ANALYSIS OF DIURNAL AND SPATIAL VARIABILITY OF

LIGHTNING ACTIVITY IN SOUTHERN INDIA

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of

the requirement for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

In

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINNERING

By

G. SATHYA JAHNAVI (170040268)

T. DEEP (170040841)

N. LOHITH KUMAR (170041057)

Under the Esteemed Guidance of

Dr I. GOVARDHANI
Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

K L (Deemed to be) University
Green Fields, Vaddeswaram
Guntur District – 522502

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 K L (Deemed to be) University
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

DECLARATION

This is certify that the project based report entitled “ANALYSIS OF DIURNAL
AND SPATIAL VARIABILITY OF LIGHTNING ACTIVITY IN SOUTHERN
INDIA” is a bonafide work done and submitted by G. Sathya Jahnavi (170040268), T.
Deep (170040841), N. Lohith Kumar (170041057) in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in
Department of Electronics And Communication Engineering during the academic year
2021-2022.

G. SATHYA JAHNAVI (170040268)

T. DEEP (170040841)

N. LOHITH KUMAR (170041057)

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 K L University

(2021-2022)
K L (Deemed to be) University
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is certify that the project based report entitled “ANALYSIS OF DIURNAL
AND SPATIAL VARIABILITY OF LIGHTNING ACTIVITY IN SOUTHERN
INDIA” is a bonafide work done and submitted by G. Sathya Jahnavi (170040268), T.
Deep (170040841), N. Lohith Kumar (170041057) in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in
Department of Electronics And Communication Engineering during the academic year
2021-2022.

Project supervisor Head of the Department

Dr. I. GOVARDHANI Dr. SUMAN MALOJI

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The success in this project would not have been possible but for the timely help and
guidance rendered by many people. Our wish to express my sincere thanks to all those
who has assisted us in one way or the other for the completion of my project.
Our greatest appreciation to my guide Dr. I. Govardhani, Professor, Department of
Electronics & Communication Engineering which cannot be expressed in words for his
tremendous support, encouragement and guidance for this project.
We express our gratitude to Dr. Suman Maloji, Head of the Department for Electronics &
Communication Engineering for providing us with adequate facilities, ways and means by
which we are able to complete this Project Based Lab.
We thank all the members of teaching and non-teaching staff members, and also who have
assisted me directly or indirectly for successful completion of this project.
Finally, I sincerely thank my parents, friends and classmates for their kind help and co-
operation during my work.

G. SATHYA JAHNAVI (170040268)

T. DEEP (170040841)

N. LOHITH KUMAR (170041057)

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 ABSTRACT

Thunderstorms are disastrous mesoscale weather phenomena with space scale

varying from a few to hundreds of kilo meters and a life span of less than an
hour (30 to < 60 min). It has been estimated that nearly 45000 thunder storms
occur daily in the world, i.e., 16 million thunderstorms each year.

India is also a vast tropical country with unique geographical setup,

physiography and geomorphology, where there is hardly a month without the
occurrence of thunderstorms. For that reason, the concern about severe
weather events like thunderstorms.

So, to decrease this amount of damage caused by thunderstorms and to have a

preventive backup against this lightning activity. We use lightning detectors
which are used to indicate electrical activity, while weather radar indicates
precipitation. Both phenomena are associated with thunderstorms and can
help indicate storm strength.

These lightning detectors detects every intensity, severity, directions,

frequency, and most important the geographical locations where it took place.
So, these detectors calculate the above phenomenon and gives the readings
which are very much useful to predict the direction and geographical
locations where this thunderstorm is moving ahead and with what intensity to
have a backup for this issue.

Lightning strokes, whether direct or indirect, are among the main causes of
power quality disturbances. In order to assist the analysis of lightning effects,
we present an integrated database analysis, including local electric field
measurement, information from lightning location status, and utility
databases.

These thunderstorms have been very much devastating for tropical regions of
southern parts of India. So, in order to maintain preventive measure to this
situation, a brief data analysis on data recorded by lightning detectors have
been very much effective.

