Forage Crops of The World, Volume II

FORAGE CROPS OF THE WORLD
Volume II: Minor Forage Crops

FORAGE CROPS OF THE WORLD
Volume II: Minor Forage Crops
Edited by
Md. Hedayetullah, PhD
Parveen Zaman, PhD
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Forage crops of the world / edited by Md. Hedayetullah, PhD, Parveen Zaman, PhD.
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1. Forage plants. I. Hedayetullah, Md., 1982-, editor II. Zaman, Parveen, 1989-, editor
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ABOUT THE EDITORS
Md. Hedayetullah, PhD

Md. Hedayetullah, PhD, is an Assistant Professor/Scientist and Officer
In-Charge, AICRP (All India Coordinated Research Projects) on Chickpea,
Directorate of Research, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Kalyani,
Nadia, West Bengal. He is a former Agronomist with the NABARD,
Balasore, Odisha, India. He was also formerly a Professor at the M.S.
Swaminathan Institute of Agriculture Science, Centurion University of
Technology and Management, Gajapati, Odisha, India, and an Assistant
Professor at the College of Agriculture, Tripura, Government of Tripura,
India. Dr. Hedayetullah is the author and co-author of 20 research papers,
five review papers two book chapters, and one book.
Dr. Hedayetullah acquired his BS degree (Agriculture) from H.N.B.
Garhwal University, Uttarakhand, India. He received his MS degree
(Agronomy) from Palli Siksha Bhavana, Institute of Agriculture, Visva
Bharati University, Sriniketan, West Bengal, India. He received his PhD
(Agronomy) from Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur,
Nadia, West Bengal, India. He was awarded the Maulana Azad National
Fellowship Award from the University Grant Commission, New Delhi,
India. He has received several fellowship grants from various funding
agencies to carry out his research works during his academic career.
Parveen Zaman, PhD

Parveen Zaman, PhD, is an Assistant Director of Agriculture (Farm)
at the Pulse & Oilseed Research Sub-Station, Beldanga, Department
of Agriculture, Government of West Bengal, India. She is author and
co-author of four research papers, three review papers, and four book
chapters. She acquired her BS degree (Agriculture), receiving a Gold
Medal, from Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia,
West Bengal, India. She received MS degree (Agronomy), also with
Gold Medal, from Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur,
vi About the Editors
Nadia, West Bengal, India. She was awarded the Maulana Azad National
Fellowship Award from the University Grants Commission, New Delhi,
India, and has received several fellowship grants from various funding
agencies to carry out her research works during her academic career.
CONTENTS
List of Contributors................................................................................... xi
List of Abbreviations.................................................................................xv
Acknowledgments....................................................................................xvii
Preface.....................................................................................................xix
PART I: Nonleguminous Perennial Forages.......................................... 1

1. Setaria Grass (African Grass)..................................................................... 3
Md. Hedayetullah, Parveen Zaman, and Dhiman Mukherjee
2. Para Grass (Buffalo Grass)....................................................................... 13

Md. Riton Chowdhury
3. Doob Grass (Bermuda Grass)................................................................... 21

Md. Hedayetullah and Parveen Zaman
4. Marvel Grass (Diaz Blue Stem).................................................................... 31

Golam Moinuddin
5. Pangola Grass (Digit or Woolly Finger Grass)........................................ 39

Md. Hedayetullah, Parveen Zaman, and Rajib Kundu
6. Canary Grass (Harding Grass)................................................................ 47

Bulbul Ahmed and Md. Hedayetullah
7. Anjan Grass (African Foxtail Grass)....................................................... 55

Md. Hedayetullah, B. Bhattacharya, and Parveen Zaman
8. Rhodes Grass (Abyssinian Rhodes Grass)............................................... 65

Md. Hedayetullah and Sibajee Banerjee
PART II: Leguminous Forages............................................................. 75

9. Grass Pea (Indian Vetch)........................................................................... 77
Raghunath Sadhukhan, Md. Hedayetullah, and Parveen Zaman
viii Contents
10. Moth Bean (Dew Bean).............................................................................. 91

Parveen Zaman and Md. Hedayetullah
11. Soybean (Bhatman).................................................................................. 101

Sagar Maitra
12. Fenugreek (Greek Clover)....................................................................... 121

Parveen Zaman, Md. Hedayetullah, and Kajal Sengupta
13. Senji (Sweet Clover)................................................................................. 131

Md. Hedayetullah, Parveen Zaman, and Raghunath Sadhukhan
14. Mung Bean (Green Gram)...................................................................... 139

Kajal Sengupta
15. Urd Bean (Black Gram).......................................................................... 155

Kajal Sengupta and Md. Hedayetullah
PART III: Nonleguminous and Nongraminaceous Forages............. 169

16. Sunflower (Sujyomukhi).......................................................................... 171
A. Zaman and Parveen Zaman
17. Brassicas................................................................................................... 187

Utpal Giri, Soma Giri, Navendu Nair, Abhijit Saha, Sonali Biswas, Niladri Paul,
M. K. Nanda, and Protit Bandyopadhyay
18. Turnip (Salgam)....................................................................................... 207

Parveen Zaman and Md. Hedayetullah
19. Gajar (Carrot).......................................................................................... 215

Mohammed Abdel Fattah and Md. Hedayetullah
20. Amaranthus (Pigweed)............................................................................ 225

G. C. Bora
PART IV: Leguminous Perennial Trees............................................. 239

21. Subabul (River Tamarind)...................................................................... 241
Sagarika Borah, Mokidul Islam, and T. Samajdar
22. Gliricidia (Quickstick)............................................................................. 251

Golam Moinuddin
Contents ix
23. Khejri (Prosopis)...................................................................................... 259

Raj Kumar, B. S. Khadda, A. K. Rai, J. K. Jadav, and Shakti Khajuria
24. Nonconventional Legumes Forage Crops.............................................. 287

Dhiman Mukherjee and Md. Hedayetullah
25. Azolla: An Unconventional Forage Crop............................................... 309

Dulal Chandra Roy, Abhijit Saha, and Sonali Biswas
26. Disease Management of Nonleguminous and

Nongraminaceous Forages...................................................................... 321
Diganggana Talukdar and Utpal Dey
Index.................................................................................................................. 339
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Bulbul Ahmed
Scientific Officer, Plant Physiology Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI),
Joydebpur, Gazipur 1701, Bangladesh
Protit Bandyopadhyay
Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur 741252, Nadia,
West Bengal, India
Sibajee Banerjee
Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Kalyani 741235,
Nadia, West Bengal, India
B. Bhattacharya
Seed Farm, AB Block, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Kalyani 741235, Nadia,
West Bengal, India
Sonali Biswas
West Bengal, India
G. C. Bora
Department of Plant Breeding & Genetics, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat 785013, Assam,
India
Sagarika Borah
Subject Matter Specialist, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region,
West Garo Hills, Umroi Road, Umiam 793103, Meghalaya, India
Md. Riton Chowdhury

AICRP on Sesame and Niger, Institute of Agricultural Science, University of Calcutta, 52/2 Hazra
Road, Kolkata 700019, West Bengal, India
Utpal Dey
Division of Crop Production, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umaim 793103,
Meghalaya, India
Mohammed Abdel Fattah
Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
Soma Giri
Horticulture Division, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ashoknagar, North 24 Parganas 743223, West Bengal,
India
Utpal Giri
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Lembucherra, West Tripura 799210, Tripura, India
xii List of Contributors
Md. Hedayetullah
Assistant Professor & Scientist (Agronomy), AICRP on Chickpea, Directorate of Research,
Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Kalyani 741235, Nadia, West Bengal, India
Mokidul Islam
SMS, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ri-Bhoi, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Umroi Road,
Umiam 793103, Meghalaya, India
J. K. Jadav
SMS, Krishi Vigyan Kendra Panchmahal (ICAR-Central Institute for Arid Horticulture),
Godhra-Vadodara Highway, Vejalpur, Panchmahal 389340, Gujarat, India
B. S. Khadda
Shakti Khajuria
Raj Kumar
Rajib Kundu
West Bengal, India
Sagar Maitra
Department of Agronomy, M. S. Swaminathan School of Agriculture, Centurion University of
Technology and Management, Paralakhemundi 761211, Odisha, India
Golam Moinuddin
Assistant Professor, Regional Research Station, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Jhargram,
West Bengal, India
Dhiman Mukherjee
West Bengal, India
AICRP on Wheat and Barley, Directorate of Research, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Kalyani 741235, West Bengal, India
Navendu Nair
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Lembucherra, West Tripura 799210, Tripura,
India
M. K. Nanda
Department of Agricultural Meteorology and Physics, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Mohanpur 741252, Nadia, West Bengal, India
Niladri Paul
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Lembucherra, West
Tripura 799210, Tripura, India
List of Contributors xiii
A. K. Rai
Krishi Vigyan Kendra Panchmahal (ICAR-Central Institute for Arid Horticulture), Godhra-Vadodara
Highway, Vejalpur, Panchmahal 389340, Gujarat, India
Dulal Chandra Roy

Department of ILFC, WBUAFS, Mohanpur 741252, Nadia, West Bengal, India
Raghunath Sadhukhan
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Mohanpur 741252, Nadia, West Bengal, India
Abhijit Saha
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Lembucherra, West Tripura 799210, Tripura, India
T. Samajdar
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, West Garo Hills, Umroi Road,
Umiam 793103, Meghalaya, India
Kajal Sengupta
Diganggana Talukdar
Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, College of Horticulture, Central Agricultural
University, Ranipool 737135, Sikkim, India
A. Zaman
Department of Agronomy, M. S. Swaminathan School of Agriculture, Centurion University of
Technology and Management, Paralakhemundi 761211, Odisha, India
Parveen Zaman
Assistant Director of Agriculture, Pulse and Oilseed Research Sub-station, Department of
Agriculture, Government of West Bengal, Beldanga 742133, Murshidabad, West Bengal, India
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AAU Assam Agricultural University

ADF acid detergent fiber
ANF antinutritional factor
Bt Bacillus thuringiensis
CF crude fiber
CP crude protein
DAS days after sowing
DAT days after transplanting
DHP 3-hydroxy-4(1H) pyridine
DM dry matter
EC emulsifiable concentrate
EE ether extract
FYM farmyard manure
GFY green fodder yield
IPM integrated pest management
MB mold board
NAA naphthalene acetic acid
NFE nitrogen-free extract
NF nitrogen-free extract
NOA 2-naphthoxyacetic acid
NPV nuclear polyhedrosis virus
SMCO S-methyl cysteine sulphoxide
SSP single superphosphate
TA total acid
TDN total digestable nitrogen
WG wettable granule
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First of all, I ascribe all glory to the gracious “Almighty Allah” from
whom all blessings come. I would like to thank him for His blessing to
write this book.
I express my grateful thanks to my beloved wife, Parveen, for her
wholehearted assistance. I express our deep sense of regard to my Abba,
Maa, Jiju, Mehebub, Ismat didi, Tuhina, whose provided kind cooperation
and constant encouragement.
With a profound and unfading sense of gratitude, I wish to express
our sincere thank to the Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, India,
for providing me with the opportunity and facilities to execute such an
exciting project and for supporting my research.
I convey special thanks to my colleagues and other research team
members for their support and encouragement and for helping me in every
step of the way to accomplish this venture.
I am grateful to Dr. Md. Wasim Siddiqui, Mr. Ashish Kumar, and Mr.
Rakesh Kumar from Apple Academic Press for helping me to accomplish
my dream of publishing this book series, Forage Crops of the World.
PREFACE
Fodder production depends on soil type, land capability, cropping

pattern, climate, and socioeconomic conditions. Agricultural animals are
normally fed on the fodder available from cultivated areas, supplemented
to a small extent by harvested grasses and top feeds. The three major
sources of fodder are crop residues, cultivated fodder, and fodder from
trees, pastures, and grazing lands. Forage crops are essential for quality
milk and meat production. The patterns and types of fodder crops vary
as per geographical location. In many countries of the world, people are
not paying adequate attention to the feed and fodder for livestock and
dairy animals. In addition green fodder, hay and silage also are important
factors for their health, milk, and meat production during lean periods.
Wide forage diversity exists throughout the world. Cultivated land is
gradually decreasing, and within that, land resources to meet the need for
food and fodder production to feed the world is also decreasing. Moreover,
land resource for major fodder production is limited. We have to manage
well to grow fodder crops with limited resources. The major fodder crops
that are most nutritious to the animals need to be adopted in our cropping
systems. Dual purpose crops have to be grown in cropping systems so that
food and fodder grown together can meet the demand significantly under
sustainable agriculture. Most of the fodder crops also have the human food
value. In this respect, best utilization of fodder crops has to be adopted.
PART I
Nonleguminous Perennial Forages
CHAPTER 1
SETARIA GRASS (AFRICAN GRASS)

MD. HEDAYETULLAH1*, PARVEEN ZAMAN2, and
DHIMAN MUKHERJEE1
Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
1
Mohanpur, Kalyani 741235, Nadia, West Bengal, India

2
Assistant Director of Agriculture, Pulse and Oilseed Research
Sub-station, Department of Agriculture, Government of
West Bengal, Beldanga, Murshidabad 742133, West Bengal, India
Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
*
ABSTRACT
The Setaria grass is also called “golden Timothy.” The name is derived
from the Latin word seta, meaning “bristle” or “hair,” which refers to the
bristly spikelets. This grass has a wide range of adaptability; it is more
superior to other lines in quality and green fodder production. This grass
requires minimum management for its growth. The Setaria grass is native
of tropical and subtropical Africa. The first cut can be taken after sowing
or planting of 9–10 months. The subsequent cuts can be taken after every
5–8 weeks depending on the season and growth of the grass. The green
herbage yield varies 400–700 q/ha. The herbage yield obtained less in
summer compare to rainy season. The crude protein of Setaria anceps
varies between 4.8% and 18.4%. Seed is produced over much of the
growing season, with good commercial yields usually of 100 kg/ha.
BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Poales
4 Forage Crops of the World, Volume II
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Setaria
Species: anceps
Binomial name: Setaria anceps Staph. ex Massey
1.1 BOTANICAL NAME
Setaria anceps Staph. ex Massey.
1.2 COMMON NAME
Golden Timothy, foxtail grass, bristle grass, African grass, and South
African pigeon grass.
1.3 INTRODUCTION
The Setaria grass is also called “golden Timothy.” The name is derived
from the Latin word seta, meaning “bristle” or “hair,” which refers to
the bristly spikelets (Quattrocchi, 2000). The genus includes over 100
species distributed in many tropical and temperate regions around the
world (Aliscioni et al., 2004), and members are commonly known as
foxtail or bristle grasses. This grass is popularly known as Setaria sphac-
elata. It is the cultivated Setaria grass known to agriculturists under
the name of Setaria sphacelata. Setaria anceps differs from Setaria
sphacelata mainly by its vegetative characteristics, folded and sharply
keeled leaf sheath arranged in fan fashion. Setaria anceps together
with other species forms so-called Setaria sphacelata complex. This
grass has a wide range of adaptability; it is more superior to other lines
in quality and green fodder production. This grass requires minimum
management for growth.
1.4 ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION
The Setaria grass is native of tropical and subtropical Africa. It is widely

cultivated in Africa, Australia, Taiwan, New Guinea, Philippine, Israel,
Setaria Grass (African Grass) 5
and Brazil. It was first introduced to India in 1950. It has now spread to all
over India in medium rainfall areas. In North India, it grows in irrigated
conditions.
1.5 BOTANY OF PLANT
The grass is perennial in nature; tufted stems are erect and height is
about 1–2 m. The stems are moderately thick and usually compressed in
lower part of the stem. The leaves are about 40-cm long and 10–20-mm
wide, green to dark in color; sharply keeled leaf sheath arranged in fan
fashion at the stem bases. The panicle is dense and cylindrical about
10–30-cm long and orange and purple in color. The spikelets are two in
numbers; the lower one is male or sterile and the upper one is bisexual.
The grain is elliptic in shape, concave on the embryo side, and flat on
the other side.
1.6 CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS
The Setaria grass occurs naturally in many countries such as Africa

and Australia at 600–2600-m altitude. The Setaria grass usually grows
under an annual rainfall of over 750 mm but in South Africa, some of
its varieties exist even with an annual rainfall ranging from 500 to 750
mm. It also can grow vigorously under high rainfall areas between 1000
and 1500 mm. It cannot survive under hot and dry areas if it is extended
for longer period. The grass grows very well at 20–25°C temperature.
It also prefers a relative humidity from 70% to 80% for its rapid growth
and it tolerates light frosts and fog. The Setaria grass is more cold
tolerant than most of the other tropical and subtropical grasses. Under
prolong hot and dry weather, the plants remain dormant (Chatterjee and
Das, 1989).
1.7 SOIL REQUIREMENTS
Most commonly, it is found on soils with texture ranging from sand to clay
loam and light clay, but it can be grown on heavy clay soil. It survives low
fertility conditions but responds to improved fertility. It is not well adapted
to alkaline or very acid soils, most wild collections coming from soils of
pH 5.5–6.5. Setaria is generally low salt tolerant.
1.8 LAND PREPARATION
The perennial grass requires thorough cultivation and land preparation

which may need one deep plowing with disk plow followed by 3–4
operations with a country plow or disk harrow. The land should be free
from weeds.
1.9 SOWING
Planting of rooted slips can be done any time between February and
November. In irrigated areas, it can start in the month of March. Under
rainfed conditions, planting is done between June and August. The seed-
lings are raised in nursery and planted finally in the main field. The direct
sowing also is done.
1.10 SPACING
The recommended spacing is 50 cm × 30 cm, but the row-to-row distance

may be increased to 60–70 cm when the soil is poor and irrigation facility
is not available. For intercropping with legumes, the row-to-row distance
is maintained at 100 cm × 30 cm.
1.11 SEED RATE
The seed rate varies from 3.5 to 4 kg/ha if it is clean seed. In case of rooted
slips, the planting rates vary between 800 and 1600 kg/ha or 33,000–67,000
rooted slips per hectare.
1.12 CROP MIXTURES
Setaria belongs to the Poaceae family, since it is not suitable combina-

tion to grow with other grasses. Number of pasture legumes can grow
with Setaria anceps. It can be grown with lucerne, berseem, shftal,

senji, metha, etc. in the winter and with cowpea, guar, rice bean, green
gram, black gram, velvet bean, etc. in the summer. Legumes grown
in mixtures with the grass seldom increase the yield of grass but they
usually increase total dry matter and especially crude protein (CP)
yields of the mixed herbage.
1.13 VARIETIES
1.13.1 NANDI SETARIA
Nandi Setaria has a variety of Setaria anceps and it is a native of tropical

Africa extending from the north of the republic South Africa to Kenya. It
originates in Nandi high lands, above 1200-m altitude of Kenya. Nandi
Setaria does not thrive well in acidic soils. The grass has relatively low
oxalate contents.
1.13.2 NANDI MARK 2
It is developed from single mass selection. It is more uniform and leafy.

