Melo 

et al. Herit Sci (2018) 6:44

https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-018-0208-z

REVIEW Open Access

The book on how to make all the colour

paints for illuminating books: unravelling
a Portuguese Hebrew illuminators’ manual
Maria J. Melo1*  , Rita Castro1, Paula Nabais1 and Tatiana Vitorino1,2

Abstract 
The book on how to make all the colour paints for illuminating books invites readers to step inside the workshop of a
fifteenth century illuminator in Portugal. This illuminator was the carrier of a tradition on how to make colours with
‘which you can illuminate or paint or capitalize or write’ that dates back, at least, to the thirteenth century. This unique
knowledge and know-how was carefully preserved in Portuguese language, in Hebrew characters, in a collection of
texts now known as Ms. Parma 1959 (Parma, Italy, Biblioteca Palatina, MS 1959, folios 1r–20r). Its ultimate purpose was
possibly to assist on the production of Hebrew Bibles, where the precision of the text would have been illuminated
by the colours described in this ‘book of all colour paints’. This medieval treatise describes the main steps and ingredi-
ents for producing painting materials, such as mosaic gold, red lead, verdigris, brazilwood lake pigments, lac dye red,
vermilion, parchment glue, among others. It also instructs on the binding media that should be used to produce the
colour paints. In this paper, we will discuss the technical aspects relevant for the success of the making of the painting
materials and of the experimentation of this remarkable text, copied in the fifteenth century.
Keywords:  Medieval, Pigments, Paints, Illuminations, Treatise, Recipe, Portuguese Hebrew

Introduction chemistry, and validated as a reference through compari-

We have been studying and reconstructing the medieval son with the molecular characterisation of the original
processes to make pigments and paints which were used colours found in the illuminations [4–7]. The success of
to create medieval manuscript illuminations with the the validation depends on the depth of the molecular
long-term goal of conserving them in the original art- characterisation since the paints found in medieval illu-
works [1–3]. The establishment of a dialogue between the minations are heterogeneous formulations which include
medieval written sources and the multi-analytical molec- pigments, binders, additives and varnishes. If from a
ular characterisation of the original colours has been our molecular point of view, including morphology, the
primary approach. This research has been carried out reproduced colour paint matches the original, it is con-
within an interdisciplinary team which includes conser- sidered a reconstruction and it is integrated in a database.
vators, chemists, and art historians. These reconstructions become reference material to test
The rationalisation of the processes to make medieval new approaches for analytical characterisation, to study
pigments and paints are made through the chemical degradation mechanisms, and, finally, to test innovative
knowledge of the twenty first century. The reproduction methods to conserve the medieval illuminations.
is carried out with as much historical accuracy as possi- The processes to make pigments and paints presented
ble, taking advantage of the shortcuts offered by today’s in the oldest Portuguese text on the colours of medieval
illumination have been reconstructed and the knowl-
*Correspondence: [email protected] edge obtained is presented as Additional file 1 [8]. In this
1
Department of Conservation and Restoration and LAQV‑REQUIMTE, paper, we will discuss technical aspects relevant for the
Faculty of Sciences and Technology, NOVA University of Lisbon,
2829‑516 Caparica, Portugal
experimentation of this remarkable scientific text, copied
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article in the fifteenth century.

© The Author(s) 2018. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
(http://creat​iveco​mmons​.org/licen​ses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
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Melo et al. Herit Sci (2018) 6:44 Page 2 of 8