Brief analysis on the real time data provided to us by lightning detectors

through which we would speculate on physical terms as electric field
intensity, location, etc. through Excel sheet platform being our primary mode
on getting speculations on graphs, plots, etc.

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To prevent damage due to lightning, every system or organization is using
lightning arrestors, to simply ground the charge caused by lightning. There is
no research done towards the damage done to the signal transmission before
grounding the lightning. We simply can't ignore the fact the certain amount of
damage is done to the signal transmission.So, we decided work in this
direction as there is no research and background work done previously in this
area.

So, the main objective of our work is to perform data analysis on real-time
lightning detector data. To find specific parameters from our data (electric
field). Compare it with real-time signal transmission. And find out how much
deviation is present in signal transmission due to electric field due to
lightning.

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 Table of Contents

CONTENTS PAGE

NO.
CHAPTER 1: LIGHTNING ACTIVITY & IT’S DETECTION 9-24
INTRODUCTION 10-11
TYPES OF LIGHTNING 12-13
LIGHTNING PHENOMENON 14
LIGHTNING EFFECTS 15-19
LIGHTNING DETECTION 20-23
CHALLENGES IN LIGHTNING DETECTION 24
CHAPTER 2: LIGHTNING EFFECT ON 25-35
COMMUNICATION
INTRODUCTION 26
EFFECT ON IONOSPHERE ATMOSPHERE ZONE 27-28
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCED 29-30
FIELD CHARGES REPRESENTATION 31-32
CALCULATION METHODS FOR THESE CHARGES 33-35
CHAPTER 3: OUR PROJECT 36-5
INTRODUCTION TO OUR PROJECT 28-33
PROBLEM DEFINITION 34
LITERATURE REVIEW 35-37
IMPLEMENTATION METHODOLOGY 38
FLOW CHART 39
ENCODING CODE 40-42
OUTPUT-1 43
DATA OBFUSCATION TECHNIQUE ALGORITHM 44-45

MONO CRYPT SSA TECHIQUE ALGORITHM 46

DECODING CODE 47-49

OUTPUT-2 50

RESULT ANALYSIS 51-52

CONCLUSION 53

REFERENCES 54

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CHAPTER – 1

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 LIGHTNING ACTIVITY AND IT’S
DETECTION

Introduction:

Lightning is one of the most beautiful displays we can see in our nature which
can certainly be deadly at times. It is a sudden electrostatic discharge between
the electrically charged regions of the cloud. As we know that it occurs due to
electrically charged storms but still the method of charging of clouds remains
elusive.
In ancient times when amber was rubbed with fur, it attracted light-weighted
objects such as hair. If we change our cloth in the dark we will see or hear
some kind of spark. In 1752, one of the American scientists Benjamin
Franklin said that the phenomenon of sparks from the clothes and lightning is
the same but people did not agree with him and it took 100 years to realize
the truth.

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We have seen electric sparks at many places for example sometimes we see
electric sparks in electric poles when the wires become loose. We also see
sparks in the plug if the connections in the socket are loose. In ancient times
people did not understand the cause of lightning, and they thought that it is
some kind of wrath of gods which is visiting them.

Lightning can be explained in terms of charges produced due to rubbing.

During a thunderstorm, the air currents move upwards and the water droplets
move downwards. And this caused due to the separation of charge due to this
vigorous motion.

As a result of this process, the positive charges collect near the upper edge
and the negative charges accumulate near the lower edge of the cloud and
also near the ground.

As the charge gets accumulated, its magnitude becomes very large. Water
droplets in the air act as a conductor of this charge.

These charges flow to meet, thus producing strikes of lightning and thunder.

For this phenomenon to occur, a sufficiently high electric potential between
two regions and a high resistance medium must be present.
Sometimes lightning may be seen before the thunder is heard and this is
because the distance between the clouds and the surface is very long and the
speed of light is much faster than the speed of sound and hence lightning can
be seen before the thunder is heard. You must know that the lightning
frequency is around 40-50 times a second on Earth.