Nandi mark 3 is a further selection of Mark 2.
1.13.3 KAZUNGULA
It is the tall and vigorous plants with thicker stems, coarser, broader, and
bluish green leaves. It is moderately drought tolerant.
1.13.4 NAROK SETARIA
It is more similar to the Nandi variety. It is more robust and vigorous,

but not as coarse as Kazungula. It has good nutritive value and it is
recommended for subtropical and high-altitude tropical areas with cool
winters. It is developed in Australia and it is a tetraploid with 2n = 36.
Some other varieties are most common in Australia such as Solander
and Splenda.
1.14 MANURES AND FERTILIZERS APPLICATION
Setaria anceps responds well to nitrogenous fertilizers and produces

over 30 kg dry matter or even 65 kg dry matter/kg of applied N. In
natural grasslands, nitrogenous fertilizers respond well; S. anceps
increases their herbage production. Because it grows best in at least
moderately fertile soils, it is advisable to use an establishment applica-
tion of 200–300 kg/ha of superphosphate and 50 kg/ha of muriate of
potash on less fertile soils. Nitrogenous fertilizers like urea application
as a basal at the rate of 100 kg/ha (46 kg/ha N) are beneficial in pure
stands.
1.15 WATER MANAGEMENT
The grass prefers moist soil but not wet soil. The field should be drained
well in rainy season if field is under submergence. For better crop estab-
lishment, presowing and postsowing irrigation is important. Subsequent
irrigations should be given as and when necessary.
1.16 INTERCULTURAL OPERATION AND WEED MANAGEMENT
In the first 2–3 months of establishment, the crop requires one or two
weeding and interculture operation. Every year of the cool season, inter-
culture operation done country plow or hoe is necessary to control grassy,
broad leaf, and sedge weeds and encourages the plant growth. Setaria
generally competes aggressively with weeds. A strong stand of Setaria will
reduce the frequency of fireweed (Senecio madagascariensis and Senecio
lautus) to scarce levels. Established Setaria is tolerant of the broadleaf
weed control herbicides 2,4-D, dicamba, and MCPA—check registration
status and label instructions before use.
1.17 PEST AND DISEASES
Generally, no serious pest and diseases occur in Setaria grass. Attack by

armyworm and pasture webworm can destroy much of the leaf, particu-
larly young leaf. Buffel grass seed caterpillar can cause considerable
damage to seed crops from late January onward. Pyricularia leaf spot
is prevalent under hot humid conditions and can retard the growth of
ungrazed stands.
1.18 HARVESTING
The first cut can be taken after sowing or planting of 9–10 months. The
subsequent cuts can be taken after every 5–8 weeks depending on the
season and growth of the grass. Generally, 7–8 cuts can be taken per year
from the same field best management practices. After each cutting, a
stubble height of 8–10 cm is left for good regeneration.
1.19 GREEN FODDER YIELD
S. anceps develops large number of tillers per stubble. The average

tillers vary between 1400 and 1900 tillers/m2. Nandi variety gives
more tillers compare to other variety. The green herbage yield varies
400–700 q/ha. The herbage yield obtained less in summer compare to
rainy season.
1.20 TOXICITIES
The oxalic acid toxicities are more common in Setaria species. The
oxalic acid content in this grass is ranging between 2.78% and 7.13%.
The high concentration of oxalic acid may cause serious health hazard
to the livestock. The oxalate may accumulate in the kidneys to toxic
levels resulting in death of the dairy animals and livestock. The sheep are
faced such common problems in pastures. Pasture animals should give
dicalcium phosphate in small quantities (15–20 g) in their salt ration to
minimize the toxic hazards. Setaria develops high levels of oxalate in the
leaf, especially in young, well-fertilized, vigorous growth. This causes
hyperparathyroidism (“big head” disease) in horses and donkeys and can
cause nephrosis (kidney disease) in ruminants.
It can also lead to hypocalcemia (milk fever) and hypomagnesemia
(grass tetany) in ruminants, particularly in high-producing dairy cows. This
is less of a problem in animals that graze Setaria regularly. “Kazungula”
and “Splenda” develop the highest oxalate levels, followed by “Narok”

and “Solander,” with “Nandi” the lowest.
1.21 NUTRITIVE VALUE
The CP of S. anceps varies between 4.8% and 18.4%, digestible crude

protein content from 2.1% to 13.2%, crude fiber (CF) content from 24%
to 34.4%, and ether extract from 2.4% to 4.70%. The digestibility for CP
varies between 44% and 72%, for CF from 65% to 77%, and for nitrogen-
free extract from 40% to 50%.
1.22 PALATABILITY
Setaria is extremely palatable when young but becomes stemmy and

unacceptable with onset of seeding due to loss of moisture from the stem
and age.
1.23 UTILIZATIONS
The grass can be used as soilage, silage, and hay. The grass gives satisfac-
tory silage with molasses. Acetic acid fermentation occurs but not lactic
acid during fermentation. Good hay can be prepared from this grass and
dry matter and nitrogen did not exceed 10%.
1.24 LIMITATIONS
High levels of oxalate in some varieties can cause problems with milking
cows, horses, and donkeys. Quality drops rapidly with onset of seeding.
1.25 SEED PRODUCTION
Seed is produced over much of the growing season, with good commercial
yields usually of 100 kg/ha. Seed crops are fertilized with 100–150 kg/ha
of N after a cleaning and are usually direct headed when 10–15% of the
seed has shattered.
FIGURE 1.1 (See color insert.) Setaria grass.
KEYWORDS
•• Setaria grass
•• agronomic package and practices
•• green fodder yield
•• nutritive value
REFERENCES
Aliscioni, S., et al. An Overview of the Genus Setaria in the Old World: Systematic
Revision and Phytogenetic Approach. Abstract. Botany. Salt Lake City. August 3, 2004.
Chatterjee, B. N.; Das, P. K. Forage Crop Production Principles and Practices; Oxford &
IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.: Kolkata, 1989.
Quattrocchi, U. CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names: Common Names, Scientific Names,
Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, 2000; p 2470. ISBN
0-8493-2673-7.
CHAPTER 2
PARA GRASS (BUFFALO GRASS)

MD. RITON CHOWDHURY*
AICRP on Sesame and Niger, Institute of Agricultural Science,
University of Calcutta, 52/2 Hazra Road, Kolkata 700019,
West Bengal, India
E-mail: [email protected]
*
ABSTRACT
Para grass is a vigorous perennial grass used as fodder for the animal
and livestock. It is also known as buffalo grass, Mauritius signal grass,
California grass, giant couch grass, water grass, and pani wali ghas. Para
grass is grown widely in marshy lands as used as fodder. The grass is
used as green fodder, soiling, and even for dry hay. The stems have hairy
nodes. Average green fodder yield is about 800–1000 q/ha. Under favor-
able condition, green fodder yield can be increased up to 1200–1500 q/ha.
This grass is highly palatable and nutritious. It contains an average 10.2%
crude protein and 23.6% crude fiber in fresh grass.
BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Brachiaria
Species: mutica
Binomial name: Brachiaria mutica
2.1 BOTANICAL NAME
Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf.
2.2 COMMON NAME
Buffalo grass, Mauritius signal grass, pasto pare, malojilla, gramalote,

parana, Carib grass, Scotch grass, and California grass.
2.3 SYNONYMOUS
Brachiaria numidiana (Lam.) Henrard; Brachiaria purpurascens

(Raddi) Henrard; Panicum amphibium Steud.; Panicum barbinode
Trin.; Panicum equinum Salzm. ex Steud.; Panicum molle Sw.; Panicum
muticum Forssk.; Panicum numidianum Lam.; Panicum pictigluma
Steud.; Panicum punctatum Burm. f.; Panicum punctulatum Arn. ex
Steud.; Panicum purpurascens Raddi; Panicum sarmentosum Benth.;
Paspalidium punctatum (Burm. f.) A. Camus; Setaria punctata (Burm.
f.) Veldkamp; Urochloa mutica (Forssk.) Nguyen; Urochloa mutica
(Forssk.).
2.4 INTRODUCTION
Para grass is a vigorous, semiprostrate perennial grass used as fodder for

the cattle. It also commonly known as buffalo grass, Mauritius signal
grass, California grass, Giant couch grass, water grass, and pani wali ghas.
Para grass is grown widely in marshy lands as used as fodder. It grows in
wide range of soil. It is best grown on the submerged or low-lying areas
as well as on saline soils where nothing else survives. Para grass favors
hot and humid climate of tropics and subtropics with high annual rainfall
ranging between 900 and 1000 mm. This grass is highly palatable and
nutritious (ICAR, 2012). It contains an average 10.2% crude protein and
23.6% crude fiber in fresh grass. The grass is used as green fodder, soiling,
and even for dry hay.
Para Grass (Buffalo Grass) 15
Para grass is probably originated in Brazil, South America. Some docu-

ments also support that it was probably native to flood plains of sub-
Saharan tropical Africa. Later on, it was introduced to Australia, and from
there, it spread to the South Asian countries. It was introduced to India
in 1894 at Pune from Sri Lanka. Now, it is widely grown in the tropical
regions of South and Central America, Africa, Bangladesh, India, Sri
Lanka, Australia, and Southeast Asia. In India, it is grown in Tamil Nadu,
Odisha, West Bengal, Kerala, Karnataka, Bihar, Assam, and some parts of
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.
2.6 PLANT CHARACTERISTICS
Para grass is a vigorous, semiprostrate perennial grass with creeping stolons

which can grow up to 5-m (16 ft) long. The stems have hairy nodes and
leaf sheaths and the leaf blades are up to 2-cm (0.8 in.) wide and 30-cm (12
in.) long. It roots at the nodes and detached pieces of the plant will easily
take root in moist ground. The flowerhead is a loose panicle up to 30-cm
(12 in.) long with spreading branches. The paired spikelets are arranged
in uneven rows and are elliptical and 2.5–5-mm (0.1–0.2 in.) long. The
rachis is tinged with purple. Although many flowerheads grow, only a
few viable seeds are produced, and propagation is usually by vegetative
means. Para grass can be distinguished from the closely related tanner
grass by its paired spikelet, tanner grass having single spikelets. The stems
are 1–2 m in height with profuse rooting at nodes having forming dense
cover with ascending branches. The culms are hollow, succulent with hairy
internodes. The leaf blade is dark green in color and is 25–30-cm long and
1–2 cm in width. Inflorescence is open panicle and about 10–20-cm long
with solitary racemose, acute, irregularly multiheritage spikelet 3–3.5-mm
long. It is a short day plant (Chatterjee, 1989).
Para grass favors hot and humid climate of tropics and subtropics with high
annual rainfall ranging between 900 and 1000 mm. The crop can withstand
short flooding and waterlogging. It cannot be grown in dryland and in
arid and semiarid regions. It grows well in waterlogging conditions on

river and canal banks and can withstand prolonged flooding. The optimum
temperature for growth and development is 25°C. The crop can be grown
through the year in the regions where temperature remains above 15°C.
This grass is more suited for water inundated conditions and sewage farms
(Chatterjee, 1989). It is sensitive to cold (temperature below 15°C) and
makes little or no growth during winter months of December–February in
subtropical regions of India.
It grows in wide range of soils. It is best grown on the submerged or

low lying areas as well as on saline soils where nothing else survives.
It tolerates slightly acid to alkaline soils; that is why, it is an excellent
grass in soil reclamation. It performs well in moist sewage farm soils, low
laying areas beside rivers or canals, and soils too wet for normal crops.
It can be grown even on sandy soils with good irrigation facility. Heavy
textured clay soil with high water holding capacity is considered to be best
for para grass. Experimental results suggest that addition of pond sediment
into soil increases the productivity.
The land should be plowed properly and well pulverized by two to three
crosswise plowing followed by laddering. The weeds should be removed
properly before planting the slips.
2.10 SEED RATE AND SOWING METHOD
Under irrigated conditions, the best time of planting is in March while under
rainfed conditions at the onset of monsoon. In South Indian conditions, it
can be planted throughout the years. Seed setting is a major problem for
this crop, so thin shoot is used as planting material. Shoot slips of 30-cm
length each with two to three nodes are best for planting. Line sowing
is mostly preferred with a distance about 50–60 cm between rows and
20–40 cm between plants. To save labor cost, scattering of rooted slips and
crosswise plowing is practiced mostly for monsoon crop, after 3–4-year

rejuvenation of old pasture is done to promote fresh growth. On average,
about 27,000–40,000 slips (8–10 q) are required to plant 1 ha of land. Seeds
can also be used for direct sowing or sowing in nursery for transplantation.
But, poor seed setting is usually discouraged for propagation by seeds.
The recommended seed rate is 2.5–3.5 kg/ha.
2.11 CROP MIXTURE
This crop performs well with crops such as Vicia, Lotononis sp., Stylo,
berseem, senji, and Calopogonium as crop mixture but performs best as
pure crop. The vigorous growth of the crop subpresses other crops’ growth.
Cultivation with legumes helps to improve the soil fertility. Though some
intercropping systems with legumes are suggested, it is widely grown as a
pure crop (Amam et al., 2015).
2.12 NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
Wastewater from cattle shed or any swage water is good for the crop. In
general, 10–15-t well-prepared farmyard manure or compost per hectare
is applied 25–30 days prior to sowing. Being a fodder crop it responds
well under split application of nitrogen. During final land preparation,
150–200 kg of nitrogen per hectare is applied as basal dose. After each
cutting, 25–30 kg of N ha−1 is applied for a better growth and improves
protein content. In each year, 50–60 kg of P2O5 along with 50 kg ha−1 of
potassium is to be applied as basal. This dose is to be repeated every year
on the onset of monsoon or in the month of June–July. Application of
phosphorous is very important for a good root growth and to maintain a
favorable shoot:root ratio (Mukherjee et al., 2008).
Mostly, the crop is grown as a rainfed crop in our country. Irrigation should
be given at equally close intervals as per numbers of cutting taken under
irrigated condition. During initial establishment, phase two to three light
irrigation is necessary to apply. Later on, irrigation at 10–15-day intervals
is profitable during summer. Water requirement of the crop is low but the
land should always be kept moist throughout its growing period. The crop
can withstand short-term waterlogging.
2.14 VARIETIES
In India, there are no improved varieties of this grass yet available; only
local varieties are cultivated.
2.15 WEED MANAGEMENT
Weed control is not so important because it covers the ground very quickly
which reduces the weed incidence. During early establishment, phase one
or two hand weeding may be given with proper care so that the growing
runners will not damage. So, one preemergence application of herbicide
such as pendimethalin @ 0.75–1 kg a.i./ha is recommended at 1–3 days
after transplanting (DAT) to control the initial flush of weeds because this
first 2 months of establishment phase is more sensitive to weed. The weeds
appear later on suppressed by the vigorous growth of the crop.
2.16 INSECT-PEST AND DISEASES
In India, no such incident has reported for pest and diseases. Under
prolonged waterlogged condition followed by humid condition, sheath
blight occurred in few cases. Incidence of few insects such as common
armyworm (Mythimna convecta) and day feeding army worm (Spodop-
tera exempta) were reported form Queensland, Australia. The leaf hopper
(Toya sp.) was found to be the most destructive one (Mukherjee et al.,
2008). The incidence of mold fungus infestation on the tender leaves was
(Capnodium sp.) also reported from parts of South America.
2.17 HARVESTING
In the early establishment stage, the grass spreads its runner and roots
developed from the nodes and erect shoots were produced. This procedure
takes a few days to cover the whole field. Thus, the first cut delays. Total
six to eight cuts can be taken in a year. The first cutting is taken 70–80
days after planting and the subsequent cuts at 35–45-day intervals. A cut
may take when the plant’s height is 60–70 cm.
Average green fodder yield is about 800–1000 q ha−1. Under favorable

condition, green fodder yield can be increased up to 1200–1500 q ha−1. In
each cutting on an average, 150 q/ha green fodder can be obtained. The
average yield for North Indian condition is 750 q/ha, whereas in South India,
a highest yield of 1300 q ha−1 can be obtained (Mukherjee et al., 2008).
The crop contains 2.8–16.1% of crude protein, 0.32–0.76% calcium, and

0.35–0.8% phosphorus with 28–34% crude fiber. It also contains 41–57%
nitrogen-free extract (Jones and Csurhes, 2012).
2.20 USE
Para grass is nontoxic in nature. This grass is fed in the green form. Young
leaves and stems are palatable. It is not popular for conservation either as
hay or as silage because with age, leaves, and stems become coarse. The
green harvest contains higher quantity of lipid and protein contain than
rice straw so it can be a good substitute.
KEYWORDS
•• para grass
•• agronomic management
•• green fodder yield
REFERENCES
Amam, M. R.; Haque, M. M.; Sumi, K. R.; Ali, M. M. Proximate Composition of Para-
grass (Brachiaria mutica) Produced in Integrated Fish–Fodder Culture System. Bang. J.
Anim. Sci. 2015, 44 (2), 113–119.
Chatterjee, B. N. Forage Crop Production—Principles and Practices; Oxford & IBH:
Kolkata, 1989.
Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR). Handbook of Agriculture, 6th ed.; Indian
Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR): New Delhi, 2012.
Jones, M. H.; Csurhes, S. Invasive Species Risk Assessment: Para Grass (Urochloa
mutica); Queensland Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry: Mackay, 2012.
Mukherjee, A. K.; Maiti, S.; Mandal, S. S. Forage Production Technology Manual;
Deptartment of Agronomy, BCKV: Mohanpur, 2008.
CHAPTER 3
DOOB GRASS (BERMUDA GRASS)

MD. HEDAYETULLAH1* and PARVEEN ZAMAN2
1

2
West Bengal, Beldanga 742133, Murshidabad, West Bengal, India
*
ABSTRACT
Doob grass is also known as Bahama grass, dog’s tooth grass, devil’s
grass, couch grass, wire grass, and scutch grass. Doob grass have high
nutritional value, excellent palatability, persistence even under adverse
conditions, high tolerance to intensive grazing, and unique soil-binding
capacity for soil conservation. Bermuda grasses establish rapidly and
spread by vegetative propagules, both above ground (stolons) and below
ground (rhizomes). It grows well on alluvial, red, and black soils with
pH ranging from 5.5 to 8.0. The grass can tolerate considerable amount
of salinity and alkalinity. The first cut is usually taken about 90–100
days after planting or sowing. Clipping is done at 4–5 cm above the
ground level. The average green herbage yields from each cut are about
70–80 q/ha. The monsoon yields are higher than those of the hot and dry
season. The average annual green herbage yields are 300 q/ha in North
India and 450 q/ha in South India. It is palatable and acceptable to all
types of livestock and dairy animals. The dry matter (DM) content is
about 25–30% of fresh herbage. Crude protein content ranges from 7%
to 18% of the DM.
3.1 BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Cynodon
Species: dactylon (L.) Pers
Binomial name: Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers
3.2 BOTANICAL NAME
Cynodon dactylon (Pers.) Stent (Synonymous: Cynodan polevansii).
3.3 COMMON NAME
Doob (Sanskrit—Durva, Hindi—Dhub, Tamil—Arugam pillu; Kannada—

Garika bullu). It is also known as Bahama grass, dog’s tooth grass, devil’s
grass, couch grass, wire grass, and scutch grass.
3.4 INTRODUCTION
Doob grasses have high nutritional value, excellent palatability, persis-

tence even under adverse conditions, high tolerance to intensive grazing,
and have unique soil-binding capacity for soil conservation. This species,
which is native to Africa, produces a vigorous, low-growing turf grass
stand with high density and tolerances to both traffic and drought stress.
Bermuda grasses establish rapidly and spread by vegetative propagules,
both above ground (stolons) and below ground (rhizomes). Doob grass
is also known as Bahama, or Bermuda grass. Being a troublesome weed
in the cultivated fields, it is also called devils grass. Because of the dog
tooth-like sheath on the stolons, it is also known as dog tooth grass. The
other name of this grass is star grass, lawn grass, wire grass, and couch
grass. Cynodon means dog tooth and dactylas mean finger like spikes, so
the grasses are called Cynodon dactylon.
Doob Grass (Bermuda Grass) 23
3.5 DESCRIPTION
Doob is one of the most controversial grasses. Bermuda grass has high
nutritional value, excellent palatability, persistence even under adverse
conditions, high tolerance to intensive grazing, unique soil-binding
capacity for soil conservation, cosmopolitan nature with regard to texture,
pH, and moisture content of the soil, while on the other hand, it is one of
the most noxious weeds in arable farming.
C. dactylon is a cross-pollinated species. Its variability is wide. The

plants differ in yields, leafiness, response to fertilizers, etc. It is a
stoloniferous and rhizomatous perennial with slender to stout stems.
Leaves are flat or folded, 3–12-cm long and 2–4-cm wide. Ligule is a
conspicuous ring of white hairs. Spikes are three to six, slender, 2–5-cm
long; digitately arranged in single whorl. Spikelets are one flowered,
awnless, laterally compressed, and arranged on one side of the rachis.
The grass is very aggressive.
Doob grass is found in a tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate region

of the world. It is a native of India or East Africa or Middle East (Farsani
et al., 2012). Although it is not native to Bermuda, in Bermuda it is known
as crab grass. It is ubiquitous, occurring in heavily grazed grasslands,
roadsides, fallows and as a weed of arable land. In India, it is found in
the grass covers of Dicanthium or Cenchrus or Elyonurus and Schimal or
Dicanthium types.
C. dactylon is widely cultivated in warm climates all over the world

between about 30° S and 30° N latitude. The grass is sensitive to light
intensity. High air temperatures, about 37°C, are required for maximum
photosynthetic activity. Doob grows throughout the year in southern and

eastern India where the temperatures do not drop below 15°C. It occurs
even up to elevations of 2130 m. It is best suited to the tropical belt with
1000–1300 mm annual rainfall. High humidity and intermittent showers
are most congenial for its growth. In North India, its growth is retarded
in the winter months. Under dry conditions, the growth is less and it can
remain dormant for 6–7 months.
It grows luxuriantly with the monsoon rains from June to September in
the uplands where water does not stagnate for long. Well-drained, fertile
clay to clay loam soils are the best but it can grow even on sandy loam
soils. It grows well on alluvial, red, and black soils with pH ranging from
5.5 to 8.0. The grass can tolerate considerable amount of salinity and
alkalinity (Chatterjee and Das, 1989).
3.9 SOIL AND ITS PREPARATION
All Bermuda grasses tolerate a wide range of soil types. A few light and
shallow cultivations are enough to uproot the weeds and natural grasses
from the field. Sometimes, deep plows may be necessary to bury the
weeds. Seed crops require fine tilth and weed-free plots.
3.10 VARIETIES
C. dactylon is a variable species. The following are the important varieties

of the tropics:
1. Var. dactylon, a tetraploid, grows on alkaline and saline soils and

tolerates droughts but is absent in arid areas. It is highly valued as
a quality pasture grass and it tolerates heavy grazing. Tift Bermuda
was an improved selection of the variety in Georgia. The variety
has strong, stout, and much branched rhizomes which spread
readily and make eradication difficult. A course and robust race is
also common in the Mediterranean area and southern Russia.
2. Var. aridus Harlon and de Wilt, a diploid, varies in habit. A small
and unproductive type occurs in India while the east African type
is large, robust, and vigorous.
3. Var. elegans Rendle, a tetraploid, occurs in South Africa. It has

much branched stolons, rhizomes, and slender but wiry stems. The
plants form a good grazing cover with dense low swards up to 30
cm in height. It also makes a good lawn. As a tropical turf grass,
the variety is known by Cape Royal and Maadi River grasses.
4. Var. coursii Harlan and se Wilt, a tetraploid is a nonrhizomatous
grass in the Madagascar highlands.
5. In Hybrid cultivars, Cynodon dactylon var., dactylon has been a
serious weed of arable crops. Hybrid Bermuda grass (cv Coastal
from var. dactylon × var. elegans) is suitable for grazing and
forage production cv. Coastal is almost seed sterile and produces
few fertile stems and panicles. It is resistant to common diseases
and root-knot nematodes. It propagates easily and yields one and
a half to four times more herbage than the local types. It sharply
increased production and revolutionized the livestock industry of
the southern states.
3.11 SOWING/PLANTING TIME
In North India, sowing is taken up in July when soil moisture is enough.

