and ease. However, the adjustments do not have longer
life and are disturbed more frequently due to large number of movable parts.

Section A-A

FIG. 9.3 SECTIONAL VIEW OF A DUMPY LEVEL.

FIG. 9.7. WYE LEVEL.
1 TELESCOPE 10 BUBBLE TUBE ADJUSTING SCREWS
1. TELESCOPE 9. DIAPHRAGM ADJUSTING SCREWS SCREWS
2 EYE-PIECE 12 FOOT PLATE (TRIVET STAGE)
2. EYE-PIECE 10. BUBBLE TUBE ADJUSTING
3 RAY SHADE 13 CLAMP SCREW
3. RAY SHADE 11. WYE CLIP
4 OBJECTIVE END 14 SLOW MOTION SCREW
4. OBJECTIVE END 12. CLIP HALF OPEN
5 LONGITUDINAL BUBBLE 15 INNER CONE
5. BUBBLE TUBE 13. CLAMP SCREWS
6 FOCUSING SCREW 16 OUTER CONE
6. FOCUSING SCREW 14. TANGENT SCREW
7 FOOT SCREWS 17 TRIPOD HEAD
7. FOOT SCREW 15. TRIVET STAGE.
8. UPPER PARALLEL PLATE (TRIBRACH) 18 TRIPOD.
8. TRIBRACH
9 DIAPHRAGM ADJUSTING SCREWS

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200 SURVEYING LEVELLING 201

(iii) REVERSIBLE LEVEL It is, however, essential that the observer should have the view of the bubble tube while
A reversible Jevel combines the features of both the dumpy level and the Wye level. sighting the staff.
The telescope is supported by two rigid sockets into which the telescope can be introduced Fig. 9.9 shows the essential features of a tilting level. A tilting level is mainly
from either end and then fixed in position by a screw. The sockets are rigidly connected designed for precise levelling work. It has the advantage that due to the tilting screw,
to the spindle through a stage. Once the telescope is pushed into the sockets and the levelling can be done much quicker. However, this advantage is not so apparent when
screw is tightened, the level acts as a dumpy level. For testing and making the adjustments, it is required to take so many, readings from one instrument setting. Fig. 9.10 shows the
the screw is slackened and the telescope can be taken out and reversed end for end. The photograph of a tilting level by M/s Vickers Instruments Ltd.
telescope can also be turned within the socket about the longitudinal axis. 9.4. LEVELLING STAFF
(zv) TILTING LEVEL A levelling staff is a straight rectangular rod having graduations, the foot of the
In the case of a dumpy level and a Wye level, ±e line of sight is perpendicular staff representing zero reading. The purpose of a level is to establish a horizontal line
to the vertical axis. Once the instrument is levelled, the line of sight becomes horizontal of sight. The purpose of the levelling staff is to determine the amount by which the station
and the vertical axis becomes truly vertical, provided the instrument is in adjustment. In (i.e., foot of the staff) is above or below the line of sight. Levelling staves may be divided
the case of tilting level, however, the line of sight can be tilted slightly without tilting into two classes : (z) Self-reading staff, and (it) Target staff. A Self Reading Staff is
the vertical axis. Thus, the line of sight and the vertical axis need not be exactly perpendicular the one which can be read directly by the instrument man through the telescope. A Target
to each other. This feature, therefore, helps in quick levelling. The instrument is levelled Staff, on the other hand, contains a moving target against which the reading is taken
roughly by the three-foot screws with respect either to the bubble tube or to a small by staff man.
circular bubble, thus making the vertical axis approximately vertical. While taking the sight
(0 SELF-READING STAFF
to a staff, the line of sight is made exactly horizontal by centring the bubble by means
of a fine pitched tilting screw which tilts the telescope with respect to the vertical axis. There are usually three forms of self-reading staff :
(a) Solid staff ; (Z>) Folding staff ; (c) Telescopic staff (Sopwith pattern).
Figs. 9.11 (a) and (b) show the patterns of a solid staff in English units while
(c) and (d ) show that in metric unit. In the most common forms, the smallest division

6857861607062^
-=2

ii

■=l
=1
=9
FIG. 9.9 TILTING LEVEL.