Most, if not all, lightning flashes produced by storms start inside the cloud. If
a lightning flash is going to strike ground, a channel develops downward
toward the surface. When it gets less than roughly a hundred yards of the
ground, objects like trees and bushes and buildings start sending up sparks to
meet it. When one of the sparks connects the downward developing channel,
a huge electric current surge rapidly down the channel to the object that
produced the spark. Tall objects such as trees and skyscrapers are more likely
than the surrounding ground to produce one of the connecting sparks and so
are more likely to be struck by lightning. Mountains also make good targets.
However, this does not always mean tall objects will be struck. Lightning can
strike the ground in an open field even if the tree line is close by.

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Types of Lightning:

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Lightning is formed by energy transferred from positive and negative charges
in clouds or the ground. There are three primary types of lightning which
include: cloud-to-ground (the most commonly known type), cloud-to-air, and
cloud-to-cloud.
With cloud-to-ground lightning, the rapid discharge of lightning is a channel
of negative charge that is attracted to the positively charged ground. Once the
two charges are connected by the stepped leader (the initial invisible
connection between the two charges) and a positive return stroke from the
positively charged ground, the electrical current that is seen as lightning
forms. Sometimes, the cloud can be positively charged, and the ground
negatively charged, but this doesn’t occur as often. The NSSL states that
cloud-to-air and cloud-to-cloud lightning have 5 to 10 times more lightning
strikes than cloud-to-ground. (Below is a picture of cloud-to-ground
lightning.)
Cloud-to-air lightning is described by the National Weather Service (NWS)
as “lightning that occurs when the air around a positively charged cloud top
reaches out to the negatively charged air around it.” In other words, these
lightning strikes are an attraction between clouds and air that are opposite
charges and never reach the ground. Most of the time though, the positive
charge forms atop of a storm cloud and is attracted towards a negative charge
in the air nearby. (Below is a picture of cloud-to-air lightning.)

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Lastly, there is cloud-to-cloud lightning. The NWS describes this type of
lightning as “lightning that occurs between two or more separate clouds.”
This lightning forms by one cloud being a mostly negative charge and another
being a mostly positive charge, causing the attraction between the two. The
NSSL explains that a type of cloud-to-cloud lightning called a “spider
lightning” are formed underneath stratiform clouds (low-level, thin clouds
that may produce a light drizzle) and flashes travel horizontally. (Below is a
picture of cloud-to-cloud lightning.)
There are a few more lightning types that aren’t necessarily categorized as
part of the three main types of lightning. These lightning types include: red
sprites, blue jets, and elves. Red sprites usually occur above a large
thunderstorm and are normally a red color. Red sprites usually occur during a
cloud-to-ground lightning strike. They can be seen from space as they extend
up to 60 miles above a cloud top. They can reach all the way to the
mesosphere! Blue jets also form above a storm cloud but, unlike red sprites,
they are not associated with cloud-to-ground lightning. They reach up to 22-
35 miles above a cloud and can be seen by aircraft. They can sometimes just
reach the stratosphere. Lastly, elves are described as a glowing disk that can
extend up to 300 miles. This upper-atmospheric lightning can reach the
ionosphere. The Space Shuttle discovered elves in 1992.

Lightning Phenomenon:
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In a fraction of a second, lightning heats the air around it to incredible
temperatures—as hot as 54,000 °F (30,000 °C). That's five times hotter than
the surface of the Sun!

The heated air expands explosively, creating a shockwave as the surrounding

air is rapidly compressed. The air then contracts rapidly as it cools. This
creates an initial CRACK sound, followed by rumbles as the column of air
continues to vibrate.

If we are watching the sky, we see the lightning before we hear the thunder.
That is because light travels much faster than sound waves. We can estimate
the distance of the lightning by counting how many seconds it takes until we
hear the thunder. It takes approximately 5 seconds for the sound to travel 1
mile. If the thunder follows the lightning almost instantly, you know the
lightning is too close for comfort!

Lightning is an important part of weather forecasting. The Geostationary

Lightning Mapper instrument on the GOES-R series satellites can detect
lightning activity over nearly the whole Western Hemisphere.