Summer sowing usually gives patchy germination. In southern and eastern
India, sowing can be done all the year round provided moisture is there in
the soil. The grass is established from seeds, stolons, or rhizomes. Hulled
seeds germinate more quickly than unhulled seeds. The seeds may be
sown by kera method or broadcast on the moist soil and covered by light
harrowing. The seeds may be sown in nursery and transplanted in the main
field after 40–50 days (Chatterjee and Das, 1989).
But doob being a shy seeder, stolon, or rhizome springs are planted either
in hills or rows. After planting, the soil should be pressed well to put the
springs in contact with moisture. The tips of the springs should remain free
on the surface of the soil. During establishment, stolons spread first; then,
the underground rhizomes develop. Land should be irrigated if soil dries up.
3.12 SEED TREATMENT AND SEED INOCULATION
Seeds should be treated with Thiram at the rate of 3 g per kilogram of seeds.
Seeds should be inoculated with bacteria Azotobacter before sowing for
fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. Apply 20 g Azotobacter for 1 kg of seed

before sowing for nitrogen fixation.
The plating rate of springs is 3–4 q/ha. Freshly cut moist root stocks should
be used for planting. Planting is best done in drizzling weather for well
establishment of springs. For hulled seeds, the seed rate ranges between
3 and 3.5 kg/ha; for unhulled seeds, it ranges between 4.5 and 5 kg/ha, or
even more; and for making turf, it is about 60 kg/ha.
3.14 SPACING
The row-to-row spacing maintained for optimum forage production is

50–60 cm and springs-to-springs or seed-to-seed distance is maintained
about 30 cm. The spacing between two hills may be as high as 110 cm.
3.15 CROPPING SYSTEMS
The doob grass is not usually grown in association with any legumi-
nous fodder crops because this grass can produce adverse effect clover
seed germination. In some tropical countries, Centrosema is profitably
intercropped at the rate of 5–6 kg/ha. The grass is grown in widely
spaced rows when Leucaena leucocephala is grown between the rows.
In the Southern United States of America, Trifilium incarnatum, vicia,
villosa, and Trifolium repens are frequent components of Bermuda
grass mixtures. In Florida, Arachis glabrata is a good associate with the
Bermuda grass.
3.16 NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT (MANURES AND FERTILIZERS)
At the time of land preparation, farmyard manure or compost is applied

@10–15 t/ha for better plant growth and higher green forage yield, the rate
of nitrogen is less recommended in dry areas than the high rainfall areas.
The application of 1 kg nitrogen can produce 30–35 kg dry matter (DM)

production. Phosphorus and potash are applied at the rate of 100 kg P2O5
and 100 kg of K2O. Sometimes S deficiency is reported in that case N and
P2O5 can be applied in the form of ammonium sulfate and superphosphate.
In barren sandy, soils a 4:1:2 ratio of N:K2O is required for balanced fertil-
ization. After each and every cut, the grass is to be top dressed with 25 kg
N/ha. A natural pasture of the grass is required to be fertilized with 30 kg
N and 25 kg P2O5 per hectare with onset of monsoon to increase the green
biomass and forage quality.
Doob prefers sufficient soil moisture throughout the life period with high
N. In dry season, the crop should be irrigated after every top dressing for
better uptake of fertilizer nitrogen. During summer, crop should irrigate
at 15 days interval and every fourth week in the postmonsoon season.
For higher green fodder production, soil moisture is very important factor.
Water stagnation does not prefer this crop. Actively growing Bermuda
grasses require (on average) approximately 1–2 in. of water per week
(Brosnan and Deputy, 2008).
3.18 INTERCULTURE OPERATION AND WEED MANAGEMENT
Intercultural operation may be done with country plough, harrow, or hoe

in every 2–3 weeks if is necessary. To control broad leaf weed, chemical
weed management may adopted with application of 2,4-D. Grazing and
cutting at early stage is also recommended for controlling of weeds. After
2–3 years, weeds can be destroyed and the grass is renovated by light
disking, harrowing, and plowing.
3.19 INSECT-PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Insect-pest and diseases are not well known in doob grass. For controlling
insect-pest and diseases, the chemical management procedures are gener-
ally followed.
3.20 HARVESTING
The first cut is usually taken about 90–100 days after planting or sowing.
Clipping is done at 4–5 cm above the ground level. The new growth comes
from the adventitious buds near the soil surface. In North India, four
cuttings are taken while in the Southern and Eastern India, five to six cuts
are possible. Clipping may be done when the grass attains a height of 15–20
cm. After three to four times grazing, the grass should be clipped close to
the ground to control weeds. The grass withstands trampling in grazing.
The average green herbage yields from each cut are about 70–80 q/ha. The
monsoon yields are higher than those of the hot and dry season. The average
annual green herbage yields are 300 q/ha in North and 450 q/ha in South India.
Common Bermuda grasses can be established from seed. While this may
be cheaper than vegetative propagation, many seeded Bermuda grasses do
not provide the same level of quality as hybrid Bermuda grass cultivars
(Brosnan and Deputy, 2008). C. dactylon is shy in seed production. In
drier areas, two seed crops may be harvested every year—one in April and
May and the other in November and December when 150–200 kg of seed
may be obtained per harvest per hectare.
C. dactylon is one of the nutritious grasses among all grasses. It is palatable

and acceptable to all types of livestock and dairy animals. The DM content
is about 25–30% of fresh herbage. Crude protein (CP) content ranges from
7% to 18% of the DM and generally higher than many other tropical and
subtropical grasses. CP content gradually decreases with plant age and the
leaf: stem ratio is high. The digestibility for DM ranges between 45% and
60%, CP between 50% and 77%, crude fiber between 25% and 35% and
nitrogen-free extract between 50% and 60%.
3.24 UTILIZATIONS
Excellent hay is prepared and fed to the animals. It is quickly dried in the
sun and stored in well ventilized rooms. The artificially dried grass is used
as hay and sometimes it is pelleted to grain better live weight, but it does
not make good silage. It is used for lawns and turfs and on embankments
as a soil binder for erosion control.
3.25 SPECIAL FEATURES (TOXICITIES)
The doob grass is free from hydrocyanic acid toxicity.
FIGURE 3.1 (See color insert.) Bermuda grass.
KEYWORDS
•• Bermuda grass
•• fodder yield
•• quality
•• herbage
REFERENCES
Brosnan, J. T.; Deputy, J. Bermuda Grass. Turf Manage. 2008, 5, 1–6.

Farsani, T. M.; Etemadi, N.; Sayed-tabatabaei, B. E.; Talebi, M. Assessment of Genetic
Diversity of Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) Using ISSR Markers. Int. J. Mol. Sci.
2012, 13 (1), 383–392.
CHAPTER 4
MARVEL GRASS (DIAZ BLUE STEM)

GOLAM MOINUDDIN*
Regional Research Station, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Jhargram, West Bengal, India
*
ABSTRACT
Marvel grass is a popular forage crop and very much palatable for rumi-
nants. Marvel grass originates from North Africa and India. It was intro-
duced to Southern Africa, tropical America, the Caribbean, Southeast Asia,
China, the Pacific Islands, and Australia. This is a popular pasture grass in
many areas. It can be used in fields for grazing livestock and cut for hay
and silage. Marvel grasses yield about 15–60 q/ha of dry matter; however
under irrigated condition, the yield may go up to 170 q/ha. Green forage
production ranges from 60 to 100 q/ha. The grass may produce 40–90
kg seed/ha. The grass contains 2.6–10.4% of crude protein, 34.9–45.5%
crude fiber, and 7.1% lignin.
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Subfamily: Panicoideae
Genus: Dichanthium
Species: annulatum
Binomial name: Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf
4.2 SYNONYMS
Andropogon annulatus, Andropogon papillosus, Dichanthium nodosum,

Dichanthium papillosum.
4.3 COMMON NAME
There are so many common names of marvel grass for different parts of
the world such as blue stem (the United States), Hindi grass, Delhi grass,
Santa barbara grass (English), Sheda grass (Australia), Yerba de vias
(Spanish), karad (India), pitilla (Cuba), etc.
4.4 BOTANICAL NAME
Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf.
4.5 INTRODUCTION
Marvel grass is an excellent and widely used fodder grass much appreci-
ated by animal and livestock. Marvel grass is a popular forage crops and
very much palatable for ruminants. Marvel grass originates from North
Africa and India. It was introduced to Southern Africa, tropical America,
the Caribbean, Southeast Asia, China, the Pacific Islands, and Australia.
This is a popular pasture grass in many areas. It can be used in fields for
grazing livestock and cut for hay and silage. It is tolerant of varied soil
conditions, including soils high in clay and sand, poorly drained soils. In
India, it is commonly grazed by sheep and goats. In case of dry forage, this
grass is supplemented with some energy source.
Marvel grass is supposed to be originating from North Africa and India.

Then, it was introduced into Southern Africa, tropical America, Pacific
Islands, Northern Australia, Southeast Asia, China, and New Guinea. It is
generally found within 8–28° in northern hemisphere up to an elevation
Marvel Grass (Diaz Blue Stem) 33
of 600 m in dry to moist subtropical and tropical areas. In India, this grass
occurs throughout the plains and hills at an elevation of 250–1375 m.
It is a tufted perennial grass and grows up to a height of 60–100 cm. Plant

is erect in nature with linear leaf blade of 5–25-cm length and 2–5-mm
wide. Sometimes plant forms creeping stolon. Leaf sheaths are glabrous
and ligules are of 1–1.8 mm in length. Most of the root is confined within 1
m of soil depth. The grass produces productive tillers of 1 m length. There
is 3–5-mm long hair on nodes. Inflorescence consists of two to nine pale
green or purple racemes. Spike consists of both sessile and pedicellate
spikelets. Seed is 2 mm in length and oblong–ovate type.
The grass is grown up to an altitude of 250–1300 m. It grows well both in

tropical and subtropical areas having annual rainfall of 700–1400 mm. In
low rainfall areas, low-lying areas are suitable for cultivation of this crop.
It is fairly drought tolerant and optimum temperature for seed germination
is 32–40°C. It does not prefer shade for optimum growth (Manidool, 1992).
The grass can be cultivated in a wide range of soil but it favors black cotton
soil particularly in India. Acidic soil causes hazards for plant growth;
however, it can withstand soil pH up to 5.5. It is very much tolerant to
saline and alkaline soil. It requires fine seed bed for better crop stand
but cultivation is also possible in rough seed bed. It is fairly tolerant to
standing water (Bogdan, 1977).
4.10 VARIETIES
The important forage grass varieties are Marvel 8 (CPI 106073), Kleberg,
T 587, PMT 587, Pretoria 90 (PI 188926, BN-6730, T-20090), IGFRI-S-
495-1, and IGFRI-S-495-59 (lines selected at IGFRI, Jhansi).
4.11 SOWING TIME
The crop is generally cultivated during wet season from June to November
particularly in India. It can also be cultivated from February to March.
4.12 SEED TREATMENT
It should be treated with fungicide such as carbendazim, Thiram, ziram,

and captan or by Trichoderma viride.
As seeds are not available commercially, it is generally cultivated by using

root slips. Root slips are planted in line at a spacing of 60 cm × 60 cm. If
seeds are used for sowing purpose, then seedlings are raised from seeds in
nursery bed.
4.14 INTERCROPPING
Once crops get established, it becomes very aggressive; some grasses like
Dichanthium aristatum, Dichanthium caricosum, legume plants such as
Medicago sp., Stylosanthes sp. may compete successfully with marvel
grass (Mehra et al., 1960).
4.15 CROP MIXTURE
This grass is not recommended for mixed cropping as it crowds out other
grasses.
Generally, this crop does not require fertilizer; however, it responds to low-
to-moderate level of nitrogen. However, a fertilizer schedule of 120–200 q/ha
farmyard manure, 40–45 kg N/ha and 30–35 kg P2O5/ha, and 20 kg K2O/ha
per year can be maintained for good crop establishment and yield (Gill, 1970).
For wet season planning crop, generally it does not require irrigation, but
one or two life-saving irrigation may be done as and when required.
Weed is not a serious problem for cultivation as it form tuft.
4.19 INSECT-PEST AND DISEASES
No serious pest and disease infestation is found; however, different

types of fungi such as Balansia sclerotica, Physoderma dichanthicola,
Pithomyces graminicola, Puccinia cesatii, Ustilago duthiei, etc. are found
to be associated with the crop. It is also parasitized by Striga lutea. Ergot
(Claviceps sp.) may present a significance in seed production.
4.20 HARVESTING
The crop is harvested two times a year, once in early to mid-summer and
another in autumn. Physical harvesting is very much expensive.
4.21 YIELD AND SEED PRODUCTION
Marvel grasses yield about 15–60 q/ha dry matter; however under irri-
gated condition, the yield may go up to 170 q/ha. Green forage production
ranges from 60 to 100 q/ha. The grass may produce 40–90 kg seed/ha.
The grass contains 2.6–10.4% of crude protein, 34.9–45.5% crude fiber,

and 7.1% lignin. Crude protein digestibility is 28–47% (Nooruddin et al.,
1975). It also contains different minerals such as calcium 3.4 g, phosphorus
1.6 g, potassium 11.2 g, sodium 0.1 g, magnesium 1.1 g, manganese 46
mg, zinc 49 mg, copper 5 mg per kilogram of dry matter (Dougall and
Bogdan, 1960; Sen, 1983). It is readily consumed by small and large
ruminants (Coleman et al., 2004).
4.23 UTILIZATIONS
Marvel grass is very commonly used as fodder for ruminants such as sheep
and goats. It can be used in pasture, cut, and carry system and suitable for
hay and silage making. It produces good standing hay and can support
seven sheep per hectare.
4.24 TOXICITY
There is no problem of toxicity.
4.25 COMPATIBILITY
It competes aggressively once it gets established and often suppresses

other species.
KEYWORDS
•• marvel grass
•• yield
•• quality
•• utilization
REFERENCES
Bogdan, A. V. Tropical Pasture and Fodder Plants (Grasses and Legumes); Longman:
London and New York, 1977; pp 106–107.
Coleman, S. W.; Taliaferro, C. M.; Tyrl, R. J. Old World Bluestems (Warm Season Grasses);
American Society of Agronomy: Madison, WI, 2004; pp 909–936.
Dougall, H. W.; Bogdan, A. W. The Chemical Composition of the Grass of Kenya-II. E.
Afr. Agric. For. J. 1960, 25 (4), 241–244.
Gill, R. S. Personal Communication. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Department
of Animal Science: Ludhiana, 1970.
Manidool, C. Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf. In Plant Resources of South-East
Asia No. 4: Forages; Mannetje, L. ’t., Jones, R. M., Eds.; Pudoc Scientific Publishers:
Wageningen, the Netherlands, 1992; pp 181–183.
Mehra, K. L.; Celarier, R. P.; Harlan, J. R. Effects of Environment on Selected Morphological
Characters in the Dichanthium annulatum Complex. Proc. Oklah. Acad. Sci. 1960, 40,
10–14.
Nooruddin; Roy, L. N.; Jha, G. D. Studies on the Digestibility and Nutritive Value of
Marvel Dichanthium annulatum, Grass at the Flowering Stage. Indian Vet. J. 1975, 52,
350–352.
Sen, K. C. The Nutritive Values of Indian Cattle Feeds and Feeding of Animals; Indian
Council of Agricultural Research: New Delhi, 1983; pp 1–30 (Bulletin No. 25).
CHAPTER 5
PANGOLA GRASS (DIGIT OR

WOOLLY FINGER GRASS)
MD. HEDAYETULLAH1*, PARVEEN ZAMAN2, and RAJIB KUNDU1
1

2
*
ABSTRACT
Pangola grasses are very much liked by all grazing animals and intake of the
grass is satisfactory or good. The surplus herbage of the peak growth may
be made into silage or hay but with difficulty. The pH value of the ensiled
material is high and the seasonal high air humidity posses problems in hay
making. Pangola grass is used extensively for pasture, hay, and silage. The
grass is drought resistant and grows better with an annual rainfall between
1000 and 500 mm. The grass can grow on various types of soil from acid
with 4.5 pH to alkaline with 8.5 pH but clayey soils are less suitable than
loams. The average yield of green herbage is about 500–700 q/ha in the
north and 800–900 q/ha in the south under improved package and practices.
Maximum yield is up to 360 q of dry matter per hectare per year in six cuts.
5.1 BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION AND BINOMIAL NAME
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Digitaria
Species: decumbens
Binomial name: Digitaria decumbens
5.2 SYNONYMS
Digitaria eriantha subsp. eriantha, Digitaria eriantha subsp. pentzii

(Stent) Kok, Digitaria eriantha subsp. stolonifera (Stapf) Kok, Digitaria
eriantha var. stolonifera Stapf, Digitaria geniculata Stent, Digitaria
glauca Stent, Digitaria pentzii Stent, Digitaria pentzii var. minor Stent,
Digitaria pentzii var. stolonifera (Stapf) Henrard, Digitaria polevansii
Stent, Digitaria seriata Stapf, Digitaria setivalva Stent, Digitaria smutsii
Stent, Digitaria stentiana Henrard, Digitaria valida Stent, Syntherisma
eriantha (Steud) Newbold.
5.3 COMMON NAME
Common finger grass, digit grass, woolly finger grass, smuts finger grass,
giant pangola grass, and pangola grass.
5.4 INTRODUCTION
The name pangola grass has been derived from the Pangola River of
Transvaal (South Africa). This grass was originally introduced to the
United States in 1935; pangola grass has been given another name to
another form of Digitaria from the same river area of Western Transvaal.
The grass is popular because of the ease of establishments, good forage
production, high nutritive value, and excellent palatability. The grass is
drought resistant and grows better with an annual rainfall between 1000
and 500 mm. The grass can grow on various types of soil from acid
with 4.5 pH to alkaline with 8.5 pH but clayey soils are less suitable
than loams.
Pangola Grass (Digit or Woolly Finger Grass) 41
5.5 DESCRIPTION
Pangola grass (Digitaria eriantha Steud) is a tropical grass widespread

in many humid tropical and subtropical regions, used extensively for
grazing, hay, and silage. It is often considered to be one of the higher
quality tropical grasses (Cook et al., 2005). D. eriantha is a monocot and
in the family of Poaceae. It is perennial, sometimes stoloniferous. Each
grass, erect or ascending, reaches the height between 35 and 180 cm. The
lowest basal leaf sheaths are densely hairy or very rarely smooth.
5.6 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
As an outstanding pasture grass, Digitaria decumbens soon spread to West