The book on how to make all the colour paints comparison with medieval illuminations in Portuguese
for illuminating books collections has served as a two-fold support, either by
The text in the ‘book on how to make all the colour paints validating the results obtained which can then be used
for illuminating books’ dates back at least to the thir- as reference materials for future research, or by provid-
teenth century and tells us about the science and art of ing insight into the processes to which we should pay a
making and applying colours with ‘which you can illu- greater amount of attention and the way in which they
minate or paint or capitalize or write’. Débora Marques should be reproduced.
de Matos, based on convincing evidence, proposes that In the Additional file  1, the experimental edition of
it was possibly copied by Abraham ibn Hayyim in 1462; the ‘book of all colour paints’ is presented, as individual
the scribe was not the author of the text [9]. This thir- chapters, each one corresponding to a process for making
teenth to fifteenth century medieval treatise describes colour, and focuses on the organic- and inorganic-based
the main steps and ingredients for producing colourants, colours. Each chapter includes the English translation of
such as mosaic gold, red lead, verdigris, brazilwood, lac the process, the description of the reproduction carried
dye, vermilion, among others; it instructs also on how to out in the laboratory, and the rationalisation and chemi-
temper and produce colour paints. This knowledge was cal reactions involved. Key aspects of the processes, miss-
carefully preserved in Portuguese language written in ing/obscure indications, as well as comments are also
Hebrew characters, in a collection of texts, now known presented. The chapters are further completed with the
as Ms. Parma 1959. The original manuscript, MS 1959, identification of the respective colour paint in Portuguese
folios 1r–20r, is kept in Biblioteca Palatina, Parma (Italy). medieval illuminations, the references cited and sources
Its ultimate purpose was to possibly assist on the produc- for further reading, and an appendix with the colour,
tion of Hebrew Bibles, where the precision of the text molecular and elemental characterisation of the pigment
would have been illuminated by the colours described in and paint reproduced. Some of the processes are still
this ‘book of all colour paints’. The treatise was recently work in progress since some steps remain to be under-
studied by an interdisciplinary team of researchers led stood, while other are to be kept in permanent update.
by Luís U. Afonso and Victor Serrão in the project ‘As
Matérias da Imagem’ [10, 11]. Other scholars have also All colour paints
made major contributions for our knowledge on this There are eleven colour names listed in the ‘book of all
precious text, and include the first edition, with English colour paints’ (Table  1). The processes for making these
translation, by Blondheim (1928), the Portuguese trans- colours, based on both organic and inorganic pigments,
lation by Moreira de Sá (1960) and, recently, the Eng- are presented for only nine, the majority of which have
lish translation and transliteration by Devon Strolovich been reproduced and are presented in the online techni-
[12–14]. Inès Villela-Petit also stood out as one of the cal commentary. These include mosaic gold, silver blue,
first researchers to question Blondheim’s dating of the brazilwood, red lead, verdigris, lac, vermilion, katasol
Ms. Parma 1959 [15]. More recently, another edition was (turnsole), and green lake. In the following sections, we
published by Larroche [16]. present the colours which have been extensively repro-
duced and found in medieval illumination in Portuguese
Experimenting with the ‘book of all colour paints’ collections, as well as those which still represent a chal-
The most recent edition of the treatise by Strolovitch lenge to reproduce.
[14] helped us understand more clearly the processes’
description as well as the comments needed for the suc- The green and blue colours
cess of the colours’ reproduction. Although the steps for It is interesting to note that, in principle, for each colour
the recipes are precise and clearly described, the fact there is a process that leads to an inorganic pigment and
that we have centuries separating us from the medieval another to an organic dye; this is the case for blue, yellow,
practice and the daily routine of medieval illuminators red and green.
may obliterate some processes that were common prac- For the inorganic green, two recipes are proposed that
tice and obvious at that time, but unclear to us presently. produce a neutral copper acetate, although for the time
When the results of the reproduction were disappoint- being with rather low yields. The low yields result from
ing, we tried to reinterpret the science and technology the low concentration (chap 11) or absence (chap 12) of
of the process. Each reproduction and each different acetic acid in the gas phase. Nevertheless, the suggestion
approach, and more than 10  years of experimentation of using warm vinegar is striking as we concluded that,
have allowed us to reconstruct the materials used in indeed, this is an important procedure for increasing the
the past to create medieval illuminations. Systematic reaction yields.
Melo et al. Herit Sci (2018) 6:44 Page 3 of 8

Table 1  The ten colours described in chapter 27; ‘the principal colours are ten: blue, orpiment, and vermilion, green, sufi
carmine, katasol (turnsole), saffron, red lead, white lead, brazilwood’

i a Alvaya
Azul Orpimento Vemelyon Verde Karmen Çuf y Katasol Açafrao Az rkon Brasil
lde