Scientists use data from GOES-R series satellites, along with data from the
Lightning Imaging Sensor on NASA's Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission
satellite, to study lightning. This complete picture of lightning at any given
time will improve "now-casting" of dangerous thunderstorms, tornadoes, hail,
and flash floods.

Lightning Effects:

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Different effects
The effects of lightning are those of a high-strength impulse current that
propagates initially in a gaseous environment (the atmosphere), and then in a
solid, more or less conductive medium (the ground):

 visual effects (flash): caused by the Townsend avalanche

mechanism
 acoustic effects: caused by the propagation of a shock wave (rise
in pressure) originating in the discharge path; this effect is
perceptible up to a range of around 10 km
 thermal effect: heat generated by the Joule effect in the ionized
channel
 electrodynamic effects: these are the mechanical forces applied to
the conductors placed in a magnetic field created by the high
voltage circulation. They may result in deformations
 electrochemical effects: these relatively minor effects are consist
in the form of electrolytic decomposition in accordance with
Faraday’s law –– induction effects: in a varying electromagnetic
field, each conductor becomes the seat of an induced current
 effects on a living being (human or animal): the passage of a
transient current of a certain rms value is sufficient to incur risks
of electrocution by heart attack or respiratory failure, together
with the risk of burns.

Lightning causes two major types of accidents:

 accidents caused by a direct stroke when the lightning strikes a

building or a specific zone. This can cause considerable damage,
usually by fire. In order to prevent any risk of accident, lightning
air terminals should be used
 accidents caused indirectly, as when the lightning strikes or causes
power surges in power cables or transmission links.
Hence the need to protect with SPD the equipment at risk against
the surge voltage and indirect currents generated.

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Direct effects
Thermal effects: These effects are linked to the amount of charge associated
with lightning strikes. They result in fusion points melting holes of varying
sizes at the point of impact of materials with high resistivity. For material
which is a poor conductor, a large amount of energy is released in the form of
heat. The heating of water vapour contained in the material results in very
high abrupt localized pressure which may cause it to explode.

Effects due to the initiation: In the event of a lightning strike a substantial

increase in the ground potential of the installation will occur depending on the
grounding network and soil resistivity. Potential differences will also be
created between various metal elements. Hence the need to pay particular
attention when installing earth rods and inter-connection of metal structures
adjoining the conductors.

Acoustic effects - thunder: Thunder is due to the sudden increase in pressure

(2 to 3 atmospheres) of the discharge channel developed by the
electrodynamic forces during the lightning flash. The duration of a thunder
clap depends on the length of the ionized channel. For high frequencies,
propagation of the spectral components released by the shock wave is
perpendicular to the channel. For low frequencies, propagation is
omnidirectional; hence the different forms of rumbling or claps heard by an
observer according to the distance and orientation of the successive channels
used by the lightning flash.

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Luminous effects: A lightning strike nearby violently sensitizes the retina of
an observer. The eye is dazzled and vision is lost for several long seconds.

Luminous effects: A lightning strike nearby violently sensitizes the retina of

an observer. The eye is dazzled and vision is lost for several long seconds.

Electrodynamic effects: Electrodynamic effects between conductors and

other parts occur due to large magnetic field of the lightning current. This
results in substantial mechanical forces, both attractive and repulsive, that are
all the stronger when the conductors are close together or the current is high.

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Indirect effects
The ever increasing use of sensitive electronics means that electrical
equipment is becoming more and more vulnerable to transient over voltages
caused by lightning. The over voltages are either of atmospheric origin or
industrial origin. The most harmful are however atmospheric over voltages
which are the result of three main effects:

Conduction: An overvoltage that propagates along a conductor which has

been in direct contact with the lightning strike. This effect is all the more
destructive as the majority of the lightning energy is propagated through the
entire network. This problem is resolved by fitting the installation with
suitable device able to support high currents.

Induction: caused by the electromagnetic field radiated by the lightning

strike. It generates an overvoltage on conductors within a range that is
proportional to the power and the rate of speed variation of the lightning
strike. Consequently, under the influence of abrupt variations in current, the
cables, and even the ducts which act as aerials, may be subjected to
destructive over voltages. This is the reason that placing the network
underground does not guarantee lightning protection.