Indies, Australia, West and East Africa, the Philippines, Hawaii, India,
Pakistan, Malaysia, etc. in tropical, subtropical, and even temperate-
warm countries.
The grass is drought resistant and grows better with an annual rainfall
between 1000 and 500 mm, decreases root growth at below 16°C and
above 41°C soil temperatures. Low night temperatures adversely affect
the growth and herbage yield of the grass, because during cold nights,
starch grains accumulate in the leaf chloroplasts and hinder transloca-
tion of water soluble sugars. This starch accumulation occurs mainly
in nontillering plants but in the actively tillering plants, the flow of the
photosynthetic products from the leaves is not blocked even at 6–10°C.
At high altitudes between 1200 and 500 m, the growth probably suffers
because of cool nights.
The grass can grow on various types of soil from acid with 4.5 pH to
alkaline with 8.5 pH but clayey soils are less suitable than loams. It with-
stands water logging only to a limited extent. During the cool season,
especially at higher elevations, the productivity of pangola grass is very
low, and a rotation cycle of 60 days or more is recommended (Fukumoto

and Lee, 2003).
The grass is a swallow-rooted perennial with long creeping stolons

forming tufts. Its culms are simple or branched, 35–180-cm tall. The leaf
blades are 5–60-cm long, 2–14-mm wide, glabrous, or hairy. This grass
is sometimes stoloniferous or tufted and rhizomatous. The stolons spread
over the surface of the ground and develop roots at the nodes. The stolons
and stems are hairy. The inflorescence is a digitate or subdigitate panicle
comprising 3–17 racemes, 5–20-cm long. The inflorescence is a terminal
digitate panicle. Pangola grass is highly male and female is sterile. It is
apomictic. Very few viable seeds are produced (Cook et al., 2005).
The grass does not like very deep and fine preparation of land. Three to
four operations with a country plow, disk harrow, or cultivator are suffi-
cient to get the tilth. Heavy soils may require more operations and rolling.
5.11 SOWING
Barring the period of minimum prevailing temperature below 16°C which

retards growth, planting in the north, is usually during the monsoon and
at many time of the year in the south and in the east. About 10–5-cm long
mature stem cutting is broadcast on the prepared seed bed and mixed with
the soil by trampling or plowing. The stems and rooted stolons may also
be planted in furrows behind the plow or hoe to a depth of 5–10-cm deep.
Planting, by rooted slips or soaked cutting (kept overnight under hessian
cloth and protected from drying and direct sun), helps in easy and rapid
establishment. Half the length of cutting should remain exposing over the
soil surface after planting. In high rain fall areas, planting is done in raised
beds, which are provided with free drainage, while in low rainfall areas,
it is grown in low-lying situations, depression, or water drains (Chatterjee
and Das, 1989).
5.12 SPACING
Spacing may vary from 25 cm × 25 cm to 50 cm × 50 cm or 50 cm × 100

cm depending upon the soil and rainfall. Between 10 and 20 q of fresh
material is required for 1 ha of land.
5.13 CROP MIXTURES
High doses of N fertilizers increase pangola grass herbage and decrease or

even eliminate the associated legumes (Whitney, 1970); several herbage
legumes, for example, Trifolium repens, Centrosema pubescens, Macroptilium
atropurpureum, Desmodium intortum, Pueraria phaseoloides, Stylosanthes
guianensis, Stylosanthes humulis, Calopogonium mucunoides, Teramnus
labialis, etc., showed reasonable success in association with pangola grass.
This grass is also compatible with widely spaced subabool trees.
5.14 MANURING AND FERTILIZERS APPLICATION
Fertilizer N even up to 340 kg N/ha increases crude protein (CP) content

and herbage yield of pangola grass. Fertilizers N decreases its tolerance
to low temperatures and specially too frost. So, N should be applied with
the advent of cool or cold season. Split application of N as foliar spray or
side dressing after each grazing of cutting normally gives better result than
single application. The herbage recovers 20–70% of the applied N, the
highest recovery of N being at low-to-moderate rates.
P2O5 applied along gives little increase of herbage yield but it can be
highly effective if applied along with high rates of N. Responses of K2O
are obtained when high rates of N are applied. K2O increases tolerance top
low temperatures unlike most of the other tropical grasses. Pangola grass
response positively to Na which can replace a part of K2O fertilizers.
Pangola grass is sensitive to Cu deficiency and response well to Cu
oxide or CuSO4. Application of P2O5 can increase C content in the plant.
Sulfur can also improve the herbage yields and is generally applied in
the form of gypsum. The grass is indifferent to liming and it tolerates Al
in the soil. In India, 25 t of FYM per hectare may be applied every year
either basal or with the break of the monsoon. At planting 30 kg N, 35 kg
P2O5 and 30 kg K2O may be applied. Then, 30 kg N/ha should be applied
after each grazing or cutting. The above dose of P2O5 and K2O should be
repeated once in every year (Chatterjee and Das, 1989).
5.15 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE
Generally, pangola grass is a rainfed grass, but two to three irrigations are
required during the summer to ensure to high yield of forage (Chatterjee
and Das, 1989). The mean rainfall 900–1975 mm is optimum for its growth
and development. In South Africa, it grows well under the 625–750-mm
summer-dominant rainfall on moist, fertile, well-drained soils but is better
suited to rainfalls of 1000–1200 mm in coastal regions. In high rainfall
areas, planting is generally done in raised beds, which are provided with
free drainage, while in low rainfall areas, it is grown in low-lying situa-
tions, depression, or water drains.
During the first 2–3 months of initial establishment, weeding and intercul-
turing will be necessary for the grass to completely cover the ground. Later,
the grass suppresses the weeds. To certain extent, pangola grass is sod bound
or root bound. After 3 years, the pasture should be cultivated with a disk
harrow or rotavator to renovate the grass and to kill weed. The same effect
may be felt by burning the old stands immediately after the cold season.
5.17 HARVESTING
The grass may be harvested when it attained a height of about 40 cm; this
normally takes 50–60 days. Being highly sensitive to low temperature,
it gives four to five cutting in the north and six to seven cutting in the
southern and eastern regions of the India.
The average yield of green herbage is about 500–700 q/ha in the north
and 800–900 q/ha in the south under improved package and practices.
Maximum yield is up to 360 q of dry matter (DM)/ha/year in six cuts.

Herbage yield is influenced by season, fertilization, associated legumes,
irrigation, frequency of cuts, and other management practices.
CP content in DM of pangola grass ranges from 3% to 14%. Fertilizer N

increases the content of CP but increase in interval between grazing or
cutting decreases it. Early cuts in the season content more CP than subse-
quent cuts. Crude fiber (CF) content from 28% to 35% increases with the
intervals of cuts. The herbage from longer intervals contains more stem
and low leaf:stem ratio. The ether extract (EE) contents rage from 1% to
3% and nitrogen-free extract (NFE) from 41% to 63%. P content ranged
from 0.11% to 0.16% depending on plant age and frequency of cutting,
while Ca ranged from 0.50% to 0.76%. Total DM digestibility is high and
varies from 47% to 67%, that of crude protein varies from 7% to 66%, of
CF from 55% to 73%, of NFE from 41% to 71%, and of EE from 2% to
50%. Generally, pangola grass receiving moderate fertilization has a nutri-
tive value sufficiently high for cattle and ship requirements. The vitamin A
content in the forage is also adequate.
Animal production from the grass is usually high, average being
100–400 kg/ha with maximum and minimum records of 1275 and 175 kg/
ha, respectively. The average milk production varies between 6 and 8 kg/
ha/day from cows grazed at 2.57 head/ha. Average carrying capacity of
the grass may be two to four cows of steers/ha and 6.5 steers on heavily
fertilized pasture.
5.20 UTILIZATION
Pangola grasses are very much liked by all grazing animals and intake
of the grass is satisfactory or good. The surplus herbage of the peak
growth may be made into silage or hay but with difficulty. The pH value
of the ensiled material is high and the seasonal high air humidity posses
problems in hay making. Pangola grass is used extensively for pasture,
hay, and silage. It withstands very heavy grazing (FAO, 2009). Regular
grazing (2–3 week intervals) at 10–5 cm to 30–40 cm height is necessary
to maintain the quality of pangola grass (Cook et al., 2005).
KEYWORDS
•• pangola grass
•• fodder yield
•• utilization
REFERENCES
Cook, B. G.; Pengelly, B. C.; Brown, S. D.; Donnelly, J. L.; Eagles, D. A.; Franco, M.
A.; Hanson, J.; Mullen, B. F.; Partridge, I. J.; Peters, M.; Schultze-Kraft, R. Tropical
Forages; CSIRO, DPI & F (Qld), CIAT and ILRI: Brisbane, Australia, 2005.
FAO. Grassland Index. A Searchable Catalogue of Grass and Forage Legumes; FAO:
Rome, Italy, 2009.
Fukumoto, G. K.; Lee, C. N. Pangola Grass for Forage. Cooperative Extension Service,
College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa.
Livestock Manage. 2003, 4, 1–4.
Whitney, A. S. Effects of Harvesting Interval, Height of Cut, Nitrogen Fertilization on
the Performance of Desmodium intortum Mixture in Hawaii. Proceedings of 11th
International Grasslands Congress, Surfers Paradise, Queensland, Australia, April
14–23, 1970; pp 632–636.
CHAPTER 6
CANARY GRASS (HARDING GRASS)

BULBUL AHMED1* and MD. HEDAYETULLAH2
1
Plant Physiology Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research
Institute (BARI), Joydebpur, Gazipur 1701, Bangladesh
2

*
ABSTRACT
Canary grass is a perennial winter forage grass. Common names of

canary grass are bulbous canary grass and Harding grass; it is a species
of grass in the genus Phalaris of the Poaceae family. Phalaris tuberose
is an important prospective forage crop in the hills of the temperate and
subtemperate regions. Canary grass is a good pasture grass. Harding grass
has more distinct rhizomes and an inflorescence that is compact at first
but later becomes more open as the branches spread. Canary grass gives
green herbage yield about 30–50 q/ha in first year while subsequent cuts
may yield about 120 q/ha. It can give three to four cuttings during winter
and spring. The succulent canary grass contains 3.5% crude protein and
moisture content is about 80%. The grass has 12% digestible energy, 2%
protein equivalent, and 9% starch equivalent.
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Phalaris
Species: tuberosa (L.)
Binomial name: Phalaris tuberosa (L.)
6.2 SCIENTIFIC NAME
Phalaris tuberosa (L.).
6.3 COMMON NAME
Harding grass, bulbous canary grass, ribbon grass, gardener’s garters,

toowoomba canary grass, Kolea grass, etc.
6.4 INTRODUCTION
Canary grass is a perennial forage crop and a wild grass. Canary grass is
primarily adapted for permanent hay or pasture on sites where it is too
wet for good performance of other forage grasses. Common names of
canary grass are bulbous canary grass and Harding grass; it is a species
of grass in the genus Phalaris of the Poaceae family. Phalaris tuberose
is an important prospective forage crop in the hills of the temperate and
subtemperate regions. Canary grass is a good pasture grass. Harding grass
has more distinct rhizomes and an inflorescence that is compact at first but
later becomes more open as the branches spread. Canary grass gives green
herbage yield about 30–50 q/ha in first year while subsequent cuts may
yield about 120 q/ha. It can give 3–4 cuttings during winter and spring.
The succulent canary grass contains 3.5% crude protein (CP) and moisture
contains about 80%. The grass has 12% digestible energy, 2% protein
equivalent, and 9% starch equivalent. The grass can be used as silage and
hay. The grass gives satisfactory silage with molasses. Acetic acid fermen-
tation is occurred but not lactic acid during fermentation. Good hay can
be prepared from this grass. Phalaris species contain gramine, which can
cause brain damage, other organ damage, central nervous system damage,
and death in sheep.
Canary Grass (Harding Grass) 49
6.5 ORIGIN AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
Originally a native of the Mediterranean regions, it is now grown commer-

cially in several parts of the world for birdseed. This grass is an exotic
grass that has been introduced from Australia and New Zealand. In India,
it is propagated in Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, and the Nilgiris (Chat-
terjee and Das, 1989). It was introduced, and is now widely naturalized,
into South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, the United Kingdom,
and the United States.
Canary grass has wide adaptability of soil and climate. It prefers good
rainfall but it thrives in low rainfall areas as well. The grass grows well in
20–30°C temperatures but it is also tolerant to drought, frost, and severe
cold weather. It grows in hilly terrains where there is scarcity of good
pasture grasses. In cold humid winter, it performs well compare to other
grassy fodder crops. Although its initial growth is slow, once it established,
it withstand heavy grazing. The exceptional qualities have been made by
this grass in pasture land.
The grass is perennial in nature. This large, coarse grass has erect, hairless
stems, usually from 2 to 6-ft tall. The ligule is prominent and membranous,
0.6-cm long, and rounded at the apex. The gradually tapering leaf blades
are 8.9–25.4-cm long, 0.6–1.9-cm wide, flat, and often harsh on both
surfaces. The compact panicles are erect or sometimes slightly spreading
and range from 7.6 to 40.6-cm long with branches 1.2–3.8-cm long. Single
flowers occur in dense clusters in mid-April. Inflorescences are green or
slightly purple at first and then become tan. The seeds are shiny brown.
The perennial grass requires thorough cultivation and land preparation

which may need one deep plow with disk plow followed by three to four
operations with a country plow or disk harrow. The land should be free
from weeds.
6.9 SOWING
The direct seed sowing is generally done for its propagation. The seed
germinates well near about 20°C. Sowing is, therefore, taken up in
September and October. February and March sowing are also done when
temperature fluctuates between 20°C and 30°C. The seeds are broadcast
or sown in line.
6.10 SPACING AND DEPTH OF SOWING
The recommended spacing is 20 cm × 10 cm, but the row-to-row distance

may be increased to 30 cm when the soil is poor and irrigation facility
is not available. The tiny seed should not be placed below 2–2.5 cm soil
surface.
6.11 SEED RATE
The seed rate varies from 2.5 to 4 kg/ha if it is a clean seed. A thousand
seeds weigh about 1.13 g.
6.12 CROP MIXTURES
Canary grass belongs to the Poaceae family, since it is not suitable combi-
nation to grow with other grasses. A number of pasture legumes can grow
with canary grass. It can be grown with lucerne, berseem, shftal, senji,
metha, etc. in the winter and with cowpea, guar, rice bean, green gram,
black gram, velvet bean, etc. in the summer. Legumes grown in mixtures
with the grass seldom increase the yield of grass but they usually increase
total dry matter and especially CP yields of the mixed herbage (Chatterjee
and Das, 1989).
6.13 VARIETIES
The cultivated canary grass variety is common in growing areas such as

AQ1, Uneta, and Australis.
6.14 MANURES AND FERTILIZERS
Phalaris tuberose responds well to nitrogenous fertilizers and produces

over 30 kg dry matter or even 65 kg dry matter/kg of applied N. In
natural grasslands, nitrogenous fertilizers respond well if Phalaris
tuberose increases their herbage production. Because it grows best
in at least moderately fertile soils, it is advisable to use an establish-
ment application of 200–250 kg/ha of super phosphate and 60 kg/ha of
muriate of potash on less fertile soils. Nitrogenous fertilizers like urea
application as a basal at the rate of 100 kg/ha (46 kg/ha N) are beneficial
in pure stands.
6.15 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE
The field should be irrigated when it required. The crop requires about
400–500 mm water per crop season. It requires 500 mm annual rainfall
with good distribution from autumn to spring for optimal growth (Watson
et al., 2000). However, it can grow in places where annual rainfall is as
low as 300 mm provided the soil has good moisture-holding capacity
(Dyer, 2005). For better crop establishment, presowing and postsowing
irrigation are important. Subsequent irrigations should be given as and
when necessary.
After first 2–3 months of crop establishment, the crop requires one or two
weeding and interculture operation. Every year of the cool season, inter-
culture operation is done by country plowing or hoe is necessary to control
grassy, broad leaf, and sedge weeds and encourages the plant growth.
6.17 PEST AND DISEASES
Generally, no serious pest and diseases is occurred in Setaria grass.

Attack by armyworm and pasture webworm can destroy much of the leaf,
particularly young leaf. Pyricularia leaf spot is prevalent under hot humid
conditions and can retard the growth of the plant.
6.18 HARVESTING
The young plants make slow initial growth in the first year of estab-
lishment. After that, they grow well and harvesting may be taken up
at an intervals. The first cut can be taken after sowing or planting of
9–10 months. The subsequent cuts can be taken after every 5–8 weeks
depending on the season and growth of the grass. Generally, seven to
eight cuts can be taken per year from the same field best management
practices. After each cutting, a stubble height of 8–10 cm is left for good
regeneration.
Canary grass gives green herbage yield about 30–50 q/ha in first year
while subsequent cuts may yield about 120 q/ha. It can give three to four
cuttings during winter and spring.
6.20 TOXICITIES
Phalaris species contain gramine, which can cause brain damage, other
organ damage, central nervous system damage, and death in sheep. Leaves
and seedlings contain the tryptamine and related compounds.
The succulent canary grass contains 3.5% of CP and moisture content

about 80%. The grass has 12% digestible energy, 2% protein equivalent,
and 9% starch equivalent.
6.22 UTILIZATION
The grass can be used as silage and hay (Culvenor, 2007). The grass gives
satisfactory silage with molasses. Acetic acid fermentation is occurred but
not lactic acid during fermentation. Good hay can be prepared from this
grass. In hills, green fodder fed to animals during winter months.
KEYWORDS
•• canary grass
•• fodder yield
•• toxicities
REFERENCES
Dyer, D. Kolea Grass (Phalaris aquatica L.). United State Department of Agriculture-
Natural Resource Conservation Service, Plant Guide, Plant Materials Center, Lockeford,
CA and Reina O’Beck, California State Office, Davis, CA, 2005, pp 1–3.
Watson, R. W.; McDonald, W. J.; Bourke, C. A. Phalaris Pastures (Agfacts), 2nd ed., July,
2000. Affect 2000, 2 (5), 1.
CHAPTER 7
ANJAN GRASS (AFRICAN FOXTAIL

GRASS)
MD. HEDAYETULLAH1*, B. BHATTACHARYA2, and
PARVEEN ZAMAN3
1

2
Seed Farm, AB Block, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Kalyani 741235, Nadia, West Bengal, India
3
*
ABSTRACT
Anjan grass is very nutritious and palatable. It is relished by all classes of

livestock even at maturity. It is called buffel grass or African Foxtail and is
a valuable tufted perennial grass in arid and semiarid areas characterized
by severe drought, high temperature, low rainfall, and sandy soil. It is an
excellent grazing perennial, suited to pasture and range lands. It is not
very aggressive and is used for rehabilitating sand dunes and recuperating
highly eroded areas. Its high soil-binding capacity is due to its clustered
root system in the upper 8–10-cm layer of soil. The protein content ranges
from 3% to 16%. The well calcium phosphorus ratio is 0.48–1.9%:0.41–
1.05%. The crude protein percentage is 8.39, ether extract is 1.72%, crude
fiber is 30.54%, total acid is 16.08, and nitrogen-free extract is 43.30%.
Average green forage yield gives about 220–300 q/ha/year. The yield of
pasture grass is about 150–200 q/ha/year. Oxalate levels can cause “big
head” (Osteodystrophia fibrosa) in horses and oxalate poisoning in young

or hungry sheep.
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Cenchrus
Species: ciliaris (L.)
Binomial name: Cenchrus ciliaris (L.)
7.2 COMMON NAME
Anjan (Hindi—anjan, dhaman baiba, charwa, kusa; Tamil—kolickattai

pillu; Telegu—kusa), buffel grass, foxtail buffalo grass, blue buffalo grass
(African), foxtail grass (English), bloubuffelgras (South Africa), or anjan
grass (India).
7.3 BOTANICAL NAME
Cenchrus ciliaris (Linn.); Synonymous: Pennisetum cenchroides Rich and

Pennisetum celiare Link
7.4 INTRODUCTION
It is called buffel grass or African Foxtail. It is a valuable tufted peren-

nial grass in arid and semiarid areas characterized by severe drought,
high temperature, low rainfall, and sandy soil. It is an excellent grazing
perennial, suited to pasture and range lands. It is not very aggressive
and is used for rehabilitating sand dunes and recuperating highly eroded
areas. Its high soil-binding capacity is due to its clustered root system
in the upper 8–10-cm layer of soil. The establishment is slow and the
grass is very persistent. It survives extreme and prolonged drought but
Anjan Grass (African Foxtail Grass) 57
grows vigorously popular in moist areas where more productive grasses

can be grown. The grass is very nutritious and palatable. It is relished
by all classes of livestock even at maturity. Anjan grass is distributed in
subhumid and semiarid tropics and subtropics and native to many coun-
tries in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. Average green forage yield gives
about 220–300 q/ha/year. The yields of pasture grass about 150–200 q/
ha/year. The protein content ranges from 3% to 16%. The well calcium
phosphorus ratio is 0.48–1.9%:0.41–1.05%. The crude protein percentage
is 8.39, ether extract (EE) is 1.72%, crude fiber (CF) is 30.54%, total acid
(TA) is 16.08, and nitrogen-free extract (NFE) is 43.30% (Chatterjee and
Das, 1989). Oxalate levels can cause “big head” (Osteodystrophia fibrosa)
in horses and oxalate poisoning in young or hungry sheep. Under good
management conditions, the seed yield gives about 1–2 q/ha. The fodder
seeds can be stored for 2–3 years.
The grass is a perennial and tufted grass. Stems are erect or ascending
up to 140-cm high, stout, or slender. Leaves are glabrous or hairy, green
or bluish, flat, 7–30-cm long, and 2–5-cm wide. The inflorescence is a
cylindrical raceme of loosely arranged spike 3–15-cm long and generally
light brown in color. The spikes are surrounded by involucres of sterile
spikelets modified in to bristles. Anjan grass is sometimes stoloniferous
(Halvorson and Guertin, 2003), reproduced by seed sexually and apomic-
tically. Seed set much more likely when plants cross-pollinate than when
self-pollination occurs. Plants can propagate by rhizomes. Seeds are
viable in the soil for up to 4 years. Seed dispersal occurs by water, wind,
animals (livestock and wild), and humans (on clothing and via vehicles)
(Halvorson and Guertin, 2003). Seed dormancy increases if water stress
occurs when seeds are maturing. Seed dormancy decreases when soil
fertility and temperature increase (Sharif-Zadeh and Murdoch, 2000).
7.6 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
Cenchrus ciliaris is a native of India, Africa, Indonesia, and semiarid

Europe (Chambers and Hawkins, 2002). The grass in the natural pastures
and ranges lands of arid and semiarid regions of the tropical and subtropical
India and Africa, North Africa, Madagascar, Canary Islands, Arabia,

Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, Indonesia, Queensland and South Wales of
Australia, and to some extent in the USA. In India, it is found as a natural
grass in the Dichanthium/Cenchrus/Elyonurus cover between 23°N and
32°N latitude and 60°E and 80°E longitude. It is distributed from sea level
to 2000-m altitude.
7.7 CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT
Buffel grass can grow well in areas having 270–300 mm upward annual
rainfall in a single wet season. It thrives all high temperatures up to
45–48°C, the optimum temperature for photosynthesis being about 35°C.
The grass remains green even in the summer season with high temperature
(48°C) but the stem becomes wiry. The grass is frost tolerant. Depending
upon the cultivar, the duration of water logging adversely affects the field
germination of seed, seedling emergence and crop performance. The grass
can grow on alluvial, late rite, and red soil and medium black soils. It
comes up best on calcareous red soils with pH about 7.5; it also does well
in forest lands but cannot thrive on clayey soils or on late rite soils deficient
in lime. It can withstand considerable soil moisture stress. Germination
occurs at soil pH levels from 3.0 to 7.0 (Emmerich and Hardegree, 1996).
One deep plowing by mold board (MB) plow for deep tillage on its
roots penetrates deeper in soil. MB plow also helps to turn over the soil;
weeds and crop stubble and residue go deeper in soil. The land should be
brought to fine tilth by repeated cross-harrowing or plowing. High salinity,
freezing temperatures, heavy clay soil, deep sand, high water table, and
poor surface drainage limit distribution of this grass (Hanselka, 1988).
7.9 VARIETIES
Different genotypes were tired at the CAZRI, Jodhpur; strain nos. 357 and
358 gave comparatively a higher yield of forage on light sandy soil with
250-mm rainfall. The strain numbers 226 and 362 were found better in high
rainfall zone and in comparatively heavy soil. Varieties like Jodhpur local,
IGFRI 3133, and IGFRI 3108 are most compatible grasses with legumes.
Pusa giant is highly productive (600–650 q/ha) and more leafy with a high
content of crude protein (14–15%). It is evolved from a cross between
Rajasthan and American strain. It showed excellent recovery after grazing
and cutting. It is also tolerant to cold. Pusa yellow is more persistent,
aggressive, soft, and leafy under drier conditions than black anjan. Then,
other promising strains are IGFRI-1, CAZRI-1, and Coimbatore-1. Some
of the cultivars like Biloela, Molopo, Boorara, Lawes, Nunbank, Tarewin-
nber, and Higgins grass are tall, vigorous, stoloniferous, hard stemmed,
and suitable for cattle grazing.
Under irrigated conditions, sowing can be done in any season and under
rainfed condition, seed sowing may be done with premonsoon rain of
May–June or with the break of monsoon. For transplanted crop, nurseries
can be raised in early June and seedlings are ready for transplanting after
3–4 weeks.
The rate of 5–6 kg/ha is maintained in sandy soils of hot and dry areas. The
seed rate is increased to 7–10 kg/ha in loam to clay loam soils.
Anjan grass seed is fluffy and is therefore broadcast after mixing it with
fine sand or moist soil for easy and uniform distribution. Sowing whole
clusters of spikelets give better results. The seeding may also be done by
kera method with a 1–2-cm depth. After seed placing, planking by wooden
log is must for covering soil on seed for better germination. The seed should
be soaked about 8 h before sowing for sowing erodible soils and gullies.
7.12 SPACING
Plant population depends on the soil type, fertility status, and rainfall. In
light soil of low rainfall areas, plants are kept wide spacing of 75 cm × 75
cm. The spacing may be reduced to 60 cm × 60 cm in heavy to loamy soil
with optimum moisture conditions. It may further reduced to 60 cm × 30

cm in high fertile soils and subhumid conditions. It is generally sown in
kera method that the row-to-row spacing is maintained at 60–70 cm apart
and the plants are thinned to 30–45 cm.
The anjan grass can be grown in mixtures with relatively drought-resistant

perennial or annual legumes like stylo, Lucerne, siratro, soja, Centro,
lablab bean, moth, moong, cowpea, velvet bean, etc. The grasses like
marvel grass, sewan grass, and Rhodes grass can also be grown together.
Adequate organic manure gives higher green forage production. Applica-

tion of 10–15 t/ha cow dung manures or composts farmyard manure at
land preparation. Application of chemical fertilizers at the rate of 30:25:30
kg N:P2O5:K2O at the time of final land preparation. After soil test, the
dose of fertilizers may increase or decrease. Anjan grass responds well in
application of phosphorus at the rate of 50 kg/ha.
Anjan grass is crop of dry areas and does not tolerate waterlogging condi-
tions. Light irrigations during summer months show quick recovery and
faster growth. Irrigation is also required in the postmonsoon season for
good crop stand. During rainy season, land should be well drained.
At early stage of crop, crop and weed competition is more common. One and
two weeding at 25–30 days after sowing and second 45–50 days after sowing
are very essential for good plant stands and weed free field. One or two hand
weeding is beneficial to crop as soil stir up and stimulate the growth of the
grass. Two weeding give more herbage yield compare to the one weeding.
The only major insect pest of buffel grass is the buffel grass seed cater-
pillar (Mampava rhodoneura), a paralid moth. It has been recorded in
warmer, higher rainfall areas, feeding on the seeds, and webbing the
heads together, but control is not considered economic on a broad acre
basis. However, for seed crops, it can be controlled by spraying crops with
methomyl 10 days after heads emerge. Buffel blight, caused by fungal
pathogen Pyricularia grisea, and ergot (Claviceps spp.) affecting seed
production, is the most important diseases of buffel grass (Perrott, 2000).
Buffel blight causes “extensive losses” in monocultures, affecting the
persistence of the grass through “ill-thrift,” but its economic significance
is not known. Fusarium oxysporum has also been found in association
with buffel dieback (Makiela et al., 2003). Hall (2000) indicates that
dieback from fungal attack occurs in isolated cases in Queensland so
that the economic impact may not be great, although a small number of
producers have reported production reduced to a third of previous levels
in infected areas (Perrott, 2000).
7.18 HARVESTING
Anjan grass can be harvested 10–12 months after sowing. Height of cutting
is maintained at 5–10 cm above the ground level for better yield and
herbage quality. Frequent close cutting gives lesser yield of subsequent
cut as well as carbohydrate content. Generally, first year of crops are not
allowed grazing but light grazing is done in second year. Three to four cuts
taken in second year and subsequently six cuts are taken every year. Plant
is very tolerant of heavy grazing (Williams and Baruch, 2000), tolerates
short periods of overgrazing; prolonged heavy grazing results in decreased
root growth (Hanselka, 1988).
The yield of green herbage is 90 q/ha/year when annual rainfall receives

up to 300 mm; where annual rainfall ranges between 380 and 780 mm,
green forage yield gives about 220–300 q/ha/year. The yields of pasture
grass is about 150–200 q/ha/year.
The seed yield depends on cultivar, rainfall pattern, and soil types. Matures
are harvested by hand or by machine and separation of seed from spike is
difficult. Generally, seeds are harvested in October and November. The
seed crop is usually sown in wider space than fodder crop for good quality
seeds. Under good management conditions, the seed yield gives about 1–2
q/ha. The fodder seeds can store 2–3 years.
Anjan grass is relished by all classes of livestock. It is an excellent type

maintenance quality fodder and can support milk yield without concentrate
up to a limited extent. It contains 11% crude protein at young stage with
suitable ratio of calcium and phosphorus. Neutral detergent fiber and
acid detergent fiber content is 72.0% and 38.0%, respectively. It provides
vary good hay since it retains its nutritive value even when ripe fully.
Nutritive value of this grass is too high compared to others grasses. The
protein content ranges from 3% to 16%. The well calcium phosphorus
ratio is 0.48–1.9%:0.41–1.05%. The crude protein percentage is 8.39, EE
is 1.72%, CF is 30.54%, TA is 16.08, and NFE is 43.30%. Anjan grass
is considered a highly nutritious pasture grass in hot, arid regions. One
hundred grams of green grass contains 110-g protein, 26-g fat, 732-g total
carbohydrate, 319-g fiber, and 132-g ash. Also, 100 g of hay reportedly
contains 74-g protein, 7-g fat, 792-g carbohydrate, 352-g fiber, and 17-g
ash (Gohl, 1981).
7.22 UTILIZATION
This grass is widely used as cut fodder. It is well suited for grazing
or ensiling. It makes very good hay after quick drying in the sun. It is
mainly used as a permanent pasture but can be used for hay or silage.
Not suited to short-term pasture because too difficult to remove and
binds nutrient.
There is some evidence that buffel grass can release allelopathic chemicals
which alter soil properties to the extent that germination and growth of
other plants are inhibited (Cheam, 1984). Oxalate levels can cause “big
head” (O. fibrosa) in horses and oxalate poisoning in young or hungry
sheep. However, with soluble oxalate levels of 1–2% in the DM, there is
rarely a problem with mature ruminants.
KEYWORDS
•• anjan grass
•• cultivation practices
•• yield
•• utilization
REFERENCES
Chambers, N.; Hawkins, T. O. Invasive Plants of the Sonoran Desert: A Field Guides;
Sonoran Institute, Environmental Education Exchange, National Fish and Wildlife
Foundation: Tucson, AZ, 2002; p 120.
Cheam, A. H. Allelopathy in Buffel (Cenchrus ciliaris L.). Part 1. Influence of Buffel
Association on Calotrope (Calotropis procera (Ait.) W. T. Ait.). Australian Weeds 1984,
3, 133–136.
Emmerich, W. E.; Hardegree, S. P. Partial and Full Dehydration Impact on Germination of
4 Warm-Season Grasses. J. Range Manage. 1996, 49 (4), 355–360.
Gohl, B. Tropical Feeds. Feed Information Summaries and Nutritive Values. Animal
Production and Health Series; FAO: Rome, 1981; p 12.
Hall, T. J. History and Development of Buffel Grass Pasture Lands in Queensland. In
Proceedings of Buffel Grass Workshop, Theodore, Qld, 21–23 February 2000; Cook, B.,
Ed.; Department of Primary Industries: Queensland, 2000; pp 2–12.
Halvorson, W. L.; Guertin, P. U.S.G.S. Weeds in the West Project: Status of Introduced
Plants in Southern Arizona Parks, 2003.
Hanselka, C. W. Buffelgrass—South Texas Wonder Grass. Rangelands 1988, 10 (6),

279–281.
Makiela, S.; Harrower, K. M.; Graham, T. W. G. Buffel Grass (Cenchrus ciliaris) Dieback
in Central Queensland. Agric. Sci. 2003, 16, 34–36.
Perrott, R. In Diseases of Buffel Grass, Proceedings of Buffel Grass Workshop, Theodore,
Qld, Feb 21–23, 2000; Cook, B., Ed.; Department of Primary Industries: Queensland,
2000; pp 19–20.
Sharif-Zadeh, F.; Murdoch, A. J. The Effects of Different Maturation Conditions on Seed
Dormancy and Germination of Cenchrus ciliaris. Seed Sci. Res. 2000, 10, 447–457.
Williams, D. G.; Baruch, Z. African Grass Invasion in the Americas: Ecosystem
Consequences and the Role of Ecophysiology. Biol. Invasions 2000, 2 (2), 123–140.
CHAPTER 8
RHODES GRASS (ABYSSINIAN

RHODES GRASS)
MD. HEDAYETULLAH* and SIBAJEE BANERJEE
*
ABSTRACT
Rhodes grass is an important tropical grass widespread in tropical and

subtropical countries. It is useful forage for pasture and hay, drought-
resistant and very productive, and of high quality when young. It can grow
in many types of habitat. The areas where overgrazing is a problem, it is
the best choice for pasture, mainly for horse pasture as it has no oxalate
problems. It is rarely affected by pests or diseases as well as can suppress
the weed growth. “Katambora,” a variety of Rhodes grass, is resistant to
nematode. On an average, each cut gives about 100 q of green fodder/
ha. Maximum yields are usually obtained in the second year of growth.
Rhodes grass does not persist more than 5 years. Header-harvested yields
of 100–200 kg/ha can be achieved from properly managed crops. Rhodes
grass is primarily useful forage of moderate-to-high quality. It is grazed,
cut for hay, or used as deferred feed but it is not suitable for silage.
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Subfamily: Chloridoideae
Genus: Chloris
Species: gayana Kunth
Binomial name: Chloris gayana Kunth
8.2 BOTANICAL NAME
Chloris gayana Kunth; Chloris abyssinica Hochst. ex A. Rich.
8.3 COMMON NAME
Rhodes grass, Cecil Rhodes grass, Abyssinian Rhodes grass, Callide

Rhodes grass, common Rhodes grass (English); chloris, Herbe de Rhodes
(French); Capim de Rhodes (Portuguese); Grama de Rodas, pasto de
Rodas, pasto Rhodes, Zacate gordura (Spanish); Rhodes grass (Afrikaans);
Koro-Korosan (Philippines); banuko (Philippines)
8.4 INTRODUCTION
Rhodes grass is an important tropical grass widespread in tropical and

subtropical countries. It is useful forage for pasture and hay, drought-resis-
tant and very productive, of high quality when young. It can grow in many
types of habitat. It is also cultivated in some areas as a palatable graze for
livestock and a groundcover to reduce soil erosion and quickly revegetate
denuded soil. It is tolerant of moderately saline and alkaline soils. Rhodes
grass is one possible perennial improved grass which can be grown on farm
permanent pasture or a short-to-medium-term pasture ley and used by small-
holder farmers. It makes good hay if cut at or just before early flowering and
provides better standover feed than buffel grass or the panics. It has better
productivity and nutritive value when compared with natural pasture. It is
also useful for erosion control by virtue of its spreading growth habit. It
has wide adaptation capability. It thrives even in heavy drought-prone tracts
and coastal areas also. It can be established easily with rapid reproduction
through runners. The areas where overgrazing is a problem, it is the best
choice for pasture, mainly for horse pasture as it has no oxalate problems.
It is rarely affected by pests or diseases as well as can suppress the weed
growth. “Katambora,” a variety of Rhodes grass, is resistant to nematode.
Rhodes Grass (Abyssinian Rhodes Grass) 67
Rhodes grass is a perennial or annual tropical grass. It is a leafy grass,

1–2 m in height, highly variable in habit. Stems may be of two types;
creeping stems which is 4–5 mm in diameter and upright stems with
2–4-mm diameter. Stem is smooth and shiny. The culms are tufted or
creeping, erect or decumbent, sometimes rooting from the nodes. The
roots are very deep, down to 4.5 m. The leaves are linear, with flat or
folded glabrous blades, 12–50-cm long × 10–20-mm wide, tapering at
the apex. The seed head has an open hand shape and encompasses 2–10
one-sided or double-sided racemes, 4–15-cm long. The inflorescences are
light greenish brown in color and turn darker brown as they mature (Cook
et al., 2005). The spikelets (over 32) are densely imbricated and have two
awns. The fruit is a caryopsis, longitudinally grooved (Cook et al., 2005;
Quattrocchi, 2006).
Rhodes grass is native to Africa but it can be found throughout the tropical
and subtropical world (latitudinal range is between 18°N and 33°S). The
name “Rhodes grass” was christened after Cecil Rhodes who was the
pioneer of popularizing its cultivation in his estate near Cape Town in
South Africa in 1895. It is now cultivated in tropical and some subtropical
countries. This grass was introduced in 815 in India and thereafter it is
grown in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh.
Rhodes grass grows well in the spring and summer and its rainfall require-
ment is 600–750 mm/year (Cook et al., 2005). This grass requires less
rainfall and can survive in hot and arid places. The seed germinates quickly
depending on temperature. Rhodes grass thrives well in places where
annual temperatures range from 16.5°C to above 26°C, with maximum
growth at 30°C/25°C (day/night temperature). Day lengths between 10 and
14 h are congenial for its growth and development. Optimal annual rainfall
is about 600–750 mm with a summer-rainfall period (Cook et al., 2005).
Rhodes grass can survive in areas where annual rainfall ranges between
310 and 4030 mm and where temperature extremes are 5°C and 50°C
(Cook et al., 2005). Due to its deep roots, Rhodes grass can withstand long
dry periods and up to 15 days of flooding (Cook et al., 2005; FAO, 2014).
Rhodes grass can grow in a variety of soil conditions. Some cultivars are
tolerant of frost. Rhodes grass grows on a wide range of soils from poor
sandy soils to heavy clayey alkaline and saline soils (more than 10 dS/m).
This salt tolerance is particularly valuable in irrigated pastures where it
can be cultivated without problem. Rhodes grass does better on fertile,
well-structured soils and it prefers soil pH between 5.5 and 7.5. Establish-
ment on acidic soils is difficult. It is tolerant of Li but not of Mn and Mg
(Cook et al., 2005; FAO, 2014). Rhodes grass is a full sunlight species
which does not grow well under shade (Cook et al., 2005; FAO, 2014).
The ideal soil would be anything greater than a 4.3 pH level in terms of
acidity and has a moderate aluminum tolerance. Less work is required to
maintain this grass which means that the farmers can focus on other priori-
ties. The land should be cleared from weeds and trees before plowing. The
land should be plowed two to three times to get a fine and leveled seedbed.
As the Rhodes grass seed is very small, it needs a well-prepared seedbed.
Seedbed should be plowed and prepared well. Three to four plowings are
enough to obtain fine and firm tilth for the grass.
8.9 VARIETIES
Some varieties of Rhodes grass are Pioneer, Katambora, Sanford, finecut,

topcut, and Callide (for coastal area), etc. cultivated worldwide.
8.9.1 PIONEER
Pioneer also known as commercial Rhodes grass is an early flowering,

erect plant with moderate leafiness. Because it will run to flower quickly
throughout the growing season, its feed quality drops quickly. Pioneer has
been superseded by Katambora.
8.9.2 KATAMBORA
Katambora is later flowering than Pioneer so remains more leafy and

productive into autumn. It is also finer leaved and more stoloniferous.
8.9.3 CALLIDE
Callide is later flowering than Katambora, is less cold tolerant, and needs
a higher rainfall than Pioneer or Katambora. Callide is more palatable and
can be more productive than Pioneer or Katambora under conditions of
higher fertility.
8.9.4 FINECUT
Finecut is a variety that has been selected for its improved grazing qualities.
It has fine leaves and stems, is early flowering, of uniform maturity, and is
high yielding. Finecut was derived from Katambora.
8.9.5 TOPCUT
Topcut, developed from Pioneer, has been selected for improved

haymaking qualities. It has fine leaves and stems, is early flowering, of
uniform maturity, and is high yielding.
8.9.6 CALLIDE
This variety is saline tolerant and grows well in coastal areas.
Under rainfed condition, sowing may be done with the premonsoon

showers of June or with the break of monsoon. Seed germinates within 7
days after planting. Success of germination depends on depth of sowing.
Sowing too deeply will result in failure or poor germination. In South
India, sowing can be done any time of the year, and in North India, it can
commence by March (Chatterjee and Das, 1989).
8.11 SEED TREATMENT AND INOCULATION
The seed can be treated with fungicides like Thiram @2 g/kg of seed.
The seed can be inoculated with azotobactor for nitrogen supply @20
g bacteria culture per kilogram seed. The bacteria culture can be inocu-
lated with seed after 7 days of fungicide treatments. The bacteria culture
can also be directly used in main field with farm yard manure for better
bacteria growth.
8.12 SEED RATE, SPACING, AND SOWING METHOD
Rhodes grass is established vegetative (rooted slip) or from seed. The seed
rate may be from 5 to 10 kg/ha. In case of drill sowing, the rows should be
60–75 cm apart and the plants may be spaced at 40–50 cm within rows for
rooted cuttings. In case of vegetative propagation, about 28,000–30,000
rooted cuttings/ha are required for planting.
The seeds are used for propagation and vegetative part can also be
used for propagation. The seeds may be broadcasted or drilled. The depth
of sowing maintained is about 1.5–2 cm below the soil surface. The seeds
are tiny and light, should be mixed with sand, moist soil, and saw dust
for uniform distribution. Nurseries can also be raised to transplant about
6-week-old seedlings in the monsoon season.
Rooted slip is also used for its propagation. Rooted cuttings 15–30-cm
long with two to three internodes can also be used for propagation (Chat-
terjee and Das, 1989).
In drill sowing, the rows may be 50–75 cm apart and the plants after
final thinning may be spaced at 40–50 cm within the rows for rooted
cutting. Hill to hill maintained is about 60 cm apart.
8.13 CROP MIXTURE
Rhodes grass can also be grown with legumes fodder like lucerne, cowpea,
stylo, white clover, centro, etc. It can be grown with companion crops
like maize, jower, bajra, teosinte, sudan grass, and cotton. Sometimes, it
may also be intercropped with Subabul at early stage of Subabul. Oats,
barley, and senji also intercropped with Rhodes grass in the cold season to
protect the crop from frost (Chatterjee and Das, 1989). In Australia, it has
been mixed with butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea) for revegetation purpose
(Cook et al., 2005).
Farmyard manure @10–15 t/ha is generally applied at the time of sowing.

A balanced application of 40–50 kg N, 25 kg P, and 25 kg K/ha is recom-
mended to enhance the nutritive value and yield. Then, 25–30 kg N/ha is
applied after each cutting. The Rhodes grass is responded well in cattle
shed wash with irrigation water.
It is often grown under irrigation in arid and semiarid areas. At establish-

ment, the crop requires irrigation with 2 weeks interval in summer season
and 3–4 weeks interval in the postmonsoon season.
At initial stages, weed competition is more. So, removing weeds at early

stage of Rhodes grass production is very crucial. One or two weedings are
important to reduce weed competition till the grass grows vigorously to
cover the field. Application of 2,4-D at postplanting stage is also effective
and controls the young broad-leaved weeds. Rhodes grass spreads readily
in rainforest fringes in Queensland (Australia), where it produces seeds
profusely and develops so quickly that it smothers native species and
forms almost pure stands. However, Rhodes grass was shown to suppress
summer weeds and has been considered helpful for controlling their
development (Moore, 2006).
Rhodes grasses are severely attacked by armyworm and pasture webworm

can destroy much of the leaf, particularly young leaf—largely restricted
to coastal areas. It is rarely affected by pests or diseases as well as can
suppress the weed growth. “Katambora,” a variety of Rhodes grass, is
resistant to nematode. Generally, this grass is not affected by serious
diseases.
8.18 HARVESTING
To obtain high quantity and quality feed, the Rhodes grass should be
harvested generally at 50% flowering stage. Rhodes grass can be harvested
4–6 months after planting. In North India, 4–5 cuts, and, in the South
India, 8–10 cuts are done.
On an average, each cut gives about 100 q of green fodder/ha. Maximum

yields are usually obtained in the second year of growth. Rhodes grass
does not persist more than 5 years (Chatterjee and Das, 1989). Based on
several studies, the yields of Rhodes grass generally range from 100 to 120
q/ha/year, depending on variety, soil fertility, environmental conditions,
and cutting frequency.
Seed crops of Rhodes grass can be either direct headed or swathed.