5 15 11, 12, 13, 14 24 36 10 8, 9, 27,

– 45
– –
44

Last row: chapters where the making off is described

The organic green obtained from Iris germanica is the natural wood source is extracted with urine. Depend-
based on the capture of an anthocyanin supramolecular ing on the quantity of extender added, calcium carbon-
complex [17, 18], which together with yellow flavones ate, basic lead carbonate, or calcium sulphate dihydrate
also present in the plant petals, will produce a green col- (gypsum), more opaque will be the resulting pigment.
our. This is a work in progress as only recently we have The processes presented in chapters  9 and 44, on the
planted the flower to ensure the accurate usage of fresh other hand, refer an extraction with lye and lime, which
material. result in a dark red colour. Alum is present in all four
The organic blue, possibly turnsole, will be addressed in processes, as a source of aluminium ions that complex
“The incomplete recipe of katasol”. with the chromophore of brazilwood. Chapter 8 also calls
Unfortunately, we were not yet able to obtain silver blue for the dye solution to be filtered over a chalk or gypsum
from ‘leaves of sterling Luna, that is, very thin leaves of stone (the actual term in the recipe is ‘piah feitah de gis o
sterline silver’. The ‘sterline silver’ used to prepare the de pedra kri’, ‘trough made of gypsum or chalk stone’). In
‘fine blue’ (nobre azul) had possibly a different composi- contrast, the other recipes do not mention the filtration
tion from what is presently used for sterling silver. We are step. It is unclear whether this represents an omission
confident that once this relevant detail has been eluci- because filtration was assumed, or whether it means that
dated we will be able to reproduce this pigment. no filtration was done in the latter recipes. For example,
in chapter 44, instructions say to grind and then sift the
The roses of brazilwood brazilwood. Sifting could result in the larger wood scrap-
Brazilwood was an important source for pink and red ings being removed leaving only the smallest particles,
colours in medieval times. Although it is, currently, con- making filtration unnecessary (however, in our reproduc-
sidered less stable to light than the anthraquinone reds tions some small brazilwood scrapings are present in the
(carminic acid, laccaic acid, alizarin, and purpurin), the final pigment).
processes to produce brazilwood colours appear in a
higher number in the ‘book of all colour paints’ than the The sulfured‑colours, mosaic gold and vermilion
other colours. Our studies in medieval illuminations have Two of the most interesting recipes on the ‘book of all
shown that this pigment was extensively used and it is a colour paints’ are the recipes for mosaic gold (Fig. 2) and
stable colour in the medieval codex, being found under vermilion, both sulphide based pigments. For the first we
four tonalities: a translucent carmine, an opaque dark have, as for many other colours, two different processes;
rose, a light and lively opaque rose, and a faded opaque for vermilion, only one recipe. For both pigments, we
rose (Fig. 1). The ‘book on how to make colours’ contains found a detailed list of materials and equipment as well
processes for producing different rose colours from bra- as precise instructions for the heating process; we are
zilwood in chapters 8, 9, 27 and 44 (Table 1). For rational- also given exceptional details such as (i) the use of a ‘dog’s
isation of the processes, several experiments were carried foot’ for bringing together mercury and sulphur to pro-
out in the laboratory. In the end, the four processes are duce black HgS: it is advised to ‘always stirring it with a
for preparing either a dark red or a rose colour. The lat- dog’s foot that has its hair and wool’, which allows to cap-
ter is characterised by a higher L* value and a component ture the much fugacious mercury. Those who have not
in the yellow (b* > 0) or blue (b* < 0) together with a red worked with the ‘fugitive’—one of the many names for
component (a* > 0) and is obtained with the processes mercury—cannot imagine the advantage of this informa-
described in chapters 8 and 27 in which the colour from tion; (ii) And the use of a glass vessel to produce mosaic
Melo et al. Herit Sci (2018) 6:44 Page 4 of 8

Fig. 1  Example of a reproduction of the Göttingen Model Book prepared by students from the master’s degree program in Conservation and
Restoration; the rose colours are painted with a brazilwood pigment reconstruction

Fig. 2  From left to right. Example of a reproduction of the Göttingen Model Book prepared by students from the master’s degree program
in Conservation and Restoration; the yellow colour is painted with a mosaic gold pigment reconstruction. Mosaic gold applied on the Ajuda
Songbook, fol. 17 and fol. 40v

gold [19]; the precise importance and function of this The incomplete recipe of katasol
glass vessel, a costly material in medieval times, is still Katasol refers possibly to turnsole,1 which Mark Clarke,
being investigated. in his critical edition of technical middle English