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Rising up from the ground: When a lightning strike hits, an overvoltage can
rise up from the ground attempting to find a more favorable path to ground.
This can, in part, be dealt with through a) equipotential bonding between the
metal structures and ground of the entire installation of a structure. b)
overvoltage protection installed on services.

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 Lightning Detection:

Lightning detection is the process of detecting lightning produced by

thunderstorms.
There are three basic ways to detect lightning.
Acoustic
Optical
Electric Fields

These methods differ in how they detect lightning and some are more
sophisticated than others.
For example, acoustic lightning detection simply refers to hearing thunder to
detect lightning. We wouldn’t want people or business to plan from this
detection method, so we don’t consider it operational.
We’ll leave that one out as we examine some reliable, operational examples
of optical and electric field detection. These methods are the best way to
perform accurate lightning detection of real-time lightning strikes.

Optical

A reliable example of optical lightning detection is through space based

global positioning satellites.
The Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM) is a satellite-borne transient
detector placed on the GOES-16 satellite in geostationary orbit.
That’s a mouthful! The best way to understand GLM is to understand it as
a really, really advanced camera in space.

When we say they’re geostationary, that just means they don’t move. So,
these detectors are continuously looking at the same spot.

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There is one that looks at the eastern U.S., Atlantic Ocean, and South
America, and there is another in the west that looks at Hawaii and the Pacific
Ocean.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) operates this
advanced piece of lightning detection equipment.

How To Detect Lightning – Optical

This very high-resolution digital camera observes with a frequency of 777nm

(nanometers). This is the frequency that oxygen radiates at.
When lightning heats the air, it radiates the air and gives off light. This
frequency escapes the clouds so satellite-based cameras can capture it.
This lightning detection method is great for finding real-time lightning
strikes.
While this method can’t differentiate between in-cloud and cloud-to-ground
lightning strikes, it is a great tool for getting an idea of how big a lightning
flash was horizontally.

Electric Fields

The other method used by most operational lightning detection networks is

through electric fields or radio waves.
This method pairs well with ground-based systems rather than space based.
This is the method our total lightning detection network uses!

Thunderstorm Development
Understanding how lightning detection works starts with understanding how
thunderstorms (and lightning) form.

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Lightning is an electric current that starts in a cloud. When the ground is hot,
it heats the air above it. As the hot air rises, water vapor cools and forms a
cloud.
As air continues to rise the cloud gets bigger and bigger. In the top of the
clouds the temperature is below freezing and water vapor turns to ice.
Now this is what we consider a thundercloud. The ice particles then bump
into each other as they move around and build up electric charges.

Eventually, the entire cloud fills up with these electrical charges. The lighter,
positive charges form at the top of the cloud while the heavier, negative
charges sink to the bottom.
When these charges grow large enough, a giant spark occurs between them
within the cloud. We call this in-cloud lightning.
Some lightning happens in between the cloud and the ground. We call
this cloud-to-ground lightning.
Total lightning is the combination of all in-cloud and cloud-to-ground
lightning strikes.
 
How To Detect Lightning – Lightning & Radio waves

Lightning strikes give off pulses. When a cloud-to-ground lightning strike

occurs it gives off a very large pulse of current.
We call this large pulse of current a return stroke in cloud-to-ground lightning
strikes. In-cloud strikes also have strokes, but on a much smaller scale.
When a pulse happens, we can measure it in hertz like microwaves, AM
bands, and FM bands.

There are a lot of different bands within a radio we can use to detect
lightning, including:

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 Low frequency (LF)
 Mid frequency (MF)
 Very high frequency (VHF)

Our Earth Networks Total Lightning Network uses MF. VHF is best for
physics and scientific research, not operational lightning detection.

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 Challenges in Lightning Detection:

Each system used for lightning detection has its own limitations.
These include -

A single ground-based lightning network must be able to detect a flash with at

least three antennas to locate it with an acceptable margin of error. This often
leads to the rejection of cloud-to-cloud lightning, as one antenna might detect
the position of the flash on the starting cloud and the other antenna the
receiving one.