Harvesting should begin when seed starts to drop out of the tips of the
seed heads. Up to three crops per year can be produced in most cultivars.
Rhodes grasses are fertilized with 50 kg/ha N on fertile soils or 100–150
kg/ha N on infertile soils. Header-harvested yields of 100–200 kg/ha can
be achieved from properly managed crops.
Crude protein content of the Rhodes grass ranges between 3% and 17%
depending on harvesting time and fertilization. Crude fiber content usually
varies 25–30% depending on cutting stages and in late cut it may be high
as 45% (Chatterjee and Das, 1989).
8.22 UTILIZATION
Rhodes grass is primarily useful forage of moderate-to-high quality. It is

grazed, cut for hay, or used as deferred feed but it is not suitable for silage.
It can form pure stands or is sown with other grasses or legumes. Many
cultivars have been developed to suit different cultivation conditions or
end uses, such as early, late, and very late flowering cultivars. Prostrate
cultivars are suitable for grazing and erect cultivars are adapted to hay
(Cook et al., 2005; FAO, 2014). Chloris gayana is useful as a cover crop
and soil improver, as it improves fertility and soil structure and helps to
decrease nematode numbers (Cook et al., 2005).
KEYWORDS
•• Rhodes grass
•• fodder yield
•• utilization
REFERENCES
Forages; CSIRO, DPI & F (Qld), CIAT and ILRI: Brisbane, Australia, 2005.
Rome, Italy, 2014.
Moore, G. Rhodes Grass. Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia. Bulletin
4690: Perth, 2006.
Quattrocchi, U. CRC World Dictionary of Grasses: Common Names, Scientific Names,
Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology; CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group: Boca
Raton, FL, 2006.
PART II
Leguminous Forages
CHAPTER 9
GRASS PEA (INDIAN VETCH)

RAGHUNATH SADHUKHAN1*, MD. HEDAYETULLAH2, and
PARVEEN ZAMAN3
Department of Genetics and Plant breeding, Bidhan Chandra Krishi
1
Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur 741252, West Bengal, India

2

3
Sub-station, Department of Agriculture, Government of West
Bengal, Beldanga 742133, Murshidabad, West Bengal, India
*
ABSTRACT
Lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus L.), the grass pea or chickling pea, is also
called khesari and teora in Hindi, kasari in Bengali, and Kisara in Nepali.
The grass pea is widely adapted in arid areas and contains high levels
of protein. Rain-fed crop gives green fodder yield potentiality of about
200–400 q/ha. The main limitation of grass pea is the neurotoxin ODAP.
Lathyrus has multiple usages. It is used as a broken pulse (dal), besan
(floor), animal feed, green fodder, and green leafy vegetables. Honeybees
also visit to Lathyrus field to collect nectar.
Kingdom: Plantae
Orders: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Faboideae
Tribe: Vicieae
Genus: Lathyrus
Species: sativus
Binomial name: Lathyrus sativus L.
9.2 COMMON NAME
Indian Vetch, Lathyrus, Chickling Pea, Grass Pea
9.3 BOTANICAL NAME
Lathyrus sativus L.
9.4 INTRODUCTION
Lathyrus (Lathyrus sativus L.), the grass pea or chickling pea, is also
called khesari and teora in Hindi, kasari in Bengali, and Kisara in Nepali.
It is traditionally used as food, feed, and fodder crop belonging to the
family Fabaceae, subfamily Papilionoideae, tribe Vicieae. It is commonly
known as khesrari, lakhadi, or tewra. The genus Lathyrus is large with
187 species and subspecies being recognized. Among these, four species,
namely, L. sativus, Lathyrus odoratus, Lathyrus ochyrous, and Lathyrus
aphaca, are found in India. However, only one species L. sativus is widely
cultivated as a food crop, while other species are cultivated to a lesser
extent for both food and forage. Several species are regarded as ornamental
plants, especially the sweet pea (L. odoratus). The grass pea is endowed
with many properties that combine to make it an attractive food crop in
drought-stricken, rain-fed areas where soil quality is poor and extreme
environmental conditions prevail. Despite its tolerance to drought, it is not
affected by excessive rainfall and can be grown on land subject to flooding
and that’s why it is predominantly grown as a relay crop, popularly known
as utera, in rice field. It has a very hardy and penetrating root system
and therefore can be grown on a wide range of soil types, including very
poor soil and heavy clays. This hardiness, together with its ability to fix
atmospheric nitrogen, makes the crop one that seems designed to grow
Grass Pea (Indian Vetch) 79
under adverse conditions. Because of the above unique characteristics of

the crop, it is popular among the farmers and attracted them to grow this
crop despite official discouragement (Chatterjee and Das, 1989).
The grass pea is widely adapted in arid areas and contains high levels
of protein. The grass pea is important among forage crops which are grown
in temperate countries and at high altitudes as in Jammu and Kashmir.
Indian vetches are usually grown as paira or utera crop or relay crop with
no tillage in wet rice fields. At global level, Lathyrus is a minor pulse crop;
however, in some of the countries like India, Bangladesh, and Nepal, it is
an important food and fodder crop. In South Asian countries, grass pea is
commonly grown for both grain and fodder purposes. However, the crop
has gained more importance for use as animal feed than for use as human
food. Animal feed from grass pea is usually composed of ground or split
grain or flour and is used primarily to feed lactating cattle or other draft
animals. Human diets include Lathyrus as grains that are boiled and then
either consumed whole or processed for split dal (Ahlawat et al., 2000).
Grass pea is a much-branched, straggling or climbing, herbaceous annual,

with a well-developed taproot system, the rootlets of which are covered
with small, cylindrical, branched nodules, usually clustered together in
dense groups. The stems are slender, 25–60-cm long, quadrangular with
winged margins. Stipules are prominent, narrowly triangular to ovate
with a basal appendage. The pinnate leaves are opposite, consisting of
one or two pairs of linear-lanceolate leaflets, 5–7.5 cm × 1 cm, and a
simple or much-branched tendril. Leaflets are entire, sessile, cuneate
at the base, and acuminate at the top. The flowers are axillary, solitary,
about 1.5-cm long and may be bright blue, reddish purple, red, pink, or
white. The peduncle is 3.0–5.0-cm long with 2 min bracts. Flowers have
a short and slender pedicel. Calyx teeth are longer and glabrous. Tube is
3-mm long with five lobes, subequal, and triangular. Standard petal is
erect and spreading, ovate 15 mm × 18 mm, finely pubescent at upper
margin, clawed. Wings are ovate, 14 mm × 8 mm, clawed, and obtuse
at top. Keel is slightly twisted, boat-shaped, 10 mm × 7 mm, entirely
split dorsally, ventrally split near the base. Color is lighter shaded than
wing and standard. Stamens are diadelphous (9 + 1) with vexillary
stamens free, 9-mm long, winged at base, apical part filiform, slightly
winged. Staminal sheath is 6-mm long, with free filaments of uniform

length. Anthers are elliptoid, 0.5-mm long, and yellow. Ovary is sessile,
thin, 6-mm long, pubescent with 5–8 ovules. Style is abruptly upturned,
6–7-mm long, widening at tip, and bearded below the stigma. Stigma is
terminal, glandular-papillate, and spatulate.
Pods are oblong, flat, slightly bulging over the seeds, about 2.5–4.5
cm in length, 0.6–1.0 cm in width and slightly curved. The dorsal part of
the pod is two winged, shortly beaked, and contains three to five small
seeds. Seeds are 4–7 mm in diameter, angled, and wedge-shaped. Color
is white, brownish-gray, or yellow, although spotted or mottled forms also
exist. Hilum is elliptic and cotyledons are yellow to pinkish yellow. The
germination is hypogeal, the epicotyl purplish-green. The first two leaves
are simple. The first leaf is small, scale-like, often fused with two lateral
stipulae. The second leaf is sublate, connected at the base with stipulae.
Normally, there are five seeds per pod. Seeds are wedge-shaped and
angular.
There were two separate centers of origin of this crop. One was the Central
Asiatic Center which includes northwest India, Afghanistan, the Republics
of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, and western Tian-Shan. The second was
the Abyssinian Center. However, its domestication began in the Balkan
Peninsula as a consequence of the Near East agriculture expansion into
the region and its cultivation has now spread to include marginal lands
of the Central, South, and Eastern Europe, in Crete, Rhodes, Cyprus, and
in West Asia and North Africa (Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Egypt, Iraq,
Afghanistan, Morocco, and Algeria). The species are found both in the Old
World and the New World. The center of diversity for Old World species
in the genus are in Asia Minor and the Mediterranean region. According
to De Candolle, Lathyrus is endemic to the region from Caucasus to north
of India. It has been reported by many authors that the origin of Lathyrus
was unknown as it was thought that the natural distribution had been
completely obscured by cultivation, even in southwest and central Asia,
its presumed center of origin. However, it is now suggested that the crop
originated in the Balkan Peninsula. There are reports of wild L. sativus in
Iraq but it is not clear if these are indeed wild or escapes from cultivation.
From archeological evidence, it is suggested that the domestication of
Lathyrus dates to the late Neolithic and precisely to the Bronze Age. Prior
to domestication, the crop was presumably present as a weed among other
pulse crops (Ali and Mishra, 2000).
The crop is easily grown in both high and low rainfall areas. Thus, it grows
well in Indian subcontinent including India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and
Nepal. It is also cultivated in China and in many countries of Europe,
the Middle East, and Northern Africa. Grass pea, inherently capable of
withstanding temperature extremes, is grown across diverse regions that
receive an average annual precipitation ranging from 300 to 1500 mm.
In addition to remarkable tolerance to drought, Lathyrus has tolerance
to excess precipitation and flooding. It has a hardy and penetrating root
system suited to a wide range of soil types including very poor soil and
heavy clays (Ali and Mishra, 2000). It has inherent capacity of withstanding
temperature extremes and is grown across diverse regions. In addition to
remarkable tolerance to drought, it has tolerance to excess precipitation
and flooding.
The crop grows well in wide range of soils except very acidic soil. Clayey
soil that remains wet for a long time suits the crop well. The crop can
withstand excess soil moisture, even standing water in the rice field at the
time of sowing. Lathyrus is highly drought-tolerant crop and can withstand
adverse soil water conditions.
Lathyrus can grow in minimum field preparation. Under good field
preparation, Lathyrus gives higher yield compare to the unprepared field.
The field should require one or two plowings followed by cross harrowing
and planking.
9.9 VARIETIES
The traditional local land races contain higher concentration of ODAP

(β-N-oxalyl-l-α,β-diaminopropionic acid). Therefore, the major thrust in
varietal development program was laid on high yielding genotype with

lower ODAP (below 0.1%) content. Some varieties of grass pea are Pusa
24, LSD 3, BIO L-212, Prateek, Mahateora, and Pusa 24.
9.10 SOWING TIME
The crop is generally sown in October and November and harvested in

March. Lathyrus is a winter season crop adapted to the subtropics or
temperate climates. December sowing crops are decreasing its yield. In
many cases, this produces excessive biomass growth as the plant continues
vegetative growth, usually until freezing terminates growth. Grass pea is
usually grown after a crop of rice in South Asia and is broadcast into the
standing rice crop approximately 15 days before harvest. The grass pea
then germinates and grows on the residual soil moisture. This demon-
strates a very hardy root system that allows the crop to grow under harsher
conditions than do many other pulse crops.
Grass pea in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan is generally sown

at a rate of 40 kg/ha under “utera” or paira conditions. There is no land
preparation as the seeds are broadcast by hand into standing water in rice
fields before the rice is harvested. When it is sown on rainfed land, the
soil is usually prepared by two plowings. The seeds are broadcast and
planked about 2 weeks after the first plowing. The production of grass pea
in Southeast Asia has often been observed in marginal areas that are often
waterlogged, lowland, or rice-growing areas and plays an important role in
increasing the cropping intensity. In such areas, farmers cannot produce a
good winter crop of wheat, oilseeds, or other winter legumes. It is mostly
sown into almost mature rice fields during November when field moisture
is at a totally saturated condition. Usually, the seeds are soaked overnight
and mixed with the fresh cow dung before sowing (broadcasting). Growers
appear to be under the impression that mixing cow dung with the seeds
protects the seeds from birds and insects and also enhances germination
(Chatterjee and Das, 1989).
Seed should be treating with fungicides captan or Thiram @3 g/kg seeds

is done 5–6 days before Rhizobium inoculation. Seed should be inoculated
before sowing with Rhizobium sp. (cowpea miscellaneous group) to nodu-
late Lathyrus for fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. Inoculation of seeds is
done about 12 h before sowing.
Lathyrus is seldom grown pure except under utera cultivation in rice fields.
It is grown as a mixed crop or intercrop with rainfed wheat, gram, barley,
or linseed in dry uplands and the seeds are generally sown broadcast.
Crop mixture is an important agronomic practice for getting assurance
of produce under moisture stressed condition. Mustard + grass pea are
good crop mixture. In rain-fed conditions, Lathyrus is along with barley
or chick pea or rice—khesary rotation system. Generally, after harvesting
of rice, grass pea is followed. After harvesting of jute, grass pea is grown
under residual soil moisture (Prasad, 2006).
Lathyrus is neglected and minor crops in India and abroad too but its
food, fodder, and vegetables value is too high. Under least management
practice, this crop gives yield higher compare to others pulse crops. The
farmers have not been much interested to use manures and fertilizers for
this crop. It will give good results under ideal package and practices.
Lathyrus gives better response to the application of nitrogen and phos-
phorus under relay cropping and an application of 10 kg N and 30 kg
P2O5/ha.
Lathyrus can withstand in water stress conditions. Lathyrus is grown in

dry land as well as lowland condition under residual soil moisture or in
winter rains. In low land situation, Lathyrus is sown in standing paddy
crop 15 days before harvest with 3–5 cm deep water. Also, one irrigation
at vegetative stage is recommended if crops show water stress.
Crop weed competition is more common in early stage of crop growth

(25–35 days after sowing). Lathyrus is a good crop and can cover or
suppress the weed significantly. Normally in most growing areas of
Southeast Asia, weeds are controlled by hand weeding. This crop often
is considered a low input crop with lower returns and therefore weeding
may not take place. Lathyrus was not competitive with weeds, espe-
cially when moisture was a limiting factor to plant growth. Herbicides
which might safely control annual weed in Lathyrus have been identi-
fied. Pre-emergence herbicides like pendimethalin may be applied @
0.75–1.0 kg a.i./ha.
9.17 DISEASE AND INSECT-PEST MANAGEMENT
Aphids (e.g., Aphis craccivora) are reported to be a major pest in India,

Bangladesh, and Ethiopia. Powdery mildew (Erysiphe polygoni DC) and
downy mildew (Peronospora lathyri-palustris Gaumann) are the two
major diseases that infect grass pea. Powdery mildew (Erysiphe pisi) is an
important disease of grass pea in India, causing economic losses of grain
yield. This region has very congenial climatic conditions for endemic
outbreak of this pathogen. Downy mildew is reported as a serious disease
in Southeast Asia. The severity and incidence of root rot and wilt diseases
(Fusarium spp.) ranged between 5–9% and 52.5%, respectively. Azadirec-
tion 1% EC @ 4–5 mL/L of water is very effective for controlling insects
at an interval of 7–10 days. For controlling diseases, seed treatment is the
effective way.
9.18 HARVESTING
The leaves turn yellow and the pods turn gray when mature. Pod splitting,
which leads to premature shattering of seeds, is common in small types
found on the Indian subcontinent. There, the plants are pulled out by hand
or cut with a sickle near the base. The plants are then stacked and allowed
to dry in the field or on the threshing floor for 7–8 days. The plants are
spread out on the threshing floor and beaten with sticks. The seeds are
more resistant to damage during harvesting operations than are field peas.
It is a common practice to use cattle to help thresh the pods by trampling
under the feet. The seed is then winnowed and cleaned. The seeds may be
dried for several days before being stored. The straw and chaff are used for
cattle feed, generally mixed with rice straw. The growers value the straw
as a feed stuff as it is an important source of protein. In many cases, the
value of the straw can be as great as that of the grain and thus is a major
consideration for the farmer in the production of this pulse (Chatterjee and
Das, 1989).
9.19 YIELD
Although the small-seeded types are desired for “utera” production, it can
be seen that they are not necessarily higher yielding under these condi-
tions. The amount of seed that is used per area of production does become
important as the small-seeded types need significantly less than do large-
seeded types to produce the same stand. As a rainfed crop, it shows green
forage yield potentiality of 200–400 q/ha.
Grass pea is nutritionally wealthy having 7.5–8.2% water, 48.0–52.3%

starch, 25.6–31.4% protein, 4.3–7.3% acid detergent fiber, 2.9–4.6% ash,
0.58–0.80% fat, 0.07–0.12 mg/kg calcium, 0.37–0.49 mg/kg phosphorus,
18.4–20.4 lysine mg/kg, 10.2–11.5 mg/kg threonine, 2.5–2.8 methionine
mg/kg, and 3.8–4.3 mg/kg cysteine.
However, its valuable nutritional aspect is rendered by the presence of
neurotoxin β-ODAP (β-N-oxalyl-α,β-diaminopropionic acid) which make
its grain unsuitable for human consumption if present in higher quantity.
The neurotoxin β-ODAP is commonly present in seeds of all examined
grass pea genotypes and responsible for Lathyrism, an irreversible para-
lyzing disease. This is the major limiting factor in the nutritional up-grada-
tion and production of this valuable crop. The safe content of β-ODAP
for human consumption is lower than 0.2% and only few varieties like
Ratan, Prateek, and Mahateora in India, and BARI Khesari-1 and BARI
Khesari-2 in Bangladesh are available with <0.10% β-ODAP content.
Furthermore, there appear to be fairly high levels of trypsin inhibitor in
grass pea compared to many of the food legumes, the notable exception
being soybeans which is another limiting factor of this crop. The presence
of antinutritional factor like trypsin and chemotrypsinin in legume seeds
decreases the digestibility of protein and causes pancreatic hypertrophy.
9.21 UTILIZATION
Lathyrus has multiple usages. It is used as a broken pulse (dal), besan

(floor), animal feed, green fodder, and green leafy vegetables. Honeybees
also visit to Lathyrus field to collect nectar.
9.22 TOXICITIES
The main limitation of grass pea is the neurotoxin β-N-oxalyl-α-β-

diaminopropionic acid (β-ODAP). If the seeds are consumed as a major
part of the diet for an extended period, irreversible crippling can occur.
This remained a major limiting factor in the production of this valuable
crop until such time as low- or zero-toxin lines were released. Very few
sources with ODAP levels at 0.01% or lower are available which a major
limitation for most breeding programs is. Low ODAP varieties released
in India like Nirmal, Bio L-212 (Ratan), Pusa-24, Mahatura, and Pratick
contain a neurotoxic nonprotein amino acid called β-ODAP(β-N-oxalyl-
α-β-diaminopropionic acid) which causes neurolathyrism in humans and
animals that causes an irreversible paralysis of the lower limbs in human
and the four limbs in animal and is known as Lathyrism. The disease was
recorded first in the Narwhal area of district Sialkot. The content of neuro-
toxin in the seed of local varieties can be anywhere between 0.37% and
1.2%. The other forms of the toxic substances in L. sativus are β-N-oxalyl
amino-l-alanine (BOAA). Neurotoxin concentration is lower in L. cicera
than in L. sativus. In L. cicera, it ranges from 0.04% to 0.76%. These
values are genotype-dependent and show a little environment interaction.
The safe content of ODAP for human consumption is lower than 0.2%.
The most commonly used method for determining ODAP was the spectro-
photometric method developed by Rao; for this reason, the method is also
called Rao-method proposed by Prof. Lambein. The method involved the

alkaline hydrolysis of ODAP to yield α,β-diaminopropionic acid, which
in turn is complexed with o-phthalaldehyde in the presence of ethanol to
form a colored product that is quantified at 420 nm. However, the method
does not differentiate between the two isomers of ODAP (α-ODAP and
β-ODAP). α-ODAP is a nontoxic or much less toxic isomer and easily
formed from β-ODAP during heating. However, whenever new methods
are developed for analysis of ODAP, the standard for comparison is nearly
always the “Rao-method.”
Lathyrus product has been banned in many countries due to the
neurotoxin presence. However, due to the importance of these crops in
developing countries, these countries have established breeding programs
mainly focused on getting a genotype with high seed yield and low
toxicity. There are two ways to have a genotype with high seed yield and
low toxicity, first is using the genetic engineering to produce transgenic
plants and the second way is through eliminating the toxic substance by
careful selection so far and through hybridization between low and high
toxin varieties.
9.23 FUTURE PROSPECTS OF LATHYRUS
Grass pea has a number of unique features that make it attractive to farmers
and the consumers.
These are as follows:
• Adapted under harsh environment conditions such as excess mois-

ture and drought.
• A high level of protein which normally ranges from 26% to 32%.
• Good taste which is used in snacks, various food products as well
as component of the regular diet as dal.
• Minimizing or removal of neurotoxin content from both vegetative
and reproductive parts will render the crop a more attractive fodder
and food.
• A high biological nitrogen fixation ability which allows the crop to
be an important component in sustainable cropping system.
• Used as forage or fodder for animals, both as a primary crop and as
the residue after threshing.
• The grains are used as human food or as animal feed.