1 
D. Strolovitch translates it as "sunflower juices", but this cannot be correct
and does not make sense as it is not possible to obtain a blue/purple colour
from sunflowers.
Melo et al. Herit Sci (2018) 6:44 Page 5 of 8

Fig. 3  Chrozophora tinctoria, close-up of the fruits, and dyed cloth with the juice of the fruits according to the recipe of the ‘book of all colour
paints’; blue after exposition to vapours of urine and purple after exposed to sunlight. Fruits were collected in August and September 2017, near
Granja-Amareleja, Alentejo, Portugal

treatises, refers to as being a generic nomination for a the ‘book of all colour paints’ refers that once the cloths
cloth used to capture a certain colour, often, but not are coloured with the vapours of the urine, they should
necessarily, Chrozophora tinctoria [20].2 We propose be placed in the sun, until they reach a “blackberry” col-
that in the ‘book of all colour paints’, katasol in chap- our. Then, the clothlets should be kept away from ‘winter
ter 24 has a precise meaning and is referring to the col- air’ until they need to be used (« e depois ke foren kora-
orant obtained from the fruits of Chrozophora tinctoria. das do bafo dos vidos poyn-os ao sol ata ke tomen kolor
This plant is common in the Iberian Peninsula, and the komo morado e os panos enestas kolor e been en‹sutos e
use of the word grain, ‘graos’ (‘panos o çumo de katasol korados guarda-os been do ar do inberno kuando ko.ele
e dos rgaos’) could indicate the use of these fruits. This ki‹seres aluminar o labrar… »).
has similitudes with other medieval sources that mention Also, the ‘book of all colour paints’ gives instructions
this colorant which, independently of the name given, on how to temper it with gum arabic, advising to use it
turnesol, morella, folium, or others, will be applied as a immediately to avoid colour loss.
watercolour. In Liber diversarum arcium, one can find
in chapter §1.13.1A, the reference to an herb with ‘three Conclusions
grain sprout in the seeds—and from these seeds specially From practitioner to practitioner the experimental edi-
are cloths dyed’ [21]. In Chrozophora tinctoria, each fruit tion of the book on how to make all the colour paints for
has three seeds, and it is in the shell of the fruit that the illuminating books brings to the twenty first century labo-
colorant is found, Fig.  3. If the final colour that will be ratory, the science and the technology used to produce
obtained is blue or purple is still a matter of debate. the colour paints for medieval illuminations. Ten years of
Interestingly, De Arte Illuminandi includes a very systematic experimentation, now available in the Addi-
detailed recipe for preparing a blue colour folium that tional file  1 and summarized in Table  2, allowed us to
may be kept for a year, but afterwards turns into purple conclude that the descriptions of the making of colours
[22]. De Arte Iluminandi mentions that the colour should and paints are brief and precise, and in many cases, they
be prepared protected from the sun and the resulting include additional information on the most critical steps,
clothlet should be kept inside books, in a dry place, while which can be crucial to the practitioner. The present con-
tribution highlights technical aspects relevant for the
2 
"turnesole, tornesole, tournesole, tursole. experimentation of this remarkable Portuguese Hebrew
n. any colour of direct dye extracted from a flower or berry that is stored text, copied in the fifteenth century.
by being absorbed into a clothlet, to be subsequently released by immersion
in a medium for e.g. an illuminator’s colour, typically purple or blue (not a Our first contact with this book dates back to 2000,
botanical name, i.e., not refering to the turnsole plants Chrozophora tincto- through the edition of Moreira de Sá, and experimentation
ria (Juss.) or Helotropium spp., although the former plant itself may be used in the laboratory started in 2001 with the first of a series
as the colour source)", in Clarke, p 441.
Melo et al. Herit Sci (2018) 6:44 Page 6 of 8

Table 2  Colours and chapters in which instructions for their manufacture is described

Colour and chapter Chapter Final product Analytical techniques References

1, 2 Mosaic gold SnS2 XRD; XRF; Raman microscopy; FORS (VIS); [24–31]
colorimetry