As a result, ground-based networks have a tendency to underestimate the

number of flashes, especially at the beginning of storms where cloud-to-cloud
lightning is prevalent.

Ground-based systems that use multiple locations and time-of-flight detection

methods must have a central device to collect strike and timing data to
calculate location. In addition, each detection station must have a precision
timing source that is used in the calculation.

Since they use attenuation rather than triangulation, mobile detectors

sometimes mistakenly indicate a weak lightning flash nearby as a strong one
further away, or vice versa.

Space-based lightning networks suffer from neither of these limitations, but

the information provided by them is often several minutes old by the time it is
widely available, making it of limited use for real-time applications such as
air navigation.

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 CHAPTER – 2

LIGHTNING EFFECT ON COMMUNICATION

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 Introduction:

The effect of lightning on the lower ionosphere and radiofrequency signals.

This study supports one theory for how tropospheric thunderstorms can create
ionospheric disturbances that affect radiofrequency communication.

Thunderstorms occur in the troposphere, the lowest region of the Earth's

atmosphere, where most of the clouds and water vapor reside. Thunderstorms
can affect radio communications at a much higher level of the Earth's
atmosphere, the ionosphere.

The partially ionized plasma of the ionosphere, which ranges from about 60
to 1,000 km, can "bounce" radio signals transmitted from the Earth. This
property enables them to travel long distances over the horizon and can
distort radio signals traveling to satellites important to communications,
navigation or national security.

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 EFFECT ON IONOSPHERE
ATMOSPHERIC ZONE:

A thunderstorm and its lightning discharges create disturbances in the

ionosphere that perturb and distort radio signals and impact communications
with orbiting satellites. Theoretical simulations suggest that lightning's
electric fields enhance electron attachment to molecular oxygen and reduce
electron density in the lower ionosphere.

Due to the low electron density in the lower ionosphere, active probing of
its electron distribution is difficult. Therefore, the perturbative effects from
thunderstorms are poorly understood.
Tropospheric thunderstorms create ionospheric disturbances through the
influence of the electric field associated with the lightning. These findings
indicate that enhanced electron attachment is responsible for the reduction in
electron density.

The perturbations affect radiofrequency communications and signals

important for space-based nuclear detonation detection. Understanding the

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sources and impacts of ionospheric disturbances aids the Laboratory's
fulfilment of its national security mission.

Estimated that intense positive cloud‐to‐ground lightning discharges remove

from 25 to ∼500 C from the global circuit on the 1 min time scale. This
would be expected to reduce the fair‐weather electric field, which is directly
proportional to the ionospheric potential, by from 0.005 to 0.12 V/m.

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 Electric and Magnetic Field Produced:

Knowledge of the characteristics of electric and magnetic fields produced by

lightning discharges is needed for studying the effects of the potentially
deleterious coupling of lightning fields to various circuits and systems.
Sensitive electronic circuits are particularly vulnerable to such effects. The
computation of lightning electric and magnetic fields requires the use of a
model that specifies current as a function of time at all points along the
radiating lightning channel.

The computed fields can be used as an input to electromagnetic coupling

models, the latter, in turn, being used for the calculation of lightning induced
voltages and currents in various circuits and systems. In this tutorial lecture,
lightning electric and magnetic fields measured at distances ranging from 10
m to 200 km will be characterized and discussed. Then, various lightning
models will be reviewed, and model-predicted fields will be compared to
measurements.

Measurements of vertical and horizontal electric and horizontal magnetic

fields produced by negative return strokes on microsecond and sub micro
second time scales. A review of measured fields due to positive return strokes
and due to lightning processes other than return strokes in both cloud-to-
ground and cloud flashes.

In order for an electrostatic discharge to occur, two preconditions are

necessary: firstly, a sufficiently high potential difference between two regions
of space must exist, and secondly, a high-resistance medium must obstruct the
free, unimpeded equalization of the opposite charges. The atmosphere
provides the electrical insulation, or barrier, that prevents free equalization
between charged regions of opposite polarity.

It is well understood that during a thunderstorm there is charge separation and

aggregation in certain regions of the cloud; however, the exact processes by
which this occurs are not fully understood.