• Requires very low inputs for its cultivation. Virtually, seed is the
only investment.
FIGURE 9.1 (See color insert.) Lathyrus.
KEYWORDS
•• grass pea
•• fodder yield
•• toxicities
REFERENCES
Ahlawat, I. P. S.; Prakash, O.; Saini, G. S. Scientific Crop Production in India; Aman
Publishing House: Meerut, India, 2000.
Ali, M.; Mishra, J. P. Technology for Production of Winter Pulses; IIPR: Kanpur, 2000; p 62.
Prasad, R. Text Book of Field Crop Production; ICAR: New Delhi, 2006.
CHAPTER 10
MOTH BEAN (DEW BEAN)

PARVEEN ZAMAN1* and MD. HEDAYETULLAH2
1
Sub-Station, Department of Agriculture, Government of West
2

*
ABSTRACT
Moth bean is commonly grown in arid and semiarid regions of India. It is

commonly called mat bean, moth bean, matki, Turkish gram, or dew bean.
Moth bean also called matki, math, and dew bean has been known for high
degree of adaptation in rainfed arid situation due to tolerance to drought
and high temperature. The pods, sprouts, and protein-rich seeds of this
crop are commonly consumed in India. Moth is a creeping annual which
can be used as a green manure and as a fodder. Moth bean is drought
tolerant and high protein content and is a potential crop choice for semi-
arid Africa; a lack of management knowledge and the difficulty of harvest
due to its density and creeping nature could make its spread to other parts
of the world difficult.
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Genus: Vigna
Species: aconitifolia (Jacq.)
Binomial name: Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.)
10.2 BOTANICAL NAME
Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.), Marechal (Synonymous: Phaseolus aconitifolius)
10.3 COMMON NAME
Moth or dew bean (Hindi—moth; Tamil—nari payaru; Telegu—mitikalu)
10.4 INTRODUCTION
Moth bean is a drought-resistant legume, commonly grown in arid and

semiarid regions of India. It is commonly called mat bean, moth bean,
matki, Turkish gram, or dew bean. Moth bean also called matki, math,
and dew bean (Vigna aconitfolia) has been known for high degree of
adaptation in rain-fed arid situation due to tolerance to drought and high
temperature. The pods, sprouts, and protein-rich seeds of this crop are
commonly consumed in India. Moth bean can be grown on many soil
types and can also act as a pasture legume. Moth is a creeping annual
which can be used as a green manure and as a fodder. Straw is a palat-
able fodder for livestock and dairy animals. It is used basically for fodder
purposes and conserving soil and soil moisture. However, during one and
half decade, need-based and deliberate attempts have been made to make
this drought hardy crop more productive and adaptive in harsher and more
hostile situations. In view of achieving the same, alternation in plant type
and curtailment in maturity have been achieved up to desired level. While
its drought tolerance and high protein content could make moth bean a
potential crop choice for semiarid Africa, a lack of management knowl-
edge and the difficulty of harvest due to its density and creeping nature
could make its spread to other parts of the world difficult. The low-lying
soil cover of the crop helps to prevent soil erosion and moisture loss (Sathe
and Venkatachalam, 2007).
Moth Bean (Dew Bean) 93
10.5 DESCRIPTION
Belonging to the family Fabaceae (subfamily Papilionaceae), the moth

bean is a herbaceous creeping annual that creates a low-lying soil cover
when it is fully grown (Sathe and Venkatachalam, 2007). Its stem can
grow up to 40 cm in height, with its hairy and dense-packed branches. The
leaves are alternate and trifoliate type. Leaflets are 5–10-cm long, deeply
three lobed. The terminal leaf is divided into five acuminate lobes and the
lateral leaflets are divided into three acuminate lobes. The roots of moth
bean plants are well-developed taproot system and are highly responsive
in water deficit conditions. In sufficient moisture conditions, plants spread
its roots with nodulation. The nodulation forms in entire roots as like
beads or as in cluster. The inflorescence is axillary and long peduncled.
Yellow flowers develop into a brown pod 2.5–5 cm in length, which holds
four to nine seeds inside. The rectangular seeds exist in a variety of colors,
including yellow-brown, whitish green, and mottled with black. Flowers
open generally in the morning. Moth bean is a self-pollinated crop. The
moth bean pod is linear, buff to yellowish brown in color, about 3–36-cm
long, and 5-mm wide with short stiff bristles. Seeds are yellow to brown
or mottled black, somewhat reniform in shape with rounded. The seed
germination is epigeal. Moth beans are short-day plants. The chromosome
number is 2n = 10.
Moth bean grows wild in India, Pakistan, and Burma. It is extended from
the Himalayas in the north to Sri Lanka in the south. India is considered
as the original home of moth bean. It is widely grown in India and the
Far East, particularly Thailand. Phaseolus aconitifolius grows wild in
India. It has reached China, Africa, and Southern United States where
it is raised to some extent. Pakistan and Sri Lanka also grow this crop.
The wild species and cultivated species of P. aconitifolius under Indian
center of origin. Moth bean is cultivated as a crop only in India and that
the wild original form of it occurs in both India and Ceylon. Moth bean
can be found under cultivation throughout Southeast Asia and Middle
East. They are also sometimes cultivated in the Mediterranean in places
like Italy.
10.7 ACREAGE AND PRODUCTION
In Indian subcontinent, its cultivation is concentrated in northwestern

desert region adjoining Indo-Pakistan border. Moth bean cultivation in
other countries like Sri Lanka, Burma, South China, and Malaysia is only
in limited scale. It was introduced into the United States, specially Cali-
fornia and Texas. In India, Moth bean mainly grows in Rajasthan which
constitutes about 93% of the total area and 85% of the total area in the
country. The states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Jammu and Kashmir
also grows it in limited scale.
Moth bean grows in tropical and subtropical areas of lower altitudes. It is a

kharif season crop, cultivated in arid and semiarid regions. The crop prefers
best hot and dry climates with annual rainfall which are about 60–80 cm.
Moth bean can grow in all types of soil. It is adapted in poor barren light
textured soils. However, it prefers sandy loam soil for its cultivation. Moth
bean is not suitable in saline and alkaline soil for its commercial cultiva-
tion. Moth bean can withstand in low-moisture retention capacity light
sandy soil. In heavy soil, drainage facility should be there for draining
excess water.
Moth bean can grow in minimum land preparation. Before plowing,
well-decomposed farm yard manure or organic manure can broadcast for
higher green fodder production. Generally, field is prepared by one plowing
with mold board plow followed by one or two cross-harrowing. After final
plowing, land is planked by wooden or iron plank for well distribution of
the seeds. To ensure good germination presowing irrigation is given.
10.10 VARIETIES
Local varieties are grown which are of spreading type, indeterminate and
viny, late in maturity prone to shuttering, and highly susceptible to yellow
mosaic diseases. Little breeding work has been completed on the moth
bean, but researchers have found that there is substantial genetic varia-
tion between moth bean germplasms (Yogeesh et al., 2012). The National
Bureau of Plant Genetic resources in New Delhi, India, conserved more
than 1000 accessions. Some improved cultivars such as CZM-2, CZM-3,
“RMO-40” and “RMO-105” are available in India. Some moth varieties
which are high forage yield potential as well as grain yield potential these
are CAZRI Moth-2, CAZRI Moth-3, RMO-435, etc. Important character-
istics of some varieties are given below:
1. Jadia: It is developed by local selection in Rajasthan maturing

in 90 days yielded about 5–8 q/ha and green fodder yield about
400–600 q/ha.
2. Baleshwar 12: A selection from local germplasm; maturity period
110–115 days; seed weight 25 g/1000 seeds; average yield of 6–8
q/ha, and green fodder yield about 300–500 q/ha.
3. Jawel: Identified in 1983; maturity of 90 days; resistant to yellow
mosaic virus, small seeds; light brown color with test weight of 30
g/1000 seeds, average yield of 7 q/ha, and green fodder yield about
300–500 q/ha.
4. RMO-40: By selection from Bikaner local variety. Most suitable
for moth bean growing areas It is gaining popularity day by day.
Green fodder yield about 400–600 q/ha.
5. T 3: A selection from local bulk in Meerut (Uttar Pradesh), India,
as a good fodder variety.
6. Type 1: Developed by selection from Meerut local in 1967; plants
spreading type; maturity period of 120 days; medium-sized seed;
shining seed coat; brown color, and test weight of 190 g/1000
seeds, average grain yield 10–14 q/ha and green fodder yield about
400–600 q/ha.
7. G Moth 1: A selection from local germplasm of Gujarat; maturity
period of about 90 days, and green fodder yield about 200–400 q/ha.
8. IPCMO-0880: A selection from Jhunjhunu local, released in 1989
takes 90–100 days to maturity. It is recommended or Rajasthan
and Gujarat has a yield of 5 q/ha.
9. IPCMO-912: A selection from Sikar local, released in 1994 for
Rajasthan. Maturing in 75–80 days has tolerance to YMV and
bacterial blight.
10.11 SOWING TIME
Moth bean is usually sown with onset of monsoon in June or July. It is

mainly sown in July when the monsoon rains are usually received in north
and northwest India.
To control white grub, 25 kg phorate 10 G should be applied in the furrows

where termite problem is common. Seeds should be inoculated with
bacteria bradyrhizobium species before sowing for fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen. Apply 20 g bradyrhizobium for 1 kg of seed before sowing for
better nodulation.
The seed rate is 15–20 kg for the sole crop and 2–10 kg/ha for inter-
crop. For fodder crops, seed rate generally gives higher than the gain
production. For fodder production, the optimum seed rate 20–25 kg/ha is
recommended.
Moth bean can be included in various cropping systems in the kharif

season. The crop is generally raised as dryland crop. Moth bean may be
grown either frequently mixed or intercropped with pearl millet, guar,
cowpea, pigeon pea, maize, jowar, bajra, or cotton.
• Some of the important rotation of the moth bean is given below:

• Sorghum–moth bean–barley
• Moth bean–pearl millet–mustard
• Moth bean–gram
• Maize + moth bean–mustard
• Moth bean–toria–wheat–green gram
10.15 MANURES AND FERTILIZERS
Application of organic manure, nitrogen, and phosphorus has been found

to give higher green fodder yield. Farm yard manure or compost at 5–10 t/
ha is desired for the crop under rainfed conditions. Apply 15–20 kg/ha N
and 40–45 kg/ha P2O5 at the time sowing as a basal.
Moth bean is generally grown under rain-fed conditions under residual soil
moisture conditions. It can stand the drought conditions quite well. Kharif
season crop is given one premonsoon irrigation at the time of seedbed
preparation to ensure good germination. It does not require any irrigation
until an aberrant weather or drought occurs. In drought condition, the crop
is irrigated as and when it needs. Two irrigations are required in addition to
a presowing irrigation. One irrigation can be given at flowering stage and
the second at grain development stage.
Broadcasted moth bean fodder crop is generally not practiced intercul-

tural operation and weeding. Crop weed competition is more common in
early stage of crop growth (25–35 days after sowing). Normally in most
growing areas of Southeast Asia, weeds are controlled by hand weeding.
This crop often is considered a low input crop with lower returns and
therefore weeding may not take place.
Moth bean is infested by mungbean yellow mosaic virus, for which silver-
leaf whitfly is the vector. Root rot and seedling blight from Macrophomina
phaseolina also cause damage, as well as some Striga species and the
nematode Meloidogyne incognita. There are some resistant cultivars to
these pests and diseases.
10.19 HARVESTING
The leaves turn yellow and the pods turn gray when mature. Pod split-
ting, which leads to premature shattering of seeds, is common in small
types found on the Indian subcontinent. There, the plants are pulled out
by hand or cut with a sickle near the base. The plants are then stacked
and allowed to dry in the field or on the threshing floor for 7–8 days.
The plants are spread out on the threshing floor and beaten with sticks.
The seeds are more resistant to damage during harvesting operations
than are field peas. It is a common practice to use cattle to help thresh
the pods by trampling under the feet. The seed is then winnowed and
cleaned. The seeds may be dried for several days before being stored.
The straw and chaff are used for cattle feed, generally mixed with rice
straw. The growers value the straw as a feed stuff as it is an important
source of protein. In many cases, the value of the straw can be as great
as that of the grain and thus is a major consideration for the farmer in the
production of this pulse.
10.20 YIELD
Although the small-seeded types are desired for “utera” production, it can
be seen that they are not necessarily higher yielding under these condi-
tions. The amount of seed that is used per area of production does become
important as the small-seeded types need significantly less than do large-
seeded types to produce the same stand. As a rainfed crop, it shows green
forage yield potentiality of 200 q/ha.
Moth bean varieties have different maturity grows in 72–75 days, 65–67,
60–62, and 57–58 days, respectively, with semi spreading, semi-erect
and erect-upright plant type. These varieties suit to 450–500, 300–450,
150–300, and 130–150 mm rainfall during crop season, respectively, with
reasonable grain yield potential from 500 to 1400 kg/ha.
The moth seed contains starch 48.0–52.3%, protein 25.6–28.4%, acid

detergent fiber 4.3–7.3%, ash 2.9–4.6%, and fat 0.58–0.8%. Around 100
g of raw, uncooked moth bean seeds contain 343 calories, 23 g of protein,
62 g of carbohydrate, and 1.6 g of fat. As is the case with other legumes,
this pulse does contain antinutritional factors that limit available protein.
However, research has shown that the moth bean contains considerably
less of these factors compared with other legume grains, making it a more
beneficial choice for consumption. Soaking and cooking moth beans
before consumption helps to break down antinutritional factors and makes
the protein more digestible (Khokhar and Chauhan, 1986).
10.23 UTILIZATION
Whole or split moth bean seeds can be cooked or fried. In India, particularly
in the state of Maharashtra, moth beans are sprouted before cooking and
used for making usal. They can be used for breakfast or other meals. The
usal is essential part of the popular dish missal pav (Nimkar et al., 2005).
Fried splits make up a ready-to-eat traditional namkeen, or savory dry
snack, in India called dalmoth and can be used to make traditional dal.
The moth bean pods can be boiled and eaten, and seeds can be ground
into flour that is used for another traditional namkeen called bhujia. It is
believed that consumption of the seeds can help treat a fever. Moth bean is
also consumed as a forage crop by animals.
KEYWORDS
•• moth
•• fodder yield
•• utilization
REFERENCES
Khokhar, S.; Chauhan, B. M. Antinutritional Factors in Moth Bean (Vigna aconitifolia):

Varietal Differences and Effects of Methods of Domestic Processing and Cooking. J.
Food Sci. 1986, 51 (3), 591–594.
Nimkar, P. M.; Mandwe, D. S.; Dudhe, R. M. Properties of Moth Gram. Biosyst. Eng. 2005,
91 (2), 183–189.
Sathe, S. K.; Venkatachalam, M. Fractionation and Biochemical Characterization of Moth
Bean (Vigna aconitifolia) Proteins. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 2007, 40 (4), 600–610.
Yogeesh, L. N.; Viswanatha, K. P.; Ravi, B. A.; Gangaprasad, S. Genetic Variability Studies
in Moth Bean Germplasm for Seed Yield and Its Attributing Characters. Electron. J. Pl.
Breed. 2012, 3 (1), 671–675.
CHAPTER 11
SOYBEAN (BHATMAN)
SAGAR MAITRA*
Department of Agronomy, M. S. Swaminathan School of
Agriculture, Centurion University of Technology and Management,
Paralakhemundi 761211, Odisha, India
*
ABSTRACT
Soybean is called a “wonder crop” and “golden bean” due to its high
protein and fat. Soybean is native to Asia that is currently grown world-
wide. The foliage is very palatable to cattle and has a high nutritive
value and good digestibility. Soybean forage is much valued in wildlife
management as it is also palatable to deer. Similar to most legumes,
soybean forage tends to be high in protein and low in fiber making.
Soybean green fodder yielded about 200–110 q/ha under good manage-
ment practices. Soybean forage is rich in crude protein (18.2–20.3%)
and with low in fiber.
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Faboideae (Papilionoidae)
Genus: Glycine
Species: max (L.)
Binomial name: Glycine max (Linn.)
11.2 BOTANICAL NAME
Glycine max (Linn.)
11.3 COMMON NAME
Soybean; in India, it is also known by some other names as bhat, bhatman,

bhatmas, ramkulthi, bhut, kalitur, teliakulth, gerakalay, etc.
11.4 INTRODUCTION
Soybean is called a “wonder crop” and “golden bean” due to its high
protein and fat. Soybean is a fast-growing herbaceous annual native
to Asia that is currently grown worldwide. Like other forage legumes,
soybean forage has many valuable traits as fodder. Soybean leaves and
stems can be grazed, ensiled, or dried to make hay. The foliage is very
palatable to cattle and has a high nutritive value and good digestibility.
Soybean forage is much valued in wildlife management as it is also
palatable to deer. Similar to most legumes, soybean forage tends to be
high in protein (forage contains 18.2–20.3% crude protein) and low
in fiber (relative to grasses), making it an excellent feed if harvested
properly.
The major limitations for using soybeans for forage are their low
yield potential and it is hardly 4 to 5 t per acre. However, it can be
maximized by maintaining more stand and proper nutrient management.
In the United States, before 1935, soybean used to be grown mostly for
fodder, but after this date its value as an oilseed and protein crop started
to outweigh its value as forage. Nowadays, the most commonly used
soybeans forages are grain harvest by-products. The stubble, which is
the residue of the crop that remains on the fields after bean harvest, can
be cut and chopped to feed dairy animals. Soybean straw, which is the
residue of threshing of the beans, can be used as a source of roughage
for cattle. Soybeans can be harvested as a hay or silage crop. This option
is often considered either when forage is short or when the soybean crop
is damaged for harvest as a grain crop (e.g., following hail damage or
Soybean (Bhatman) 103
an early frost or damage due to water stagnation or poor pod set due to
extreme drought). In this chapter, also soybean cultivation technology
has been narrated for grain production and utilization of by-products as
animal feed.
Today, soybean has an important place in world’s oilseed cultivation
scenario, due to its high productivity, profitability, and vital contribution
toward maintaining soil fertility. The crop also has a prominent place as
the world’s most important seed legume, which contributes 11% to the
global vegetable oil production, about two-thirds of the world’s protein
concentrate for livestock feeding and is a valuable ingredient in formu-
lated feeds for poultry and fish.
The major soybean-producing nations are the United States, Brazil, and
Argentina. The three countries dominate global production, accounting for
80% of the world’s soybean supply.
11.5 DESCRIPTION
As per taxonomy, the genus Glycine Willd is divided into two subgenera,
namely, Glycine and Soja. The subgenus Glycine includes 16 wild
species which are perennial. However, the subgenus Soja includes
only two species, which are (1) Glycine max (Linn.) Merrill, the culti-
vated one, and (2) Glycine soja Sieb and Zncc, the wild counterpart of
cultivated one. These two are annual crops. G. max is of erect plants,
branched, and have bushy canopy. The 100 seed weight is 10–20 g
depending upon the varieties. The wild-type G. soja is distributed
throughout China and its adjacent areas of USSR, Korea, Japan, and
Taiwan. It grows in fields, hedges, along the roadside and riverbanks.
The plant is procumbent or slender. The 100 seed weight of G. soja is
only 0.3 g. There is also classification of the cultivated soybean, that
is, G. max, which is as follows.
11.6 CLASSIFICATION
Soybean varies in size, shape, color of pods, and crop duration, and on the
basis of above characters, the crop may be classified as under.
11.6.1 MANCHURIAN CLASSIFICATION
This classification is based on the color of seed coat and embryo.