1. TELESCOPE 7. FOOT SCREWS "=8

2. EYE-PIECE 8. TRIBRACH -Z8
3. RAY SHADE 9. DIAPHRAGM ADJUSTING SCREWS
(C) ' (d) '
4. OBJECTIVE END 10. BUBBLE TUBE FIXING SCREWS
Metric
5. LEVEL TUBE 11. T1LTIING SCREWS
Centimetres. Half-Centimetres.
6. FOCUSING SCREWS 12. SPRING LOADED PLUNGER
FIG. 9.11. (BY COURTESY OF M/S VICKERS INSTRUMENTS LTD.)
13. TRIVET STAGE.

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SURVEYING LEVELLING 203
202

is of 0.01 ft. or 5 mm. However, some staves may have fine graduations upto 2 mm. black graduations indicates the odd tenth while the bottom shows the even tenth. The hundredths
The staff is generally made of well seasond wood having a length of 10 feet or 3 metres. of feet are indicated by alternate white and black spaces, the top of a black space indicating
odd hundredths and top of a white space indicating even hundredths. Sometimes when the
Fig. 9.12 shows a sopwith pattern staff arranged in three telescopic lengths. When
staff is near the instrument, the red mark of whole foot may not appear in the field
fully extended, it is usually of 14 ft (or 5 m) length. The 14 ft. staff has solid top
of view. In that case, the staff is raised slowly until the red figure appears in cjie field
length of 4' 6" sliding into the central box of 4' 6" length. The central box, in turn, slides
of view, the red figure thus indicating the whole feet.
into lower box of 5' length. In the 5 m staff, the three corresponding lengths are usually
Folding Levelling Staff in Metric Units
1.5 m, 1.5 m and 2 m.
Fig. 9.15 (a) shows a 4 m folding type levelling staff (IS : 1779-1961). The staff
Fig. 9.13 shows a folding staff usually 10 ft long having a hinge at the middle
comprises two 2 m thoroughly seasoned wooden pieces with the joint assembly. Each piece
of its length. When not in use, the rod can be folded about the hinge so that it becomes
of the staff is made of one longitudinal strip without any joint. The width and thickness
convenient to carry it from one place to the other.
of staff is kept 75 mm and 18 mm respectively. The folding joint of the staff is made
Since a self-reading staff is, always seen through the telescope, all readings appear
of the detachable type with a locking device at the back. The staff is jointed together
to be inverted. The readings are, therefore, taken from above downwards. in such a way that :
The levelling staves graduated in English units generally have whole number of feet (a) the staff may be folded to 2 m length.
marked in red to the left side of the staff (shown by hatched lines in Fig. 9.12).. The
The top of these (d) the two pieces may be detached from one another, when required, to
odd lengths of the feet are marked in black to the right-hand side.
♦/ facilitate easy handling and manipulation with one piece, and
r-
(c) when the two portions are locked together, the two pieces become rigid
and straight.
A circular bubble, suitably cased, of 25-minute sensitivity is fitted at the back. The
staff has fittings for a plummet to test and correct the back bubble. A brass is screwed
on to the bottom brass cap. The staff has two folding handles with spring acting locking
device or an ordinary locking device.
Each metre is subdivided into 200 divisions, the thickness of graduations being 5
mm. Fig. 9.15 (b) shows the details of graduations. Every decimetre length is figured
with the corresponding numerals (the metre numeral is made in red and the decimetre
numeral in black). The decimetre numeral is made continuous throughout the staff.
(u) TARGET STAFF
Fig. 9.14 shows a target staff having a sliding target equipped with vernier. The
rod consists of two sliding lengths the lowar on? of approx. 7 ft and the upper one
of 6 ft. The rod is graduated in feet, tenths and hundredths, and the vernier of the target
enables the readings to be taken upto a thousandth part of a foot. For readings below
7 ft the target is slided to the lower part while for readings above that, the target is
fixed to the 7 ft mark of the upper length. For taking the reading, the level man directs
the staff man to raise or lower the target till it is bisected by the line of sight. The
staff holder then clamps the target and takes the reading. The upper part of the staff
is graduated from top downwards. When higher readings have to be taken, the target is
set at top (i.e. 7 ft mark) of the sliding length and the sliding length carrying the target
is raised until the target is bisected by the line of sight. The reading is then on the
back of the staff where a second vernier enables readings to be taken to a thousandth
of a foot.
Relative Merits of Self-Reading and Target Staffs
(0 With the self-reading staff, readings can be taken quicker than with the target
FIG. 9.12 TELESCOPIC STAFF FIG. 9.13 FOLDING STAFF FIG. 9.14 TARGET STAFF
staff.
(BY COURTESY OF M/S VICKERS INSTRUMENTS LTD.)

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