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Electrical field generation
As a thundercloud moves over the surface of the Earth, an equal electric
charge, but of opposite polarity, is induced on the Earth's surface underneath
the cloud. This is known as an image charge. The induced positive surface
charge, when measured against a fixed point, will be small as the
thundercloud approaches, increasing as the centre of the storm arrives and
dropping as the thundercloud passes. The referential value of the induced
surface charge could be roughly represented as a bell curve.
The oppositely charged regions create an electric field within the air between
them. This electric field varies in relation to the strength of the surface charge
on the base of the thundercloud – the greater the accumulated charge, the
higher the electrical field.

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 Field Charges Representation:

Charge Separation -

Thunderstorms have very turbulent environments. Strong updrafts and

downdrafts occur with regularity and within close proximity to each other.
The updrafts transport small liquid water droplets from the lower regions of
the storm to heights between 35,000 and 70,000 feet, miles above the freezing
level.

Meanwhile, downdrafts transport hail and ice from the frozen upper regions
of the storm. When these collide, the water droplets freeze and release heat.
This heat in turn keeps the surface of the hail and ice slightly warmer than its
surrounding environment, and a "soft hail", or "graupel" forms.

When this graupel collides with additional water droplets and ice particles, a
critical phenomenon occurs: Electrons are sheared off of the ascending
particles and collect on the descending particles. Because electrons carry a
negative charge, the result is a storm cloud with a negatively charged base
and a positively.

Field Generation -

In the world of electricity, opposites attract and insulators inhibit. As positive

and negative charges begin to separate within the cloud, an electric field is
generated between its top and base. Further separation of these charges into
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pools of positive and negative regions results in a strengthening of the electric
field.

However, the atmosphere is a very good insulator that inhibits electric flow,
so a TREMENDOUS amount of charge has to build up before lightning can
occur. When that charge threshold is reached, the strength of the electric field
overpowers the atmosphere's insulating properties, and lightning results.

The electric field within the storm is not the only one that develops. Below
the negatively charged storm base, positive charge begins to pool within the
surface of the earth (see image left). This positive charge will shadow the
storm wherever it goes, and is responsible for cloud-to-ground lightning.
However, the electric field within the storm is much stronger than the one
between the storm base and the earth's surface, so most lightning (~75-80%)
occurs within the storm cloud itself.

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 Calculation Methods for These Charges:

Lightning return stroke is a self-propagating discharge with path length

measured in kilometers, which extends at high speeds, sometimes
approaching a significant fraction of the speed of light. Usually, one is
interested in the electromagnetic fields produced by lightning several tens of
meters to some kilometers away. In order to calculate fields from lightning, it
is modelled as a linear travelling-wave antenna with some current distribution
or line charge density distribution that changes rapidly with time. Lightning
discharge is a special source usually not found in traditional electromagnetic
texts.
During the last several years, new analytical techniques were developed for
calculating electromagnetic fields from lightning, which are reviewed in this
paper. Calculation of lightning electromagnetic fields requires careful
consideration of the retardation effects due to finite travel time of the signals.
The analytical expressions for far radiation fields often contain the so-called F
factor, (1-(v/c) cos θ) -1, where v is the speed of the return stroke wave front
or speed of travelling waves in the return stroke channel (these two speeds are
not necessarily the same), c is the speed of light, and θ is the angle formed by
the return stroke channel with the line connecting the field point and the
retarded position of the wavefront. However, the general expressions for
electromagnetic fields from arbitrarily-specified current distributions that
vary in time and space do not require any explicit correction involving F
factor.
Different situations in which an explicit F factor can arise and their
implications for the radiation field pattern from lightning with different return
stroke speeds are reviewed. The electric fields from lightning can be
calculated using three different approaches, resulting in three different but
equivalent expressions that yield the same total fields and the same Poynting
vectors. These general expressions are applicable to any line source
distribution that varies with time. The first two approaches are the traditional
dipole (Lorentz condition) technique and the monopole (continuity equation)
technique.
The third approach is based on a mathematical transform that relates the
retarded currents and charge densities as would be 'seen' by an observer at the
field point. The three approaches yield three different expressions for the
scalar potential, but are analytically equivalent and do satisfy the Lorentz
condition. In the three approaches, expressions for the individual electric field
components in the time domain, traditionally identified by their distance
dependence as electrostatic, induction, and radiation terms, are different,
33 | P a g e
suggesting that explicit distance dependence is not an adequate identifier of
these components. Calculations of electric fields at different distances from
the lightning channel show that the differences between the corresponding
field components identified by their distance dependence in different
techniques are considerable at close ranges but become negligible at far
ranges. In the transmission line model with the return stroke speed assumed to
be equal to the speed of light, c, the shapes of electric field, magnetic field,
and current waveforms are identical at all points in space.

In that case, the magnetic fields and electric fields are related through the
free-space impedance (or through the speed of light) and the Poynting vector
is directed radially outward from the origin. When the return stroke speed is
less than c (typical values range from c/3 to 2c/3), the electric and magnetic
field waveforms within a few tens of kilometers are quite different from each
other and from the causative current waveform.

Analysis of Electromagnetic Field –

The propagation effects on lightning‐radiated electromagnetic fields over
mountainous terrain by using a three‐dimensional (3‐D) finite difference time
domain (FDTD) method. The time delays and amplitudes of the lightning‐
radiated electromagnetic fields can be significantly affected by the presence
of a mountainous terrain and associated diffraction phenomena; for a finitely
conducting ground, the time delay shows a slight increase with the increase of
34 | P a g e
the observation distance, but the time delay resulting from the finite ground
conductivity appears to be smaller than that caused by the mountainous
terrain; and the timing error associated with the ToA technique depends on
the threshold times.

Threshold times of 10% and 20% of the peak provide very similar results
compared to those corresponding to the peak of the first derivative of the
magnetic field, and the threshold time exceeds 50% of the initial rising.

35 | P a g e
 CHAPTER - 3
OUR PROJECT

36 | P a g e
Introduction to Our Project:

Conclusion:
37 | P a g e
 Mono crypt SSA is based on obfuscation technique. According to the proposed
Mono crypt SSA technique, the data are obfuscated before they are forwarded to the
cloud storage. This Proposed technique not only ensures the confidentiality of the
data, but also reduces the size of the plaintext. The already existing techniques are not
reducing the size of data after obfuscation. Data storage is more effective in storing
data from the user.
It provides the SMEs with cost efficient use. SMEs do not have the complete
infrastructure needed to hold their data with their premises. Data outsourcing helps
small and medium-sized businesses manage their data efficiently through cloud
storage. Data outsourcing has Cloud storage data protection problems. The proposal is
for the SSA, namely Mono crypt. Mono crypt SSA is built on obfuscation technique.
By using this proposed technique, the data are obfuscated until it is forwarded to the
cloud storage. This technique stifles numerical values. Mono crypt SSA blur the
plaintext into ASCII character code, thus reducing the size of the blurred text. The
proposed technique not only preserves the confidentiality of the data but also
decreases the size of the plaintext. Existing techniques do not minimize data size after
obfuscation. The simulation is done with various data sizes and output is measured
based on the time taken to obtuse. From the results obtained, it is obvious that the
proposed Mono crypt provides maximum protection in the minimum time for
outsourced data.

References:
38 | P a g e
 Buyya R, Yeo CS, Venugopal S, Broberg J, Brandic I. Cloud computing and
emerging IT platforms: Vision, hype, and reality for delivering computing as
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 Furht B. Cloud computing fundamentals. Handbook of Cloud Computing.

Springer Science, Business Media, LLC.; 2010;1–17.

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Data Obfuscation 2013.Available from:
http://www.techopedia.com/definition/250 15/data obfuscation do
Robertson C. PDF obscuritu Aprimer. 2012.
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Base64 Table. 2013. Accessible from: http://en.wikipedi a.org/wiki/Base6

 Josefsson. The Base16, Base32, and Base64

 Furht B. Distributed computing basics. Handbook of Cloud Computing. Springer

Science, Business Media, LLC.;2010;1–17.

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