1. Yellow group: This group is also into three subgroups.
a) Yellow seeds with light hilum
b) Yellow seeds with golden hilum
c) Yellow seeds with brown hilum
2. Black group: It has three divisions.
a) Large black seeds
b) Flat black seeds
c) Small black seeds
3. Green group: It is further divided into two groups.
a) Epidermis is green but embryo is yellow
b) Epidermis as well as embryo is green
11.6.2 MARTIN’S CLASSIFICATION
This classification is based on the shape of the seed and divided into
following three categories.
1. Soya eliptica, seed is of egg type.
2. Soy spherical, seed is round shaped.
3. Soy compress, seed is pressed type.
11.6.3 HERTZ CLASSIFICATION
This classification is based on the shape of pods and classified soybean

into following two groups:
1. Soya platycarpa
2. Soya tumida
11.6.4 US CLASSIFICATION
The classification is based on the maturity period and hilum color of vari-
eties and these are grouped into 10.
Generally, it is believed that soybean is a native of eastern Asia. In his

work, Nagata (1960) described that the distribution of Glycine ussuriensis,
the progenitor of G. max, was found in north central region of China. G.
ussuriensis was grown in Korea, Taiwan, Japan, and Northern Province of
China and adjacent area of Russia. However, Chang (1989) claimed that
yellow river valley of China is the origin of soybean. It was introduced
in the United States in the 18th century and systematic breeding started
there during middle of 20th century. After that, this forage crop has been
transformed to a highly productive and nutritive crop. The United States is
the largest producer of soybean followed by Brazil and Argentina.
The cultivated soybean is an erect and bushy annual plant. It has diversity
in different morphological characters. The plant height may vary from 0.3
to 2.0 m and having tap root system with many branches. The major part
of active root remains up to the soil depth of 60 cm. Nodules are formed in
the root as Bradyrhizobium japonicum bacterium remains in root symbioti-
cally and fixes nitrogen biologically. The root system becomes extensively
nodulated during maturity.
The mature stem is largely pithy tissue and woody in basal part. Stems
are formed as a result of hypocotyll elongation of the seed. The height of
the stem and branching habit depends on varieties. The forage types are
profusely branched with long prostate or horizontal creeping branches,
whereas they are short and erect in grain types. In most of the varieties,
stems are found hairy.
Soybean has four types of leaves—(1) cotyledons or seed leaves, (2)
two primary leaves, (3) trifoliate leaves, and (4) prophyllus. Seed leaves
emerge with seedlings. The primary leaves and seed leaves are arranged
opposite while trifoliate leaves are alternatively arranged on the stem. The
leaflet of trifoliate leaves has entire margins and varies from oblong to
ovate or lanceolate in shape. The fourth type, prophyllus leaves are very
tiny paired and those are present at the base of each lateral branch.
Two types of inflorescence have been found in case of soybean. The
first type appears in indeterminate stems where terminal buds grow and
produce axillary raceme type of inflorescence. In this case, pods are evenly
distributed on the branches and number of pods reduces toward the top of
the stem. The second type of inflorescence appears in the determinate stems
which contain both axillary and terminal racemes and pods are found in
dense clusters along the stems. Floral primordial is initiated within 3 weeks
and flower begins 6–8 weeks after germination. Flowering may continue
for 3–4 weeks. Flower of soybean is self-fertilized and pollination may
occur the day before full opening of the flower even it takes place within
the bud. Soybean pods are straight or slightly curved. The length of pod
may vary from 2 to 7 cm depending on varieties. In most of the varieties,
pods are hairy. Seeds develop inside the pod and fully developed seeds are
formed after 35–45 days of blooming. As per the varietal character, the
size, shape, and color of seed may vary.
Soybean grows well in warm and moist climate. The maximum and
minimum temperature requirements for germination of soybean are 5 and
40°C, respectively; however, optimum temperature for rapid germination
is 40°C. Temperature of 18°C or less does not permit pod set. Seed size
reaches maximum when the crop is grown at 27°C and number of pods
goes maximum at the temperature of 30°C. Temperature goes below 24°C,
if the flowering delays by 2–3 days and flowering greatly influenced at
temperature 10°C or less. Pod abscission may be caused at 40–46°C.
Soybean requires 450–900 mm rainfall; however, 550–600 mm rain
is considered as good enough for successful rising of crop (Billore et al.,
2004). Prior to flowering, the crop can tolerate drought because of its deep
root system, but after flowering to pod development stage, water stress is
not desirable which may reduce yield.
As soybean has wider adaptability, it can be grown in different types of

soil, namely, vertisols, ultisols, and entisols. To get better yield, it is neces-
sary to raise soybean in well-drained, sandy-loam to clay loam, reasonable
depth (up to 1 m or more), rich in organic carbon with near neutral pH
(6.5–7.5). Highly acidic or saline and poor drained soil should be avoided.
Good tilth condition is required for sowing of soybean and for that
purpose one deep plowing and followed by 2–3 cross harrowing or cultiva-
tion is required. In pulverized soil, crop performs better. The field should
be leveled by planking and a gentle gradient should be provided to ensure
good drainage for monsoon crop of soybean in tropics and subtropics. At
the time of land preparation, stubbles of previous crop and weeds should
be removed. If there is any shortage of soil moisture, on presowing, irriga-
tion may be provided for optimum stand.
11.11 VARIETIES
In India, a number of varieties are cultivated in different soybean-growing

states. Northern hills zone varieties are VLS 63, VLS 59, VLS 47, VLS
21, Palam Soya, Harit Soya, and Bragg. Northern plains varieties are PS
1347, PS 1241, PS 1211, PS 1092, PS 1024, PS 1029, PK 472, PK 416,
SLS 688, Pusa 9814, Pusa 9712, and Bragg. Central zone varieties are JS
93-05, JS 335, JS 95-60, JS 90-41, Ahilya 4 (NRC 37), Ahilya 3 (NRC7),
Indra Soya 9, MAUS 81, MAUS 61-2, MAUS 47, and Bragg. Southern
zone soybean varieties are Pratap Soya 2, TAMS 98-21, TAMS 38, Phule
Kalyani, MAUS 61, MAUS 32, MAUS 2, MACS 450, MACS 124, LSb-1,
PS 1029, Bragg, etc. Northeastern zone varieties are Pratap Soya 2, Pratap
Soya 1, JS 97-52, JS 80-21, MAUS 71, Indra Soya 9, and Bragg (Agarwal
et al., 2010).
11.12 CROPPING SYSTEMS: CROP SEQUENCE, INTERCROPPING,

AND CROP MIXTURE
Soybean is having wider adaptability; it can be cultivated under different

cropping systems like sequential cropping, companion cropping, intercrop-
ping, and mixed cropping. It has also some qualities which made the crop
suitable for different cropping systems like tolerance to shed and drought,
compact canopy, can fix nitrogen biologically and benefit the succeeding
crop or nonlegume crop in sequence or in association when raised as
intercrop or mixed crop and also a remunerative crop. In India, different
types of crop sequence are adopted at different zones and intercropping of
soybean is very much common with sorghum, maize, pearl millet, finger
millet, sugarcane, cotton, pigeon pea, etc (Bhatnagar and Joshi, 1999).
Some of the important soybean-based crop sequences are given below:
1. Soybean–wheat
2. Soybean–chick pea
3. Soybean–wheat–corn–fodder
4. Soybean–potato
5. Soybean–garlic/potato–wheat
6. Soybean–rapeseed/mustard
7. Soybean–pigeonpea
8. Soybean–safflower
9. Soybean–sorghum
10. Soybean–linseed
Some of the important soybean-based intercropping/mixed cropping

are given below:
1. Soybean + pigeonpea
2. Soybean + sorghum
3. Soybean + groundnut
4. Soybean + pearl millet
5. Soybean + cotton
6. Soybean + sugarcane
The most suitable crop sequence may be soybean followed by nonle-

gume crops. In case of intercropping/mixed cropping soybean and nonle-
gume, combination is beneficial in terms of productivity of crops as well
as restoration of soil fertility. In an experiment conducted in ultisols of
West Bengal, India, it has been observed that intercropping of finger millet
and soybean (4:1) showed higher monetary advantages than intercropping
of finger millet and green gram or groundnut with the same row proportion
(Maitra et al., 2000).
11.13 SOWING TIME
In India, soybean is mostly a rainy season crop and sown between the
middle of June to July. However, there is regional variation in sowing
dates. In Northern hills, sowing time is last week of May to end of June
and in northern plains is middle of June to first week of July. In east and
northeast parts, sowing time is middle of June to mid of July, whereas
central and southern parts sowing time of soybean is middle of June to
end of July.
Under irrigated conditions, spring crop of soybean may be raised in
northeastern states where sowing is done between mid of February and
mid of March. Too early sowing of soybean in rainy season ensures greater
vegetative growth and late sowing results poor canopy and both of these
are nonbeneficial in terms of seed production.
To protect the crop from pests and diseases, seeds are treated by
fungicides and insecticides. In soybean, seeds are also inoculated by
Rhizobium japonicum to ensure nodulation and biological nitrogen fixa-
tion. To treat and inoculate the seed, a sequence is to be maintained.
It is advised to treat seeds by insecticide first and that may be with
Imidachloprid 600 FS (Gaucho) @ 75 g a.i. (or 111-mL formulation) per
100 kg of soybean seed to avoid the attack of jassids and other sucking
pests. After providing a gap of 1 week, the insecticide-treated seeds are
further treated by fungicides like Thiram or captan @ 3 g/kg of seed
to avoid colar rot and kept it for 1 week. After that, the insecticide and
fungicide-treated seeds are inoculated by the biofertilizer R. japonicum
and sown to the field.
Seed rate of soybean greatly depends on size and weight of seed, germina-
tion percentage, and date of sowing. In case of small seeded variety (seed
index < 10 g), 60–65 kg seed will be required for sowing of 1 ha of land.
However, seed rate for medium seeded variety (seed index < 11–12 g)
and large seeded variety (seed index > 12 g) are 70–75 and 80–85 kg/ha,
respectively. Seeds are sown in rows with a depth of 3–5 cm. Row × plant
spacing is generally maintained 45 cm × 5 cm in rainy season crop and 30
cm × 5 cm for spring crop. In rainy season crop, for late sowing, closer
spacing is advised which requires more seeds.
Soybean is a high-nutrient removing crop. The dose of N:P2O5:K2O is 20,

60, and 20 kg/ha, respectively, in all zone/parts of India and sulfur 20 kg/
ha at the time of land preparation.
Therefore, proper nutrient management should be adopted for sustain-
ability of soybean production. The amount of nutrients to be applied
actually depends on the soil fertility status and cropping system to be
adopted. Soybean responds to different micronutrients like zinc, boron,
and molybdenum which improve oil as well as protein content and produc-
tivity. In general, 5–10 kg zinc/ha is recommended as basal dose or foliar
application of zinc sulfate (0.5%) is done. To provide boron, basal dose
varies from 0.5 to 2.0 kg/ha or foliar spray of sodium tetraborate (0.5%)
is recommended twice at vegetative and reproductive stages. Similarly,
ammonium molybdate can be added in deficient soil as basal dose of 0.8
kg/ha. However, micronutrients should be added as basal dose in every
2–3 years. Application of farmyard manure @ 10 t/ha is sufficient to meet
the requirement of micronutrients rather than application of individual
elements (Tandon, 2002).
Soybean in India is cultivated as rainy season crop and it is mostly rainfed;

however, supplemental irrigation may be required if any dry prevails mainly
during reproductive stage. Generally, seedling, flowering, and pod filling are
considered as the critical stages of irrigation when scarcity of soil moisture
is not desirable to get satisfactory yield of soybean. The crop requires more
water during flowering to pod formation stage, and during this stage, daily
water requirement is 0.75 cm. The vegetative stage of soybean utilizes only
11–30% of total water requirement and majority of water requires during
reproductive stage. Soybean requires 50 cm water for proper growth and
development of the crop, and as a rainy season crop in India, it gets almost
the same from natural precipitation. But for spring crop assured, irrigation is
essential and the crop needs 4–6 irrigations, 4–5-cm depth each.
Moreover, soybean cannot withstand to waterlogging or excess soil
moisture conditions. Therefore, it is essential to make necessary arrange-
ments for proper drainage during rainy season.
Soybean requires two hand weeding at 20–11 and 40–45 days after
sowing. If there is severe weed infestation, particularly in rain-fed
uplands in India during rainy season, it is advisable to go for chemical
control measures with herbicides. Calmazone 50 EC @ 1.5 kg a.i./ha as
preemergence or Imazethapyr 10 SL @ 0.1 kg a.i./ha as postemergence
may be applied to control both monocot and dicot weeds of soybean.
Besides, other options of integrated weed management may also be
considered like sowing of weed-free certified seed, deep summer tillage,
destruction of weeds at the time of soil preparation, adoption of proper
crop rotation, maintaining optimum crop stand, and judicious fertilizer
application as well as integrated nutrient management. However, adop-
tion of these management practices along with one preemergence or
postemergence application of herbicide and one intercultural operation
at 11–30 days after sowing is found effective and economically viable
for production of soybean in India.
11.19 DISEASE AND INSECT-PEST MANAGEMENT
Plant protection is an important aspect to get target yield. The crop may
suffer from different diseases and insect-pests which may be managed by
adopting integrated approach.
11.19.1 DISEASES
Different fungal, bacterial, and viral diseases are found in soybeans and if
they are not managed properly, crop yield is hampered.
11.19.1.1 CHARCOAL ROT
It is caused by Rhizoctonia bataticola (syn. Macrophomina phaseolina).

Reddish brown to black necrotic lesions develop at the crown. This
hampers translocation of fluid and plants may die. It can be managed by
cultural operations like summer tillage, crop rotation, nutrient manage-
ment, and presowing seed treatment by thiram @ 1.5 g + carbendazim
@ 1.5 g/kg of seed. If crop is infected, spraying of copper oxichloride @

0.4% is beneficial.
11.19.1.2 AERIAL BLIGHT
It is caused by Rhizoctonia solani. The leaves, stems, and pods are

affected. The first symptoms appear on lower leaves, the water soaked
lesions turn in brown to black. Complete leaf may be blighted slowly.
Infected leaf may drop and adhere to stem and pods. Seed treatment with
fungicides, summer tillage, and crop rotation is beneficial to manage
the disease. In infected crop, mancozeb (0.11%) can be sprayed. Some
tolerant varieties in India like PK 416, PS 564, and PS 1042 may be
grown (Gupta, 2001).
11.19.1.3 ALTERNARIA LEAF SPOT
It is caused by Alternaria alternata. The symptom of this disease is brown

necrotic spots and concentric rings in all above ground parts of the plant.
Dry and moist weather is favorable for spread of the disease. To avoid the
disease, it is essential to sow disease-free seed with prior treatment with
fungicides. Mancozeb (0.11%) can be sprayed as protective measure.
11.19.1.4 ANTHRACNOSE
It is caused by Colletrotichum trancatum. Symptoms of the disease may

appear on leaves, pods, stems, and petioles with irregular brown to black
spots. Infected seeds may turn into moldy, dark brown, and shriveled.
Cultivation of disease-free seed and seed treatment is advised to manage
the disease. However, in infected field, foliar spray of mancozeb (0.11%)
is also effective.
11.19.1.5 RUST
It is caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi and Phakopsora meibomiae. It is

one of the most destructive diseases of the soybean and found mainly in
tropical and subtropical countries. Initially, small gray brown spots appear
on the leaves of infected plants which enlarge later. Ultimately, leaves
turn rust like brown color. It may cause 30–100% yield loss. Foliar spray
of propiconazole or hexaconazole for two to three times is effective to
control the disease.
11.19.1.6 BACTERIAL PUSTULES
It is caused by Xanthomonas phaseoli var. sojensis. At an early growth

stage, minute leaf spots are grown on either side of leaf. Later red brown
colored pustule develops in the center of the spots. The best management
practices of the disease are use of disease-free seed, crop rotation, and
destruction of residues of infected field. However, spraying of copper
oxychloride (0.4%) + streptocycline (0.01%) is found beneficial to protect
the crop.
11.19.1.7 BACTERIAL BLIGHT
It is caused by Pseudomonas glycinea. The symptom of the disease is

appearance of small, angular translucent, water-soaked yellow spots on
leaves, stems, petiole, and pods. These spots turn brown to black and may
result in fall of leaves. Summer plowing and disease-free seed sowing
help in preventing the disease. Spraying of copper oxychloride (0.4%) +
streptocycline (0.01%) is also beneficial as protective measure.
11.19.1.8 YELLOW MOSAIC
Vector of this viral mosaic is whitefly (Bemisia tabaci). The symptom of

the disease mainly appears on leaves, mixture of yellow and green mosaic
like appearance. Growth of affected plant is stunted. The vectors may be
controlled by spraying of chemical insecticides like thiamethoxam 11 WG
(100 g/ha) or methyl demeton 11 EC (1.11 L/ha) or quinalphos 11 EC (1.2
L/ha). It is not a seed-borne disease. There are some resistant varieties in
India like PK 416, PS 564, PS 1042, etc. which may be grown in yellow
mosaic prone areas.
11.19.1.9 SOYBEAN MOSAIC
This is a seed-borne disease, and in crop field, it is transmitted by aphids.

The affected plants become stunted with darker and reduced leaves. Yield of
soybean is affected greatly. Use of disease-free seed is essential to prevent the
disease. To control vector, foliar spray of thiamethoxam 11 WG (100 g/ha) or
methyl demeton 11 EC (1.11 L/ha) or quinalphos 11 EC (1.2 L/ha) can be done.
11.19.2 INSECT-PESTS
11.19.2.1 HAIRY CATERPILLAR (Spilosoma obliqua)
This polyphagus pest in cluster attacks the crop and feeds on chlorophyll of
leaves and thus leaves appear with only veins. It can be controlled by spraying
quinalphos 11 EC (@ 1.11 L/ha) or chloropyriphos 20 EC (@ 1.11 L/ha).
11.19.2.2 STEM FLY (Melanagromyza sojae)
The adults of stem fly feed on the leaves by making small punctures, which
ultimately turn into white spots. The maggots feed on the leaves and move
toward the center of the stem. The infested plants dry and leaves droop.
Chemically, this insect may be controlled by spraying thiamethoxam 11
WG (100 g/ha) or triazophos 40 EC (@ 0.8 L/ha).
11.19.2.3 WHITEFLY (B. tabaci)
It is one of the serious pests of soybean which not only sucks the sap from
leaves but also transmits yellow mosaic virus. To control it, foliar spray of
thiamethoxam 11 WG (100 g/ha) or methyl demeton 11 EC (1.11 L/ha) or
quinalphos 11 EC (1.2 L/ha) can be done.
11.19.2.4 LEAF ROLLER (Hedylepta indicata)
The larvae of this Lepidopteran insect fold leaves around themselves and
feed on mesophyll resulting in an intact papery skeleton of folded leaves.
It can be controlled by spraying quinalphos 11 EC (@ 1.11 L/ha) or chlo-

ropyriphos 20 EC (@ 1.11 L/ha).
11.19.2.5 GRIDDLE BEETLE (Obereopsis brevis)
It is one of the harmful pests of soybean. The female insect, after mating,
makes two parallel girdles usually on the petiole or main stem or side
branches and bores several holes in the girdle and lays eggs. If petioles are
girdled, the leaves are curled and leaflets become dry.
11.19.2.6 TOBACCO CATERPILLAR (Spodoptera litura)
Newly hatched larvae in cluster feed gregariously on chlorophyll of leaves.

In later instars, these larvae attack neighboring plants and damage leaves
by cutting big holes. The pest may be controlled chemically by spraying
chloropyriphos 20 EC (@ 1.11 L/ha) or methomyl 40 SP (@ 1 kg/ha) or
Lambda cyhalothrin 5 EC (@ 300 mL/ha).
11.19.2.7 GREEN SEMILOOPER (Diachrysia orichalcea)
Young larvae of green semilooper are pale greenish-white and they feed
singly on soft tissues, leaving veins of leaves. To control this harmful
insect, quinalphos 11 EC (@ 1.11 L/ha) or thiamethoxam 11 WG (100 g/
ha) may be sprayed.
11.19.2.8 GRAM POD BORER (Helicoverpa armigera)
It is a polyphagus pest and one of the major pests of soybean. The cater-
pillar feeds on grains and reduces the yield drastically. In later instars,
it is difficult to control. Foliar spray of methomyl 40 SP (@ 1 kg/ha) or
Lambda cyhalothrin 5 EC (@ 300 mL/ha) is beneficial to control the pest.
To manage the insect-pests of soybean, one should adopt all suitable tools
of integrated pest management to maintain pest population dynamics below
the threshold level. These measures are choice of pest tolerant varieties,
deep summer plowing to destroy the pupae remained in the soil, installation
of light trap for (sensitive pests) and pheromone trap (for S. litura and H.
armigera), yellow sticky trap (for B. tabaci), sue of bird perches, spraying
of biopesticides like Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), and nuclear polyhedrosis
virus for S. litura and H. armigera, mechanical removal of infested plant
parts and collection and destruction of larvae of late instars.
11.20 HARVESTING
Timely harvesting is essential in soybean to get quality and quantity. Over-

mature crop may shatter seeds. The time of maturity depends on varietal
characteristics and it ranges from 80 to 130 days. Soybean is harvested
when the leaves start drooping and falling and color of pods turn into
brown to black. At the time of harvesting, moisture content of grain may
be 15–17%. Small farmers generally harvest the crop manually; however,
combine harvester may be used for large areas. Seeds can be dried after
threshing at 12% moisture for ideal storage.
11.21 YIELD
The yield of soybean depends greatly on duration of the varieties. Gener-

ally, short duration varieties in India produce seed yield of 2.0–2.5 t/ha
and long-duration varieties yield 2.5–3.0 t/ha. However, 10–12 t/ha forage
yield can also be harvested from soybean.
The good quality soybean should be with 98% genetic purity and 70%
germination. In soybean seed, inert material is restricted to 2% only.
Besides, 1 kg good quality seed of soybean should not contain more than
10 numbers of other crop seed and 10 numbers of weed seeds. General
agronomic managements should be adopted for seed production of
soybean that has already been stated earlier. However, some steps are to
be followed to get proper quality seeds.
The parent material, that is, nucleus/breeders/foundation seed, should
be collected from the authentic source as approved by the seed certifying
agency. It is normally self-pollinated crop and cross pollination by insects
is less than 1%. But an isolation distance of 3 m from other soybean field
is sufficient to maintain genetic purity. Proper plant protection measures

should be adopted to avoid yellow mosaic disease. From 2 to 3 weeks
after sowing, rouging of mosaic affected plants should be done and it
will be continued until harvest. At flowering stage, offtype plants should
be removed on the basis of plant characteristics and flower color. Final
roughing should also be done at maturity on the basis of pod characteristics.
The seed crop of soybean should be harvested only on maturity and
premature harvesting must be avoidable. After that, standard postharvest
technologies should be followed. