Chiller & Refrigeration System

By: Madan Karki

2009
 1. Provide efficient Part Load Operation with speed reductions thru’ a VFD.
2. Install Meters & gauges to capture the readings
3. Compute COP & kW/TR of Chilling System. Compute efficiency of Chillers, condensers etc.
4. Switch to cogged belts instead of plain V belts.
5. Reduce scale / fouling in Chiller Heat Exchangers
6. Establish a chiller efficiency – maintenance program
7. Purge air from condenser
8. Remove water contamination from the refrigeration system
9. Use free cooling
10. Explore using only Chilled Water or Glycol instead of both.
11. Use Chiller Selector & Saving Analysis Software for Compressor change-outs
12. Recover Waste Heat from the refrigeration system
13. Add a super thermal-conductive compound called ‘Perma-Frost’ to improve chillers’ efficiency.
14. Explore the product called “Ice Cold” similar to perma-frost, but this vendor claims 20% saving on
each of energy bill, maintenance cost & equipment life.
15. Use multiple-effect evaporators.
16. Avoid frost formation on evaporators.
17. Explore using only Primary pumps instead of using both the primary & secondary pumps.
18. Variable chilled Water/glycol Flow System with automatic 2/3 way control valves & VFD
19. Develop Chiller database in CWSAT software and analyze the parameters.
20. Reduce heat load & the cooling requirement.
21. Maintain Heat Exchanger Surfaces of Condensers. Clean Condenser Tubes at suitable interval with
Automatic condenser tube cleaning device.
22. Sub-cool & de-superheat Refrigerant in chiller
23. Monitor Chilled Water T
24. Monitor flows through large loads to design values.
25. Check Evaporator Coil condition
26. Upgrade Control system
27. Premium Efficiency Compressor Motors
28. Chilled Water Supply Temperature Reset
29. Optimize Process Heat Exchange
30. Multi-Staging Systems
31. Matching Capacity to Load System
32. Multiple Chillers: Manage part-load at compressor bank
33. Explore the possibility of reducing the distance between Chilling Plant & the load.
34. Check for correct refrigerant charge level.
35. Check & Correct inappropriate glycol concentration that adversely affects heat transfer and/or
pumping energy.
36. If it sweats, insulate it. If it is corroding, replace it first. (else a large amount of refrigerant will get lost)
37. Maintain "self-cleaning" fluid velocities in heat exchangers (condenser, evaporator, cooling load etc).
38. Thermal Storage

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 Refrigeration System
Existing Setup

• Ammonia Vapor Compression based refrigeration system is working in the unit for cooling of
beverages with two separate circuits (glycol & chilled water).

Observations & Suggested Actions for Improvement:

1. Provide efficient Capacity Control of Compressors for Part Load Operation

with speed control thru’ a VFD- The ammonia compressors are reciprocating type with 4
cylinders with no provision for partial operation of cylinders, which leads to poor part load operation.
Average load of plant is 600 kVA, out of which 150 kVA
is due to Chilling System (i.e. 25%).

Capacity regulation through speed control is the most

efficient option. For Reciprocating compressors - it should
be ensured that the lubrication system is not affected.

There exists huge saving potential from part load

operation. Consider installing VFD at chillers with PID
controller. Saving potential - 25%.

• Temperature monitoring in Reciprocating

compressors: Temperature control requires careful
system design. For widely varying loads, control the
compressor by monitoring the return water (or other
secondary coolant) temperature. If load fluctuations are
not high: the temperature of the water leaving the
chillers should be monitored.

Unloading some of the cylinders (2 out of 4 cylinders) would also yield the necessary part load
generation, but it is difficult to have such arrangement in the existing compressors.

It is more efficient to operate a single chiller at full load than to operate two (or more) chillers at part –
load. When Chiller is off due to meeting the set point, the cooling water pumps & cooling tower fans
shall also be off. To ensure the same, electrical interlocking may be provided.

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2. Install Meters & gauges to capture the readings
Tapping taken to record suction
Most efficiently designed systems are horribly inefficient after temp & pressure readings
several years of operation
Do you really know how your systems are operating?
How can we improve if we don’t monitor key metrics?
Load and utility consumption data are essential for efficient
operations

It is to be noted here that efficiency & effectiveness of a cooling system

depends on the temperature of hot & cold well and their potential
difference. For a given cold well temperature defined by a process, the
temperature of hot well will rule the energy efficiency. A reduction of
0.55oC in temperature of the water returning from the cooling tower
reduces compressor power consumption by 3%.

Basic System Data:

Data sent from analyzer to
recorder
The performance of cooling towers shall be evaluated to assess present levels
of approach and range against their design values, identify areas of energy
wastage and to suggest improvements. Install instruments to measure the
following parameters:

• Saturation pressure & temperature of refrigerant after compression

• IN & OUT temperature of ammonia & cooling water at condenser
• Chilled water/glycol supply & return temperature
• Condenser cooling water supply temperature
• WB to cooling water temperature differential (if variable)
• Cooling Tower Data (# towers, # cells/tower, motor hp, # motor
speeds)
• Wet bulb temperature of air
• Dry bulb temperature of air
• Cooling tower inlet water temperature
• Cooling tower outlet water temperature
• Exhaust air temperature
• Electrical readings of pump and fan motors
• Water flow rate
• Air flow rate

But, in the plant, the control system measures only IN & OUT temperature of glycol & chilled water at
evaporator. The temperature of glycol & chilled water at the outlet of evaporator was noted as -3C and
at the inlet, it was 1.7C. Plant personnel were not aware of set point and the process requirement. Please
note that 1C raise in evaporator temperature can save almost 3% of the power consumed. Hence, the set-
point shall be judiciously selected such that neither the energy cost nor the process is suffered. Hence, it is
recommended here to install above gauges to enable efficiency tracking of the chilling system.

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3. Compute COP, kW/TR & efficiency of Chillers etc.

The chiller is a complicated part of machinery, consisting of a compressor, expansion valve and heat
exchanger/s. The refrigerant circulating through, is heated or cooled at various stages to produce the
required result. Energy efficiency of a heat pump depends on a number of design choices and parameters
such as type of compressor, type of refrigerant, type and control of expansion valve, sizing of heat
exchanger/s, etc.

Efficiency, by definition, is the ratio of the energy output of a piece of equipment to its energy input, in
like units to produce a dimensionless ratio. The relative efficiency of HVAC equipment is usually
expressed as a coefficient of performance (COP), which is defined as the ratio of the heat energy extracted to
the mechanical (and/or electrical) energy input. For heat pumps it has become customary to use energy
efficiency ratio (EER), during the cooling period and as coefficient of performance (COP) during the
heating period. The overall efficiency of an HVAC system depends on all the parts that comprise the
system. For example under sizing of piping networks leads to high energy consumption from the pumps
or fans. Pumps, fans and air handling devices are themselves electricity consuming devices. The current
document will focus on the “heart” –the highest energy consumer– of the system, namely, the vapor
compression heat pump (chiller).

Target kW/ton achievable in modern plants (includes chillers, cooling towers and pumps)
– 0.5 - 0.7 Excellent
– 0.7 - 0.85 Good
– >1.0 Needs Improvement
We need to know this parameter in the unit!!

Performance Evaluation

The efficiency of a chiller is defined by the coefficient of performance (COP). This table shows the effect
of evaporation temperature on the compressor power consumption. At a constant condenser
temperature Tc of 40oC, lower evaporator temperatures reduce the refrigeration capacity TR and
increase the power consumption
The second table shows the effect of condensing temperature on the compressor power consumption. At
a constant evaporator temperature Te of 10oC, increasing the condensing temperature leads to a
reduction in refrigeration capacity and an increase in power consumption.
The conclusion is therefore that you try to keep the difference between Te and Tc at an optimum level to
ensure the best TR at the lowest power consumption.

Evaporator Refrigeration Specific Power Increase

*
Temperature (C) Capacity (tons) Consumption (kW/TR) kW/TR (%)

5.0 67.58 0.81 -

0.0 56.07 0.94 16.0
-5.0 45.98 1.08 33.0
-10.0 37.20 1.25 54.0
-20.0 23.12 1.67 106.0

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 Condensing Refrigeration Specific Power Increase
Temperature (C) Capacity (tons) Consumption (kW /TR) kW/TR (%)
26.7 31.5 1.17 -
35.0 21.4 1.27 8.5
40.0 20.0 1.41 20.5

There is a tendency to apply high safety margins to operations, which influence the compressor
suction pressure / evaporator set point. For instance, a process-cooling requirement of 4-5C as
observed in the unit would need glycol or chilled water at a lower temperature, in the range -5C to
0C. For this, the refrigerant side temperature has to be lower (about –15C to -5C). The refrigerant
temperature determines the corresponding suction pressure of the refrigerant, which in turn
determines the inlet duty conditions for the refrigerant compressor.
Refrigeration Cycle Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram

Cooling Capacity (A)

COP =
Power Input (B)

If conditions deviate from the norm, check the following components and make corrections as needed:
• Clean scale from build-up in water-cooled condensers.
• Defrost evaporator coils if iced. Determine the cause of icing, and correct it.
• Remove any restriction in the liquid line (e.g., dirty strainer).
• Ensure that all components are properly secured (e.g., TXV sensing bulb to suction line).
• Maintain proper refrigerant charge. Repair leaks.

Here are some additional low-cost energy conservation measures that can be made to optimize
refrigeration systems:
• Adjust controls on multiple staging systems so a second and subsequent compressors won’t energize
until the first compressor can no longer satisfy the demand.
• Repair leaking compressor valves.
• Repair leaking liquid line solenoid valves.
• Experiment with chilled-water supply temperature while maintaining an acceptable comfort level.
• Raise chilled-water supply temperature to reduce energy used by the compressor or lower chilled-
water supply temperature to reduce water-pump horsepower.

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 Data recorded at the interval of every minute

4. Switch to cogged belts instead of plain V belts for Chiller Drive System: All the
chillers have been driven by induction motor through
Pulley & ordinary V-belts. V-Belt, (efficiency 95% - 98%)
at installation, can reach 93% over the time if the belt is
not periodically re-tensioned. Under-tension is the main
cause of V-belt failure also. In addition, at high torque
condition, efficiency drop further due to increasing
slippage. The friction gives the belt’s sidewalls a shiny or
glazed appearance. Left unattended, this slippage creates
heat that hardens the belt’s rubber compound. The
consequent flexing required on hardened condition
causes cracks & will fail prematurely.
Cogged belts have slots that run perpendicular to the belt’s length, which reduce the bending resistance
of the belt. It can be used with the same pulleys. They run cooler, last longer, and have an efficiency
that is about 2% higher than that of standard V-belts.
Synchronous belts require timex pulleys. They offer an efficiency of about 98% & maintain it over a wide
load range contrary to V-belts. Synchronous belts require less maintenance & re-tensioning, operate in
wet & oily environments, & run slip-free. They have better efficiency ( 98%) over a wide load range.
Replace existing V belts by cogged belts immediately, then shift to synchronous belts gradually.

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5. Reducing scale or fouling of Chiller Heat Exchangers – The heat transfer surfaces in
chillers tends to collect various mineral and sludge deposits from the water that is circulated through
them. Any buildup insulates the tubes in the heat exchanger causing a decrease in heat exchanger
efficiency and thus, requiring a large temperature difference between the water and the refrigerant.

− Separation of lubricating oil and refrigerant

− Timely defrosting of coils
− Increased velocity of secondary coolant

6. Explore using only Chilled Water or Glycol instead of both. In the unit, two systems
are in operation Chilled Water & Glycol) with three chillers. One Chiller is dedicated to each system
& the third chiller caters to standby to both of the system. It was observed that except during the peak
load, either of the chillers run at part load at very poor efficiency. If we can have a single system, either
glycol or the chilled water, then instead of running two at part load, it is much more efficient to run
one at full load.
7. Establish a chiller efficiency – maintenance program
− Inspecting the chiller at least quarterly.
− Routine inspection for refrigerant leaks.
− Checking compressor operating pressures.
− Checking all oil levels and pressures.
− Examining all motor voltages and amps.
− Checking all electrical starters, contactors, and relays.
− Checking all hot gas and unloader operations.
− Using superheat and subcooling temperature readings to obtain a chiller’s maximum efficiency.
− Taking discharge line temperature readings.

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 Task Schedule for Chillers
Check points Tasks Task Code Procedure period
Chiller use/sequencing Turn off/sequence unnecessary chillers CH-SD-1
Complete overall visual inspection to be sure all equipment
CH-DP D
Overall visual inspection is operating and safety systems are in place CH-ID-2
Check setpoints Check all setpoints for proper setting and function X CH-ID-3
Evaporator and
condenser Assess Evaporator and condenser coil fouling as required CH-IW-4
motor temperature Check temperature per manufacturer’s specifications CH-IW-5
Perform water quality testCheck water quality for proper chemical balance CH-IW-6
Conduct leak testing on all compressor fittings, oil pump
Leak testing joints and fittings, and relief valves CH-IW-7
CH-WP W
Check all insulation Check insulation for condition and appropriateness CH-IW-8
Check the condition of the motor through temperature or
Motor condition
vibration analysis and compare to baseline values CH-IW-9
Verify proper control function including:
Control operation • Hot gas bypass CH-IW-10
• Liquid injection X CH-IW-11
Check vane control settings Check settings per manufacturer’s specification CH-IH-12
Verify motor load limit control
Check settings per manufacturer’s specification CH-IH-13
Verify load balance operationCheck settings per manufacturer’s specification CH-IH-14
Assure that all bearings are lubricated per the manufacture’s
Motor lubrication recommendation CH-LH-15
Check packing for wear and repack as necessary. Consider
Motor packing replacing packing with mechanical seals CH-IH-16
Motor alignment check alignment of motor coupling CH-IH-17
Motor mountings Check and secure all motor mountings CH-IH-18
CH-HP H
Motor terminal tightness Tighten connection terminals as necessary CH-IH-19
Motor Cleaning Remove dust and dirt from motor to facilitate cooling CH-sH-20
Motor bearings Inspect bearings for wear. CH-IH-21
Check drive belt Inspect drive belts for wear. CH-IH-22
Check for balanced three-phase power. Unbalanced power
Check power balance will cause excessive heat build up CH-IH-23

Check chilled water reset

settings and function Check settings per manufacturer’s specification CH-IH-24
Check chiller lockout setpoint
Check settings per manufacturer’s specification CH-IY-25

Clean condenser tubes Clean tubes at least annually as part of shutdown procedure CH-IY-26
As required, conduct eddy current test to assess tube wall
Eddy current test of condenser
thickness
tubes CH-IY-27
Clean evaporator tubes Clean tubes as part of shutdown procedure CH-SY-28
As required, conduct eddy current test to assess tube wall
Eddy current test of evaporator
thickness
tubes CH-IY-29
• Check all alignments to specification CH-IY-30
Compressor motor assembly
• Check all seals, provide lubrication where necessary CH-IY-31
CH-YP Y
• Conduct analysis on oil and filter CH-IY-32
• Change Oil as required CH-IY-33
Compressor oil system • Check oil pump and seals CH-IY-34
• Check oil heater and thermostat CH-IY-35
• Check all strainers, valves, etc. CH-IY-36
Check all electrical connections/terminals for contact and
Electrical connections tightness CH-IY-37
Water flows Assess proper water flow in evaporator and condenser CH-IY-38
Add refrigerant as required. Record amounts and address
Check refrigerant level andleakage issues.
condition CH-SY-39

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8. Purge air from condenser
The ammonia, air, water, and
oil circulate through the
refrigeration system. Water &
oil will get collected at low
side, whereas air will get
collected at the high side;
typically, near the outlet of
evaporative condensers or in
the coolest, low velocity section
of receivers and water cooled
condensers.

An ammonia gas & air mixture

(foul gas) is taken from various
locations in the high side. This
gas is brought into the tube
side of a shell and tube heat
exchanger with cold ammonia
liquid on the shell side. The
ammonia gas in the tube
condenses to liquid. The air
being non-condensible remains
a gas. When enough air is
collected, it is released.

Air trapped in the condenser

causes an increased pressure at
the compressor discharge.
Air contamination lowers
system efficiency and increases electrical costs due to the higher compressor discharge pressure.
When the air is removed with a non-condensible gas purger (for example, a Hansen Auto-Purger) the
discharge pressure is reduced, system efficiency is restored, and electrical costs are reduced.
The energy savings quickly pay for the cost of installing the non-condensible gas purger. Typically, there
is a 6% savings in energy cost for every 10 psi (0.7 bar) of excess pressure due to non-condensible air
that is removed from the refrigeration system. The result has the same effect as scale buildup in the
condenser.
In addition to energy saving, removing air from ammonia refrigeration systems has other benefits that
improve system operation. On the high side of the system, operating at the lowest condensing pressure
permissible means less wear and tear on compressor bearings and other mechanical parts. The lower
discharge temperatures also reduce oil and refrigerant breakdown, and extend gasket life. Air removal
means there is less oxygen in the system, which is sometimes associated with corrosion of piping and
vessels.
The moist air enters the system in two common ways.
» For systems that operate in a vacuum, system leaks will pull moist air into the system through the
leak path.

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 » For all systems, regardless of whether they operate in a vacuum, if maintenance is performed on a
portion of the system, and if this portion is not pulled into a strong vacuum before restoring it to
service, that moist air remains in the system. Non-condensible gas purgers are very effective at
removing the air from the system. They are however, less effective at removing the moisture from
the system.
9. Remove water contamination from the refrigeration system.
Water will tend to collect on the low side
of the system. Only gas can leave the low
side of the system. Therefore water, for
the most part, can not leave the low side
and will collect here. (Some water can
leave as water vapor, but most will stay in
the low side.) In two or more stage
systems, the water will eventually collect
in the lowest stage vessel. The oil, also not
being a gas, collects in the low side of the
system, and must be routinely drained.

Water contamination in an industrial

ammonia refrigeration system can lower
system efficiency, and increase the
electrical costs required to run the
system’s refrigeration compressors. For a given pressure, the addition of water to the ammonia will raise
its temperature.

In new Purging machines, the

liquid is taken from the pump
discharge of the lowest pressure
re-circulator. This is where we
expect the water to collect. Only
ammonia gas can exit the shell
side of the heat exchanger. The
concentration of water gradually
increases over time as liquid
ammonia and water are brought
in, and only ammonia gas leaves.

Using foul gas as a heat source

for concentrating the water can
only bring the concentration to
about 50% water and 50%
ammonia depending on the
evaporating pressure and the
condensing temperature. In
order to concentrate the water
much more, a water
concentration sensor (pressure/temperature transducer) in the shell side of the heat exchanger
monitors the mixture. When the concentration of water in the shell side of the heat exchanger gets to
about 20%, the purging machine stops collecting air, isolates the mixture of ammonia and water, and

Page 11 of 45
energizes two electric heaters to heat the ammonia water solution even hotter, and to much more
effectively concentrate the water. The heaters remain energized until the ammonia water solution is
heated to 185°F (85°C). This corresponds to a concentration of about 80% to 90% water and 10% to
20% ammonia, depending on the suction pressure. This concentrated water is then drained to a
customer supplied container.

After the water is drained, the

Purger goes back to normal
operation collecting air and water.
If no air or water is present, there
are no releases to atmosphere.

At typical suction pressures, the

addition of 10% water by weight
will increase the evaporator
temperature by about 2°C. Stated
another way, for a given required
evaporator temperature, the
addition of water to the ammonia
will require a lower suction
pressure. For example, pure
ammonia at -20°C has a saturation
pressure of 0.9 bar g. An
ammonia-water solution of 10%
water and 90% ammonia by
weight, at the same -20°C has a
saturation pressure of 0.72 barg.
Therefore to maintain an evaporator temperature of -20°C in a system with 10% water contamination,
the suction pressure would have to be run at 0.9 – 0.72 = 0.18 bar lower than if the water were not
present.

The requirement to maintain a lower suction pressure than would be necessary if the water could be
removed is a waste of electrical energy; e.g. consider a booster compressor operating with -40°C
evaporating and -7°C condensing. At -40°C, sizing software from a major compressor manufacturer
calculates that the power required is 1.44 hp/ton (COP=3.266). At -44°F (-42°C), it calculates that the
power required is 1.55 hp/ton (COP=3.043). The 4°F (2°C) difference represents a water concentration
of slightly more than 10%.

Therefore, the extra energy required due to the 10% water concentration is (1.55-1.44)/1.44 = 7.6%.

To calculate the energy savings that could be achieved if the water were removed, consider a total
system operating at 150 tons (350 kW), a compressor run time of 6500 hours per year, and an
electricity rate of Rs. 6/kW-hr.

Then the excess energy to run the compressors at the lower suction pressure due to 10% water for this
example is: (.076)(150tons)(1.44hp/ton)(.746kW/hp)(6500hr/yr)(Rs. 6/kW-hr) = Rs. 4,80,000 per year
potential energy savings if the water is removed.

Other than moist air, another means of water entry into a system is when a water chiller develops a tube
leak, and water from the tube side mixes with the ammonia on the shell side, or vice versa. This can

Page 12 of 45
 introduce large amounts of water to a
system, and drastic measures may be
required, including replacement of the
entire refrigerant charge.

10. Use free cooling

Cold in general is an expensive form of

energy. The more the required temperature
is lowered, the more the cooling process
will be expensive. As a result the following
rules are obvious:

• The use of cold has to be restricted as

much as possible
• Cold has to be produced using the most
efficient technology

Depending on the desired temperature of

the fluid to be cooled, 3 main types of
cooling supply 90% of the industrial market,
i.e. dry cooling, evaporative cooling and
compression cooling (chiller). Other types,
such as absorption cooling, gas expansion
and thermo-electric cooling, also exist but at
lower population in the industries. Depending on the required cold temperature, different kinds of
cooling are used. This is illustrated in figure below:

Utilizing free cooling is one method of off-setting the load on a chilled water system. Free cooling uses
evaporative cooling to provide chilled water
needs when outside conditions are ideal.

Cooling is often required even when

outside temperatures drop below the
minimum condenser water temperature. If
outside air temperature is low enough, the
chiller should be shut off and outside air
used. If cooling cannot be done with
outside air, a chiller bypass can be used to
produce chilled water without the use of a
chiller. Figures here depict two methods of
free cooling.

11. Use Chiller Selector & Saving

Analysis Software for
Compressor change-outs: When
we implement the options generated and
the proactive maintenance system for

Page 13 of 45
 chillers in the unit, the energy saving measures implemented will reduce the demand to the point that
existing chillers may become unsuitable in capacity. In addition, it shall be noted here that maintenance
cost of reciprocating compressors are 3.5 times higher than that of screw or centrifugal type.

This will call for replacement of chillers. A software called Chiller Selector & Saving Analysis
Software can help greatly in carrying out saving analysis. Economic analysis for comparison of
alternative investments requires an understanding of several issues. The three most important elements
to consider are (i) the investment costs for the systems, (ii) energy costs over the expected life of the
chiller, and (iii) maintenance costs (including standstill costs) over the life of the chiller.

There are two general categories for economic analysis. Simple payback analysis and detailed economic
analysis (LCC: life-cycle cost analysis). A simple payback analysis reveals options that have short versus
long payback, whereas LCC calculates the total cost of each alternative during its lifetime. Although the
LCC technique allows a more accurate comparison, it requires the knowledge of detailed information
such as present value factor and interest rate. In the chiller module a simple payback analysis has been
used to compare alternative chillers, as it requires fewer data from the user. LCC analysis could be
incorporated at a later stage. For comparison of chiller systems, payback technique is applied as:

Payback (years) = investment cost / (energy savings - operating & maintenance costs) (3)

For water cooled chillers with Cooling Tower, water consumption has to be accounted as operating cost.

12. Recover Waste Heat from the refrigeration system

Heat recovery system recovers the cooling effect of the exhaust air or the
condensate from cooling coils
Exhaust air are collected and ducted to a heat wheel where its cooling effect
is harvested and transferred to the incoming fresh air in order to save energy.
Condensate from cooling coils can also be collected and passed through heat
exchanger where the cooling effect is transferred to the make-up water.
The cost effectiveness of heat recovery unit depends on the ease with which
the exhaust air or condensate can be collected. In many cases it can be pay
back within reasonable time.

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 Heat recovery systems extract heat
from the chilled liquid and reject
some of that heat, plus the energy
of compression, to warm water
circuit for reheat & cooling.
 Capture rejected heat in a
secondary loop
▪ Secondary loop facilitates
heat distribution
▪ De-superheater at outlet of
compressor. Recovers up to
15% of rejected heat– good
for hot water
▪ Further heat recovery before
condenser
Heat can be used for space,
ventilation air, and water heating
 Heat pumps raise temperature
of heat from secondary loop as necessary
 Excess heat can be Stored for later use

This will provide savings on both the edges. Greater the heat we reclaim, lesser will be the load on
Cooling Tower and hence the corresponding energy saving on fan power.

13. Add a super thermal-conductive compound called ‘Perma-Frost’ to

improve chillers’ efficiency by over 10%

What is “PermaFrost”?

 A super thermal-conductive additive used to improve

the efficiency of chillers and refrigeration equipment

 Developed and manufactured in U.S.A. (4 patents

between 1990s and 2002)

How it works??
Lubricating oil contaminated the evaporator &
condenser!

Before Permafrost

Stagnant Oil - This barrier reduces the heat transfer inside the refrigerant circuit and increases energy
consumption (kWh)

After Permafrost

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 PermaFrost molecules are attached to the inner metal tubing. The thermo-conductivity rate is accelerated
and laminar friction is virtually eliminated. Reduced heat transfer
• The insulating oil barrier is completely and permanently
removed.
• The inner metal surface is bound by thermo-conductive Excessive
PermaFrost molecules. Laminar Friction
Stagnant Oil
• Heat transfer between the refrigerant and chilled water /
air will speed up.
• The compressor will run a shorter time in producing the Energy Loss
same cooling capacity.
− Saves over 10% in electricity consumed by chillers.

Savings Due to PermaFrost for a 100 Ton Chiller Accelerated heat transfer

Cooling Capacity = 100 Ton = 352 KW (a)

PermaFrost
COP = 2.8 (b) Thermo-
conductive
Reduced
Power Input = (a) / (b) = 126KW at full load molecules
Laminar
Friction
Load Factor = 0.7
Stagnant
Hours of Operation / Day = 24 hours Oil
Dispersal
Yearly Electricity Consumption
= 126 KW X 24 hours X 0.7 X 250 days X Rs. 10/ KWH Refrigerant
Contacts
= NPR 52,92,000
Metal

For a savings of 10% after treatment of “PermaFrost” = NPR 5,29,200

Total Amount of Savings for 3 chilling units

Accelerated thermo-conductivity
~ NPR 15,87,600
PermaFrost
Oil barrier is completely and permanently removed. Thermo-
conductive
molecules

Efficient
turbulent flow
Stagnant
Oil
Cleared

Faster Heat
Dispersal

Page 16 of 45
14. Explore the product called “Ice Cold” similar to perma-frost, but this
vendor claims 20% saving on each of energy bill, maintenance cost &
equipment life.

How does IceCOLD Work??

a. Removes the OIL FOULING

b. Makes the Refrigerant Evaporate at a Lower
Temperature

c. Makes the Compressor Oil 54% Higher Lubricity

(SAE)

THE PROBLEM: OIL FOULING

Refrigeration systems with mechanical compressors

circulate 1/2% to 8% of their compressor lubricating oil
with the refrigerant that is circulated throughout the
system. Due to the insulating properties of oil, the oil
insulates the heat transfer from the cooling refrigerant to
metal tubing walls, oil fouling degrades system
performance by up to 30% and higher. (ASHRAE)

All refrigeration compressor oils available today cause oil

fouling & impede heat exchange.

What Happens When Oil

Fouling is Removed??

IceCOLD technology removes

and eliminates the oil fouling on
refrigeration tubing inner
surfaces; acting as a catalyst
without chemically changing
itself, the refrigerant or the
compressor lubricating oil. It
allows the refrigerant to contact
the metal tubing walls directly
without the insulating oil fouling barrier.

Improves heat transfer 73% since the refrigerant is now contacting the metal tubing walls directly causing:

a. Temperature of the beverage being cooled will drop by 2 to 3 degrees.

b. Causes the Refrigerant to Evaporate at a Lower Temperature. A Unique, Secret Synthetic Compound
Acts as a Catalyst to Make Refrigerants Evaporate at a Lower Temperature; Increasing System
Capacity (More Cooling).

c. No Oil Fouling and Lower Evaporating temperature RESULTS IN:

• 10% TO 20% Less $Electricity Used Since Equipment Runs Less Due To Better Cooling,
Page 17 of 45
 • 20% TO 30% Increase in system capacity (more, faster cooling)

• Due to the Compressor Running Less: 1} The Compressor Runs Cooler, 2} Compressor Life
is Extended 20% to 50%+ & 3} Annual Maintenance Costs are Reduced 20%+

d. IceCOLD improves the lubricity of Compressor Oil by 54%. A Cutting Edge Synthetic PAO
Lubricant (5 Generations Newer Than Mobil). Makes YOUR COMPRESSOR LAST LONGER.

e.

15. Use multiple-effect evaporators.

Dual evaporator schematic

▪ Evaporator arrangement
− parallel
− individual expansion valves
− Pressure regulator valves
− Check valves
▪ Compressor
− Single stage
▪ Pressure regulating valve
− Throttling type
▪ Condenser
− With or without receiver
Working Principle: Multiple-Effect
Evaporator

3R Technology offers MVR (Mechanical Vapor

Recompression) and Multiple Effect
Evaporators for large volumes and energy economy.

MVR is very energy efficient, since the latent heat of vaporization is fully utilized through vapor
recompression and condensation. Typical layout of a MVR Evaporator is shown in figure.

Multiple effect evaporators are designed to improve the energy economy of the evaporation process. The
basic principle is to use the heat given up by condensation in one effect to provide heat for another effect.
The vapor from the separator of the first effect enters the falling film heat exchanger of the second effect,
while live steam heats in the falling film heat
exchanger of the first effect. The steam and
cooling water rates for the double effect unit
are approximately 50% of those required for
a single effect unit. Unit up to nine effects
can be built depends on flow rate and
recovery economics. Typical flow rates for
multiple effect range from 3000 LPH to
50,000 LPH.

Advantages and application

Page 18 of 45
 The major advantage of MVR and Multiple Effect Evaporators is the energy economy.
Typical MVR energy requirement is 0.05 to 0.15 kwh per kg of water evaporated. The
energy economy of Multiple effect evaporators depends on the number of effects and it vary from 220
kcal of thermal energy per 1 kg. water evaporation for a Triple Effect Evaporator to 120 kcal for a Six
effect evaporator. As the operating cost of MVR and Multiple Effect Evaporators are low, large flow
system favor its application in all sectors of
industry and also desalination of sea and
brackish water.

▪ Inclusion of multi staging in compressor

model.
▪ Multi evaporator system with evaporators in
series.
▪ Trans critical system

Set point resetting – temperature

▪ Reversed Carnot cycle COP
o COP = TL / (TH - TL)
▪ Cooling system
o by controlling the most open valve in air distribution circuit at almost open state always.
▪ Capacity = m (Δ H) = m (Δ T)
▪ Proper controller tuning - bandwidth of resetting
loop to be much smaller than slowest cooling coil
loop

16. Avoid frost formation on evaporators.

Frost builds up on air cooler unit (freezer) evaporator coils when the unit operates at less than 32ºF.
Frost is the result of moisture in the air freezing to the coil as the air passes over the coil. The
performance of the coil is adversely affected by frost. Frost acts as an insulator and reduces the heat
transfer capability of the coil, and it restricts airflow through the coil. Frost buildup is unavoidable
and must be removed periodically from the coil.

Page 19 of 45
 One method of frost removal is to use the hot refrigerant discharge gas leaving the compressor.
During the defrost cycle, hot gas is circulated through the coil to melt the frost. Hot-gas defrost
systems may be used for all cooling unit capacities and may be included in new or retrofit
construction. For retrofit applications, hot-gas defrost systems most often replace electric resistance
defrost systems.

Using waste heat off the hot-gas side for defrost may result in savings on the order of 10% to 20% of
the total system usage.

Hot-Gas - The refrigerant vapor discharged by the compressor. This vapor is superheated; the
temperature of the vapor has been raised above that which normally occurs at a particular pressure.

17. Explore using only Primary pumps instead of using both the primary &
secondary pumps.

The Chilled water/glycol systems in the unit have primary & secondary pumps as shown on the schematic
above. The primary pumps circulate the fluid through the chiller, whereas secondary pumps circulate the
fluid through the load. As depicted on the schematic above, operation of secondary pumps can be
avoided.

Advantages of Variable Primary Flow

Lower First Costs

Less Plant Space Required
Reduced Pump Energy
– Higher efficiency pumps
– Reduced pressure drop due to fewer pump connections, less piping

Page 20 of 45
 18. Variable chilled Water/glycol Flow System with automatic 2/3 way
control valves & VFD

Variable water/glycol flow system is most suitable for supplying different quantity of chilled water/glycol
to cooling load with variable load conditions. The motor of the chilled water pump is served by a variable
speed drive (VSD). It can save up to 30% of the pump power.

The supply water/glycol to cooling coil units is controlled by regulating valves that supplies variable
quantity of water/glycol to suit the load requirement. If the water/glycol required is reduced during part
load, the pressure in the main water/glycol pipe will be increased and this signal is detected by a pressure
sensor and transmitted to the VSD controller to cause the pump to reduce its speed.

A. Chilled Water Distribution Systems

a. Primary (Constant) / Secondary (Variable
– 2W Valves)
b. Low Delta T
c. Primary Only (Variable Flow - 2W Valves)

B. VPF Design/Control Considerations

Primary/Secondary System: Primary (Constant Flow)
/ Secondary (Variable Flow)

◼ 2 Way Valves

◼ Higher Capital Cost Installed (vs Constant Flow

3W Valve system)

◼ Lower CHW Pumping Energy (vs Constant Flow

3W Valve system)

◼ Well Understood & Easy to Control

Low T Syndrome
Major Causes of Low T:

1. Dirty Coils

Other Major Causes of Low T

2. Controls Calibration
3. Leaky 2 Way Valves
4. 3 Way Valves at end of Index circuit
5. Coils piped up backwards
P Load = Flow X T
S Load = Flow X T

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 Primary / Secondary Rule of Flow - Primary flow must always be equal to or greater than
Secondary flow.

Major Effects of Low T

◼ Higher Secondary Pump Energy
◼ Higher CHW Plant Chiller/Auxiliary Energy
◼ Address the causes
 Clean Coils
 Calibrate controls occasionally
 Select proper 2W valves (dynamic/close-off
ratings) and maintain them
 no 3W valves in design
 find and correct piping installation errors
◼ Over pump chillers at ratio of Design T / Actual T
◼ Increase T across chillers with CHW Re-set (down).
◼ Use Variable Speed Chillers & sequence to operate
from 30 to 70% Load
◼ Use VPF Systems (mitigates energy waste in plant)
 Header pumps & operate more pumps than
chillers
 If dedicated pumping, over-size (design at 80%
speed).

Now, let us consider a consider a configuration comprising only primary pumps with variable flow
capacity due to VSD/VFD.

Primary Only (Variable Flow)

 2 Way Valves
 Lower Capital Cost Installed (vs Primary/ Secondary)
o No secondary pumps/ piping/ valves/ electrical to
buy & install
o No large Common pipe, but smaller Bypass
pipe/valve/flow meter/controls
 Lower CHW Pumping Energy
 Smaller Footprint (vs Primary/Secondary)
 Relatively New & More Complex Controls
 Reduces Negative Impacts from Low Delta T
− Chillers are not staged on by flow requirements
− Chillers can load up and are staged on load

Disadvantages
◼ Higher (potentially) PSID rated 2-Way valves in system

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◼ Requires more robust (complex and calibrated) control system
◼ Requires coordinated control of chillers, isolation valves, and pumps in sequencing
◼ Longer (potentially) Commissioning time
◼ Requires greater operator sophistication

Bypass Valve Control

➢ Maintain a minimum chilled water flow rate

through the chillers

− Differential pressure measurement across

each chiller evaporator

− Flow meter

➢ Bypass valve modulates open to maintain the minimum flow through operating chiller(s).
➢ Bypass valve shall be the normally open type.
➢ Pipe and valve sized for Min flow of
operating chillers
➢ Load = Flow Rate X T/24

T = 12 = 57- 45

VPF Systems Design/Control

Considerations Summary
➢ Chillers

 Equal Sized Chillers preferred, but

not required. Size equally with
same WPDs (best)
 Maintain Min flow rates with
Bypass control (1.5 fps)
 Maintain Max flow rates (11.0 to 12.0 fps)
 Isolation Valves (Modulating or Stroke-able to 1.5 to 2 min)
 Don’t vary flow too quickly through chillers (VSD Ramp function – typical setting of 10%/min)
− Chiller Type − Chiller Load
− System Water Volume − Active Loads
 Sequence

o If Constant Speed – run chiller to max load (Supply Temp rise). Do not run more
chillers than needed (water-cooled)

o If Variable Speed – run chillers between 30% and 70% load (depending on ECWT).
Run more chillers than load requires.

o Add Chiller - CHW Supply Temp or Load (Adjusted* Flow X Delta T) or amps (if CSD)

Page 23 of 45
 o Subtract Chiller - Load (Adjusted* Flow X Delta T) or Amps (if CSD)

➢ Pumps

◼ Variable Speed Driven

◼ Headered arrangement preferred
◼ Sequence
with chillers (run more pumps than chillers for over-pumping capability)
on flow (add pump when existing inadequate, subtract when can)
optimized algorithm (total kW of more pumps, lower than less pumps)
Stay within pump/motor limits (25% to 100% speed)
Subtract a Pump at 25 to 30% speed
Add a pump back when speed of operating pumps high enough
◼ Speed controlled by pressure sensors at end of index circuit
➢ Bypass Valve
 Maintain a minimum chilled water flow rate through the chillers
Differential pressure measurement across each chiller evaporator
Flow meter preferred
 Modulates open to maintain the minimum flow through operating chiller(s).
 Bypass valve is normally open, but closed unless Min flow breeched
 Pipe and valve sized for Min flow of operating chillers
 High Rangeability (100:1 preferred)
 PSID Ratings for Static, Dynamic, And Close Off = Shut Off Head of Pumps
 Linear Proportion (Flow to Valve Position) Characteristic preferred
 Fast Acting Actuator
 Locate in Plant around chillers/pumps (preferrred)
Energy
Avoid Network traffic
➢ Load Valves
 High Rangeability (200:1 preferred)
 PSID Ratings for Static, Dynamic, And Close Off =
Shut Off Head of Pumps
 Equal Percentage (Flow to Load) Characteristic
 Slow Acting Actuator
➢ Staging Loads
 Sequence AHUs On/Off in 10 to 15 min intervals
Chillers
 Size equally with same WPDs (best)
 Respect Min/Max Flows through chillers
 Set Pump VSD Ramp function to about 10%/min (600 sec 0 to Max Speed)
 Use Modulating or Strokeable Valves (preferred) on chiller evaps, headered pumping
 Use 2 Position Valves (1 min stroke) on chiller evaps, dedicated pumping
Pumps
 VSD Controllers
 Headered Pumping Arrangement (preferred)

Page 24 of 45
  Dedicated Pumping OK (over-size pumps)
2 Way Valves
 Select for Static, Dynamic, Close-off ratings (PSID) equal to pump SOH (plus fill pressure)
 Range-ability 100 to 200:1
 If Bypass – fast acting, linear proportion
 If Coils – slow acting, equal percentage, “On-Off” stagger air units (10-15 min intervals)
Controls
 Set-point far out in index circuit (lower the value, the better the pump energy)
 Set Ramp function in VSD Controller (10%/min average)
 Run 1 more pump than chillers (when headered)
 Chillers On by common Supply Temp, Load, Amps, Adj Flow (Adj for Low Delta T)
 Chillers Off by Amps, Load, Adj Flow (Adj for Low Delta T)
 Over-pump Chillers to combat Low Delta T and get Max Cap out of chillers
 Bypass controlled by Min flow (preferred) or Min WPD of largest chiller (locate in plant for
best energy, but can go anywhere in system)

Page 25 of 45
19. Develop Chiller database in Chilled Water System Analysis Tool
(CWSAT) software and analyze the parameters.

With CWSAT, users can:

• Determine energy
consumption and costs of
operating the chillers, pumps,
and towers in a chilled water
system
• Examine the energy (and
economic) impact of varying
operating scenarios
• Quantify potential cost and
energy savings

Provide basic information

about an existing configuration
to calculate current energy
consumption, and then select
proposed equipment or
operational changes for
comparison. The results of this
analysis will help you quantify
the potential benefits of chilled
water system improvements.

The program requests

information about the existing
chilled water system
equipment and operation. The program calls upon several routines to generate energy consumption
estimates. After viewing this information, one may wish to alter the equipment specifications or apply
one of several operating cost reduction measures. The program calculates the energy consumption of
the proposed system and compares these results with those generated for the existing system. In this
way, one receives information about the net benefit of the specific measures proposed. The flowchart
below provides an overview of the various program screens and the order in which one will view them.

Information Required
• Nominal pump efficiency [%] • Nominal motor efficiency [%]
Chiller Data:
• Chiller capacity • Chiller age
• Chiller full load efficiency
System Control Data:
• System operating schedule • System loading schedule

Page 26 of 45
 20. Reduce heat load & the cooling requirement.

Minimizing energy wastage

= Reduced heat load
= Less cooling needed
= Less water used in the cooling tower
The initiatives should include:

» Regularly check the set-point for the evaporator

& condenser temperature.
» Adopt roof coatings / cooling systems, false
ceilings / as applicable, to minimize refrigeration
load.

» Adopting of sun film application for heat

reflection

» Using heat recovery systems to help minimize the amount of heat to be rejected through a cooling
tower. The heat saved, can be used for applications such as preheating domestic hot water used in
the building, or even providing hot water to re-heat coils.

» Reducing the lighting load. In many buildings it is possible to cost effectively reduce the power
consumed by the lighting systems by at least 30% without any discernable loss of amenity. When
the lighting consumes less power, it produces less heat, which in turn reduces the refrigeration
load.

» Benchmark the building from an energy perspective. This can be done simply by using a free
online rating tool, available at www.abgr.com.au. The lower the rating, the greater the energy
saving potential. Having completed a rating, by following the ABGR Star Performer links, one will
also find tools to improve the energy efficiency.

» The Seymour Manufacturing's Cold Stop thermal strip curtain is the modern alternative to
transparent plastic strips in chill and frozen store doorways. Cold Stop is a Tempro[R] insulated
door curtain for cold rooms which, due to its thermal efficiency, markedly reduces cold room
energy consumption.

» Temperature setting of the evaporator shall be the highest temperature that is allowed by the
process.

» Decrease chiller condenser temperature by regular cleaning, maintenance & periodic descaling.

» Maximization of the size of chilled water storage vessels to take advantage of – peak electricity
tariffs if applicable and low demand periods to minimize maximum demand.

» Design and maintain condenser temperature as low as possible. It is estimated that for a given
evaporator temperature, every 5.5oC (10oF) increase in condensing temperature reduces
refrigeration capacity by about 6%

Page 27 of 45
» Seal exterior cracks/openings/gaps with caulk, gasketing, weather-stripping, etc.

20. Maintain Heat Exchanger Surfaces of Condensers. Clean Condenser

Tubes at suitable interval with Automatic condenser tube cleaning
device.

Poor maintenance = increased power consumption

 Scales are formed on the inner surface of the condenser water tubes due to chemicals used in
water treatment and other impurities in the water.
 Periodical cleaning of the condenser tube can improve heat transfer efficiency and saves about
10% of energy.
 Cleaning can be done manually in which case sufficient maintenance space is required at one end
of the condenser.
 Automatic condenser tube cleaning device is more desirable. It consists of cleaning balls usually of
metal that is stored in vessel in a by-pass pipe-work. It will be used during the cleaning cycle by
reversing the flow direction through the condenser.
Effect of poor maintenance on compressor power consumption is given on the table below:

Refrigeration Sp. Power Cons. Increase

Condition Te (C) Tc (C)
Capacity (TR) (kW/TR) kW/TR (%)
Normal 7.2 40.5 17.0 0.69 -
Dirty condenser 7.2 46.1 15.6 0.84 20.4

Dirty evaporator 1.7 40.5 13.8 0.82 18.3

Dirty condenser & 1.7 46.1 12.7 0.96 38.7

evaporator

22. Install Sub-cooler, de-super-heater & heat pipe

De-superheat the refrigerant vapor (hot gas) leaving the compressor. The superheat can be recovered
for process (e.g. bottle washer) or make-up water pre-heating for steam/hot water boiler. Because the
temperature of the hot gas is
higher than the condensing
temperature, the superheat
can be used where lower
temperature latent heat can
not. Care must be taken in the
design of the refrigerant
piping system to ensure proper
return of liquid refrigerant
and oil from the
desuperheater.

Page 28 of 45
The refrigerant travels through the hot gas line from the discharge of the compressor to the condenser.
The hot gas or discharge pipe is a little smaller in diameter than the suction pipe. The temperature of
the hot gas will drop from its discharge temperature (140ºF) to its condensing temperature (120ºF) in
the condenser. This drop in sensible temperature is called desuperheating.

After the condenser, the refrigerant is a high-pressure, high-temperature liquid. It continues to give up
heat or subcool, as it flows through the liquid line to the pressure-reducing device. The liquid
refrigerant will leave the condenser at about 120ºF, flow through the liquid line, and enter the
expansion stage metering device at 90ºF. It is important that the liquid be subcooled to the correct
temperature to make the system operate. The liquid line is the smallest line and is warm to the touch
when the system is operating.

» Measure Sub-cooling:
 Get the refrigerant saturation pressure-temperature. Take a pressure reading of the liquid
line leaving the condenser. Refrigerant saturation temperature is the pressure-temperature,
when the refrigerant is turning from a high-pressure vapor into a high-pressure liquid
(giving up heat). At saturation pressure-temperature, both liquid and vapor are at the same
temperature.
 (1) Convert pressure to temperature with a P/T chart.
 (2) Take a temperature reading at the leaving liquid line of the condenser.
 Compare both, the saturated temperature and leaving liquid line temperature. Subtracting
one from the other, the difference is the amount the refrigerant has cooled past saturated
temperature.
» Measure Evaporator Superheat:
 Get a pressure reading of the suction line leaving the evaporator to get refrigerant
saturation pressure-temperature. Refrigerant saturation temperature is the pressure-
temperature, when the refrigerant is turning from a low-pressure liquid to a low-pressure
vapor (absorbing heat). At saturation pressure-temperature, both liquid and vapor are at the
same temperature.
 Convert pressure to
temperature with a
P/T chart. If reading
is obtained at the
compressor, not at
the evaporator line
leaving, you may
have to add a few
pounds of pressure
due to pressure drop
in the suction line.
 Take a temperature
reading at the leaving

Page 29 of 45
 suction line of the evaporator.
 Compare both, the saturated temperature and the leaving suction line temperature.
Subtracting one from the other, the difference is the amount the refrigerant gas has heated
past saturated temperature.

Page 30 of 45
 External heat sinks provide 35-40F additional
sub-cooling & thus have about 18-20%
additional capacity. Energy savings of 10% or
more are possible.
Heat Pipe Heat Exchanger
» Savings achieved because of less need for
chilled water to sub-cool the air for moisture
removal. A slight increase in fan power will be
required.
» Cost of heat pipe is about $ 3 per cfm.
» Energy savings are related to amount of reheat
energy eliminated.

Page 31 of 45
23. Monitor Chilled Water/glycol T across the chillers.

Lack of chilled water ∆T is the largest contributor to poor chilled water plant performance.

To predict ∆T, you must know:

– Characteristics of cooling coils in system
– Control valve requirements and limitations
– Control valve control algorithms and set-points
– Load characteristics on coil
Cooling Coil Characteristics
– Lower CHWS temperature will typically yield higher CHWR temperature assuming load
is adequate
– Higher CHWS temperature will typically yield lower CHWR temperature
– CHWR temperature will begin to lower when EAT gets close to CHWR temperature
Factors that Degrade ∆T
– Air economizers and 100% OSA systems
– Excessive distribution differential pressure
– Higher CHWS temperature - collapsing ∆T
Account for heat gain on above grade piping
– Coil control valves (specify close-off pressure)
Not capable of controlling against differential pressure
3-way valves or 3-way converted to 2-way valves
– Controls not controlling
Supply air setpoint cannot be achieved
Valves not interlocked with AHU, out of calibration
– Improper coil selections
Design, construction and operation errors that cause low ∆T can be avoided
Other causes for low ∆T can never be eliminated
∆T degradation is inevitable, therefore, system design must accommodate level of degradation
anticipated

∆T Selection

What is the optimum ∆T for chilled water and condenser water systems?
There is no “optimum” ∆T for all systems, however, the following guidelines can lead to an
answer:
– Select chillers at various ∆Ts and estimate life cycle costs (12-20°F)
– If majority of chiller operating hours are at reduced load, consider 2 gpm/ton on
condenser water
Refrigeration Lift = SCT – SST
Saturated Condensing Temperature (SCT) is dependent upon LEAVING condenser water
temperature. Saturated Suction Temperature (SST) is based off of LEAVING chilled water
temperature.

Page 32 of 45
24. Monitor flows through large loads to design values.
25. New Evaporator Coils
26. Upgrade Refrigeration Control
Existing control system only monitors evaporator temperature and operates in ON/OFF mode. It is
recommended to upgrade the control system incorporating additional parameters to provide
accurate & flexible operation. Solid state digital control can optimize equipment and system
operation to meet load requirements with minimum power consumption and can shed load to
reduce short term electrical peaks.
27. Premium Efficiency Compressor Motors
28. Chilled Water Supply Temperature Reset

The efficiency of chillers increases as the chilled water temperature increases. This is because, in order
to obtain lower temperature chilled water, the refrigerant must be compressed at a higher rate, which
in turn increases the compressor power requirements and decreases the efficiency of the chiller.

There is approximately a 1% increase in efficiency for each degree Fahrenheit increase in the chilled
water setpoint temperature. The efficiency increase tends to be higher near the lower temperatures in
the setpoint range and decreases as the setpoint temperature increases. The amount of allowable
increase must be determined by a detailed engineering analysis that evaluates the load requirements
from the chiller, the design chilled water temperature, and other aspects of the system. It is not
uncommon to find chilled water setpoints that are lower than is required from industrial chillers.
Evaporator - The unit on the chiller in which heat is transferred to the refrigerant. Warm water flows
over tubes containing a liquid refrigerant in a tube-and-shell heat exchanger. Heat is extracted from the
water as the refrigerant vaporizes and the temperature of the water is reduced to the desired chilled
water temperature.
Chilled Water - Water in the evaporator that is cooled when heat is removed to vaporize the
refrigerant.

29. Optimize Process Heat Exchange.

» There is a tendency to apply high safety margins to operations, which influence the compressor
suction pressure / evaporator set point.
 For instance, a process-cooling requirement of 15C would need chilled water at a lower
temperature, but the range can vary from 6C to about 10C. At chilled water of 10C, the
refrigerant side temperature has to be lower (about –5C to +5C).
 The refrigerant temperature determines the corresponding suction pressure of the
refrigerant, which in turn determines the inlet duty conditions for the refrigerant
compressor.
Minimizing energy consumption can be achieved in the following ways:
» Proper sizing of heat transfer areas of process heat exchangers and evaporators
 The heat transfer coefficient on the refrigerant side can range from 1400–2800 W /m2K.
 The refrigerant side heat transfer areas are of the order of 0.5 m 2/TR and above in
evaporators

Page 33 of 45
 » Optimizing the driving force, i.e. the difference between evaporator temp Te and condensing
temp Tc. A 1C raise in evaporator temperature can save almost 3% of the power consumed.
» The table below shows the effect of evaporation temperature on the compressor power
consumption. At a constant condenser temperature Tc of 40oC, lower evaporator temperatures
reduce the refrigeration capacity TR and increase the power consumption

» The second table shows the effect of condensing temperature on the compressor power
consumption. At a constant evaporator temperature Te of 10oC, increasing the condensing
temperature leads to a reduction in refrigeration capacity and an increase in power
consumption.

» The conclusion is that we should try to keep the difference between Te and Tc at an optimum
level to ensure the best TR at the lowest power consumption.

See the effect of Te and Tc

on the cooling effect TR &
the power consumption:

30. Multi-Staging Systems

Efficient compressor operation requires that the compression ratio be kept low, to reduce
discharge pressure and temperature. For low temperature applications involving high compression
ratios, and for wide temperature range requirements, it is preferable (due to equipment design
limitations) and often economical to employ multi-stage reciprocating machines or centrifugal /
screw compressors.

» Suited for
 Low temp applications with high compression
 Wide temperature range
There are two types of multi-staging systems, which are applicable to all types of compressors:
compound and cascade.

• Efficient compressor operation requires that the compression ratio be kept low, to reduce
discharge pressure and temperature. For low temperature applications involving high
compression ratios, and for wide temperature range requirements, it is preferable (due to

Page 34 of 45
 equipment design limitations) and often economical to employ multi-stage reciprocating
machines or centrifugal / screw compressors.
• There are two types of multi-staging systems, which are applicable to all types of compressors:
compound and cascade.
Compound
• a combination of two compressors with low compression ratios can provide a high compression
ratio
• A single refrigerant is used in the system, and the two compressors share the compression task
equally.
• a first-stage compressor that sized to meet the cooling load, feeds into the suction of a second-
stage compressor after inter-cooling of the gas. A part of the high-pressure liquid from the
condenser is flashed and used for liquid sub-cooling.
• The second compressor, therefore, has to meet the load of the evaporator and the flash gas.
Cascade
• For temperatures in the range of –46oC to –101oC, cascaded systems are preferable.
• In this system, two separate systems using different refrigerants are connected so that one
rejects heat to the other.
• The main advantage of this system is that a low temperature refrigerant, which has a high
suction temperature and low specific volume, can be selected for the low-stage to meet very low
temperature requirements.

31. Matching Capacity to Load System

» Most applications have varying loads

Consequence of part-load operation - COP increases but lower efficiency.

Consideration of part-load operation is important, because most refrigeration applications have

varying loads. The load may vary due to variations in temperature and process cooling needs.

During part-load operation, the evaporator temperature rises and the condenser temperature falls,
effectively increasing the COP. But at the same time, deviation from the design operation point
and the fact that mechanical losses form a greater proportion of the total power negate the effect of
improved COP, resulting in lower part-load efficiency.

Matching refrigeration capacity to the load is a difficult exercise, requiring knowledge of

compressor performance, and variations in ambient conditions, and detailed knowledge of the
cooling load.
Match refrigeration capacity to load requires knowledge of
 Compressor performance
 Variations in ambient conditions
 Cooling load

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32. Multiple Chillers: Manage part-load at compressor bank
Bank of compressors at central plant
• Monitor cooling and chiller load: 1 chiller full load more efficient than 2 chillers at part-load
• Distribution system: individual chillers feed all branch lines; Isolation valves; Valves to
isolate sections
• Load individual compressors to full capacity before operating second compressor
Many industries use a bank of compressors at a central location to meet the load. Usually the
chillers feed into a common header from which branch lines are taken to different locations in the
plant. In such situations, operation at part-load requires extreme care. For efficient operation,
• the cooling load, and the load on each chiller must be monitored closely. It is more
efficient to operate a single chiller at full load than to operate two chillers at part-load.
• The distribution system should be designed such that individual chillers can feed
all branch lines.
• Isolation valves must be provided to ensure that chilled water (or other
coolant) does not flow through chillers not in operation.
• Valves should also be provided on branch lines to isolate sections where cooling is not
required. This reduces pressure drops in the system and reduces power consumption in the
pumping system.
• Individual compressors should be loaded to their full capacity before operating the second
compressor.
• In some cases it is economical to provide a separate smaller capacity chiller, which can be
operated on an on-off control to meet peak demands, with larger chillers meeting the base
load.

In overall plant design, adoption of good practices improves the energy efficiency significantly.
Some areas for consideration are:
• Use of softened water for condensers in place of raw water.
• Use of economic insulation thickness on cold lines, heat exchangers, considering cost of
heat gains and adopting practices like infrared thermography for monitoring - applicable
especially in large chemical / fertilizer / process industry.

33. Explore the possibility of reducing the distance between Chilling Plant & the
load to minimize the losses.

34. Check for correct refrigerant charge level.

35. Check & Correct inappropriate glycol concentration that adversely affects
heat transfer and/or pumping energy.

36. If it sweats, insulate it. If it is corroding, replace it first. (else a large amount
of refrigerant will get lost for ignoring this one)

37. Maintain "self-cleaning" fluid velocities in heat exchangers (condenser,

evaporator, cooling load etc).

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38. Check gauges to ensure standard performance conditions are met.
39. Check for proper refrigerant charge, subcooling, superheating, and operation of the metering
device and any associated sensing bulb.
40. Take amperage readings. If conditions start to deviate from the norm, check the following
components and make corrections as needed:
41. Determine the cause of icing, and correct it.
42. Remove any restriction in the liquid line (e.g., dirty strainer).
43. Ensure that all components are properly secured (e.g., TXV sensing bulb to suction line).
44. Check for leakage from compressor valves & liquid line solenoid valves. Repair leaks.
45. Adjust controls on multiple staging systems so a second and subsequent compressors won’t
energize until the first compressor can no longer satisfy the demand.

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38. Thermal Energy Storage
» Consider using the fire water storage tank for refrigerated water thermal storage.
» Explore using chiller water instead of glycol for beverage cooling.

Thermal Storage - NEA has implemented Time of Day (TOD) Metering System with 3 time zones and
3 different tariff rates are in vogue. According to it, tariff rate from morning 5:00 AM to evening 5:00
PM is Rs. 5.85/kWh. In the evening, 5:00 PM to 11:00 PM, the rate applicable is Rs. 6.7/kWh. From
11:00 PM to 5:00 AM, it is Rs. 4.1/kWh. The cost of captive power is Rs.
16/kWh.

From above, we can see that cost of power varies from 4.1 to 16, almost by
4 fold within a day. A technology called “Thermal Energy Storage” is
available which can be utilized to run the chiller at night (when tariff is
cheaper & store it in the ice form and run it during the peak hours when
tariff is high and when DG set is running.

Thermal Storage System saves the cost owing to tariff difference/rate

difference (e.g. DG vs. Grid), reduces Maximum Demand and hence the Maximum Demand charge
releasing the capacity from the system and Improves operating efficiency of chillers. The concept of
“Thermal Energy Storage” is explained in the forthcoming pages.

Storing thermal energy for use at a later time is an excellent energy management strategy. Thermal
energy storage (TES) systems can store low-cost energy that is generated off-peak as an electrical
demand cost-control measure. But TES can also be used to hedge in competitive utility markets for
both electricity and gas, to reduce emissions, and to lower energy use.

Frequently, energy is available at one time but needed at another time. TES systems bridge the two
times. TES is a mature technology that has been used in a variety of applications ranging from cooling
and heating of buildings to cooling of gas turbine inlet air. Some TES systems have been operating
continuously and satisfactorily for over 30 years, and some manufacturers and system designers have
been in business throughout that period.

A classic TES application collects solar energy during the day for use in heating a building during the
night. Recently, it has become common to build cooling reserves during the utility off-peak period for
use during the following on-peak period. These applications result in reduced energy cost and,
frequently, decreased energy use as well.

When utility energy is used to operate heating or cooling equipment near design capacity and
unneeded output is stored for later use, the end user's equipment often runs at a more consistent and
efficient rate. The utility may also be able to optimize the use of its equipment. TES operation that
smoothes the load profile also reduces energy use, particularly in the case of cooling equipment,
because the chillers are operated more at times when they operate more efficiently due to lower
ambient wetbulb temperatures.

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Alternatively, energy may be available at the discharge of a device or a process at a temperature that is
suitable for heating or cooling a space or another process, but the supply does not occur at the same
time as the demand. TES provides a means for storing the heating or cooling capacity that might
otherwise be wasted and making it available when it is needed. This application can produce the
benefits of reduced emissions, energy use, and cost.

In many installations, TES provides additional benefits. For example, the addition of TES to an
existing cooling system highlights the benefits of increasing the difference between chilled water supply
and return temperatures. This modification improves operation of the distribution portion of the
cooling system, increases thermal storage capacity, and reduces energy use by the chillers.

TES applications for buildings and processes require energy to be stored from only a few hours up to a
several days. Daily cycles are most frequently employed, but in some applications heating-cooling units
may be available to charge TES on weekends. The storage medium can be designed and constructed to
accommodate energy storage for several days.

Ice Storage System

Conventional
System

TES Design

Above figure shows how TES may be incorporated in the central plant portion of a cooling or heating
system. The heating or cooling system output may be routed either to the distribution system that
serves the load or to thermal storage, or to both simultaneously.
Thermal Energy Storage Circuit
Valves installed in the system are operated to route the
thermal energy. The heating-cooling unit may operate in
parallel with thermal storage to satisfy the load, or the
load may be satisfied entirely by TES at one time and at
another time entirely by the unit.

The operating strategy depends on the objectives of the

system design and, ultimately, on capital and operating
costs. The operating strategy may vary with time due to
seasonal weather variations or increased loads resulting
from changes or additions to the facility.