10 Red lead Pb3O4 XRD; XRF; Raman microscopy; FORS (VIS); [32–40]
colorimetry

15 Vermilion HgS XRD; XRF; Raman microscopy; FORS (VIS); [31, 41–50]
colorimetry

11, 12 Verdigris Cu(CH3COO)2·H2O XRD; XRF; Raman microscopy; Infrared spec- [51–58]
troscopy; FORS (VIS); colorimetry

In progress 5 Fine blue

13 Fine carmine lac dye red HPLC–DAD; microspectrofluorimetry; Raman [5, 38, 59–70, 75]
microscopy (SERS); infrared spectroscopy;
FORS (VIS); colorimetry

8 Rose brazilwood lake pigment [6, 7, 59, 66, 71–74]

9 Another rose colour brazilwood lake pigment

27 Good rose colour brazilwood lake pigment

44 Good rose colour brazilwood lake pigment

In progress 24 Katasol
In progress 45 Green lily [17, 18]
Colour and colour paints were characterized with the main analytical techniques indicated. References that were important for the rationale of the recipe and
publications dealing with the reconstructed pigments are also given. A particularly relevant publication is marked in bolditalics. Final products as described in “the
book of all colour paints” are in italics

of unsuccessful experiments around vermilion production, discovered? We do not know, but in vermilion as in other
HgS, as it is described in chapter  15. Which did not dis- colours, even in those that seem easy to reproduce, the
courage us, since each single failure allowed to understand research we share today is a work in progress.
what had gone wrong, leading us closer to the experience We have made our best efforts to release it for the con-
in which, for the first time, we saw the ‘ash’ transformed ference ‘Manuscripts in the making: Art and Science’
into ‘fire’. Despite the making of vermilion has been thor- (December 2016), hoping this work may bring to dis-
oughly investigated under Catarina Miguel’s doctoral cussion new perceptions and different angles, by others
thesis [75], some aspects remain to be clarified, and the more knowledgeable, or with different know-how than
efficiency of the process continues to be as mysterious ours, on the way we have interpreted these recipes.
as when we began its experimentation [23];3 is it missing
a catalyst, obvious at the time, that we may have not yet Additional file

3 
Munir et al. [23] clearly demonstrated “that the transformation metacin- Additional file 1. Book of all colour paints.
nabar to cinnabar is exceedingly slow”. By differential thermal analysis, they
concluded that “the transformation of the red to black takes place with rela-
tive ease and is reproducible at temperature above the transformation tem- Authors’ contributions
perature, but that the black to red transformation is exceedingly sluggish MJM, RC, PN and TV contributed to the experiments and analysis of the
at temperatures below the transformation temperature, i.e., in the region data. All authors were involved in the interpretation of the results and in the
where the red modification is stable”.
Melo et al. Herit Sci (2018) 6:44 Page 7 of 8

editing and revising of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final 11. Castro I. Notas sobre a língua do Livro de como se fazen as cores (ms.
manuscript. Parma 1959). As Matérias da Imagem. Lisboa: Campo da Comunicação;
2010. p. 87–96.
Author details 12. Blondheim DS. An old Portuguese work on manuscript illumination. Jew
1
 Department of Conservation and Restoration and LAQV‑REQUIMTE, Faculty Q Rev. 1928;19(2):97–135.
of Sciences and Technology, NOVA University of Lisbon, 2829‑516 Caparica, 13. Moreira de Sá A. O livro de como se fazem as cores, de Abraao B. Judah
Portugal. 2 Nello Carrara Institute of Applied Physics, National Research Coun- Ibn Hayim. Revista da Faculdade de Letras. 1960;4:210–23.
cil, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy. 14. Strolovitch DL. O libro de komo se fazen as kores das tintas todas (Trans-
literation). As Matérias da Imagem. Lisboa: Campo da Comunicação;
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These studies were supported by the Portuguese Science Foundation 15. Villela-Petit I. Les Recettes pour l’enluminure. Do Livro judaico-português
through three research projects and three Ph.D. grants, including the three de como se fazem as cores. Medievalista Online. 2011:9. http://www2.
awarded to Rita Castro, Paula Nabais and Tatiana Vitorino (Ph.D. Grant fcsh.unl.pt/iem/medie​valis​ta/MEDIE​VALIS​TA9/petit​9005.html. Accessed
Nos. SFRH/BD/76789/2011, CORES Ph.D. programme PD/00253/2012: PD/ 12 July 2018.
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