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A storage medium for thermal energy
either changes temperature-sensible
energy storage-or changes phases. Water
or water-antifreeze solutions are the most
common TES media currently used.
They are used in both sensible and phase-
change types of storage. Eutectic salts are
employed only in phase-change storage.
Solids are used only in sensible storage,
usually in applications requiring small
storage capacities.
Harvesting stored thermal energy
In order to reduce tank size and cost,
storage in liquids is usually accomplished
in stratified tanks rather than in separate tanks for
warmer and cooler fluids. Stratification means that
warmer liquid floats on top of cooler liquid. This
may be achieved by using inlet and outlet diffusers
as long as the temperature of the liquid in storage
does not traverse the neutral buoyancy point, which
is 4iC for pure water and lower for water-antifreeze
solutions.

Phase-change storage for cooling can be

implemented in a variety of ways, all of which
require circulating water or an antifreeze solution
through the evaporator of a refrigeration machine,
or chiller. Storage systems include freezing ice on
arrays of tubes inside tanks, freezing ice or eutectic
salts contained in capsules suspended in tanks, or
storing a slurry comprised of very small ice particles
suspended in a water-antifreeze solution in a
tank.

Stored thermal energy is lost over time due

to the temperature difference between the
storage medium and its surroundings. The
loss offsets energy savings and should be
taken into consideration. Insulation slows
the rate of energy loss.

Mixing and heat transfer through the storage

medium causes additional thermodynamic
losses, particularly for stratified sensible
storage. However, recent experience shows
that both heated and cooled TES are capable
of economically reducing the total energy
used for heating and cooling.

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Common Configurations

According to an American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE) survey:

• 87% of the cooling systems using TES in the

U.S. uses ice, 10% used water, and 3% uses
eutectic salt as the storage medium
• The capacity of phase-change systems in the
survey ranges from 100 ton-hours to about
29,000 ton-hours
• The average capacity ranges from 3000 to
4000 ton-hours
• The capacity range for sensible storage
systems is 660 to 68,000 ton-hours
• The average capacity is 23,000 ton-hours

The study showed that there are more phase-

change storage systems and that they dominate
smaller applications. There are fewer sensible
storage systems using liquid media, but sensible
storage systems dominated in larger applications.

Costs and Benefits

Utility rate structures offer lower energy prices

during off-peak periods when the demand for
power is less and the demand for cooling or
heating is usually lower. TES reduces operating
costs by taking advantage of the lower utility energy rates. Figure 2 illustrates the variation of the
cooling required by a building over a 24-hour cycle of operation and the resulting variation in total
electric power used by the building.

Electric utilities may offer reduced rates during off-peak periods to encourage improved use of their
base load capacity, which is more efficient than their peak units. The utility's off-peak period may not
be the same as the facility's, but they often overlap enough to justify the application. Consequently, the
cooling equipment for the facility may be operated at full capacity during the lower rate, off-peak
period to charge thermal storage, and partially or completely shut down during the higher rate, on-
peak period.

Commercial and industrial rates commonly have peak demand and energy rate components. In many
cases, end users can reduce utility cost simply by shifting the operation of cooling equipment partially
or completely from the facility peak period to its off-peak period, reducing peak demand and the
accompanying demand charges.

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 Savings in energy cost may be used to amortize any additional capital cost of thermal storage. In many
instances, the initial cost of a system with TES is no greater than one without TES. Capital costs of
TES are often offset in a variety of ways. For cooling systems, chiller size and cost can be reduced by
the chiller's increased operation at design capacity. Ancillary equipment can be downsized, including
pumps, cooling towers, and the electrical service for
these items. Present Electrical Profile

The strategies employed in designing and operating

a system using thermal storage affect how much
capital cost can be reduced. Considering TES early
in the conceptual design phase makes capital cost
reduction more likely to be realized.

The first cost of additional chillers to expand the

capacity of an existing cooling system makes the first
cost of TES particularly attractive. Chiller size
determines capital cost-the larger the unit, the
higher the cost. TES also offers capital cost benefits to systems producing a variety of outputs-heating,
cooling, and electrical power.

Heated TES can also offset capital costs. For example, heat recovery chillers may be used with TES to
reduce boiler capacity and to produce savings in the costs of both the heating equipment and the
associated fuel supply system.

Applications having relatively short periods of high

thermal load coinciding with high utility rate
periods are ideal candidates for TES. Examples
include sports facilities, auditoriums, churches, and
some industrial processes. With proper design and
operation, these applications will always produce
savings in operating cost, and they may well achieve
savings in capital cost, too.

➢ Reduced capital cost

➢ Reduced operating costs Off-Peak Cooling Electrical Profile
➢ Improved building comfort
➢ Increased asset value
➢ Better for the environment
➢ Reduces Peak Demand at most critical time 20-40%
➢ Reduces consumer’s energy costs 10-20%
➢ May reduce energy usage at the building up to 14%
➢ Reduces source energy usage at power plant 8-34%
➢ Reduces emissions up to 50%

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➢ Increases Load Factor of Generation up to 25%

The benefits of Ice Thermal Storage Retrofit Projects are

given below:
◼ Increase cooling capacity without increasing electrical
requirements
◼ Provides operational flexibility
◼ Add cooling capacity without increasing
 Building transformer
 Switch gear
 Motor control center
Other Benefits

The utility that serves a customer with TES benefits from

the storage system too. The utility can better utilize its base load electrical generation plants. As a
result, load can be met with less generation and distribution capacity.

Thermal storage can be installed at a customer facility at lower cost than the cost to the utility of
installing additional generating capacity. This explains why utilities have offered incentives in the form
of partial payment of the capital cost of TES installations as part of demand-side management
programs.

Recently, however, due to increased competition in the

electric utility industry, most utility companies have
discontinued this incentive.

The electric utility also realizes other energy savings. As

stated previously, TES for cooling increases chiller use
during the cooler portions of the day and at night, when
chillers operate more efficiently. Additional on-site
energy savings may be achieved by using heated TES,
which reduces both energy use and combustion
emissions when heat recovery is employed.

As limits on emissions become more stringent, interest

in TES to reduce on-site and power plant emissions will increase. Existing emissions regulations may
make it desirable to reduce on-site energy use in new construction. In addition to emission reductions
due to increased efficiency, smaller chillers with TES systems tend to lose less refrigerant.

TES produces a more forgiving heating and cooling system and gives the system operator more
operating flexibility. Not only can utility energy be drawn at times that are more advantageous for the
user, but heating or cooling loads can continue to be satisfied even if a heating or cooling unit is off-
line temporarily due to equipment failure or for periodic maintenance. TES may allow a user to take
advantage of spot retail utility rates that have been proposed as a means of dampening fluctuations in

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 wholesale electrical prices. With this strategy a facility owner could also consider interruptible power
for heating and cooling equipment.

TES tanks containing water can be used as auxiliary reservoirs for fire protection systems. If the
reservoir is located at a high point in the distribution system, gravity feed may suffice for this
application, thus offering an added level of security. On the other hand, using an existing fire
protection reservoir can help reduce the capital cost of a retrofit TES system.

The Changing Scene

Historically, the utility cost savings achieved by the use of TES, particularly for cooling, were
dominated by reduced demand charges. Time-of-use utility rates have offered savings in energy charges
as well. More recently, utilities have offered real-time pricing (RTP) electric rates.

Savings from TES systems are higher with RTP rates because the TES can carry the load through short
periods of unusually high cost. Lately, California and other service areas have experienced this
condition regularly. This is the ideal condition for application of TES.

However, calculating RTP savings is difficult because the level and duration of these price spikes are
highly variable and difficult to predict. However difficult to calculate, TES can generate the savings
required to justify these applications.

Until recently, utility companies supported thermal storage in various ways, including encouraging
users to consider thermal storage, providing design advice, paying portions of the capital cost of
installations, and supporting research on TES technology. Heightened competition in the electric
utility industry has severely reduced these forms of support.

Clearly, the TES market is in flux. Reduced external support requires TES to stand on its own merits
economically, but the technology offers a low-risk, high-reward energy management option.

Thermal Storage Options

◼ Chilled Water – large space requirements

◼ Ice – most popular (Recommended)
◼ Eutectic Salts – more expensive than ice
Thermal Energy Storage Myths
◼ Too much space
◼ Too expensive
◼ Too much energy
◼ Too complicated
The size of the chillers required for an ice thermal storage system is significantly reduced when
compared to conventional chillers. Chiller size is typically reduced to approximately 50% to 60% of
the peak cooling load. If TES is implemented in the unit, one chiller out of 3 will be easily released as
completely redundant. Reduction in total connected load will be from 150 kW of the conventional

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system to 100 kW of the ice TES system. The savings from transformers, starters, wiring and utility is
not included here.

Ice Thermal Storage Uses Less Energy. It reduces refrigeration unit consumption by 15%. During the
day, Chillers operate at higher supply temperatures and greater efficiency when piped upstream of the
ice storage. During the night, the ambient temperatures are lower, and hence the Chiller efficiency will
be good.

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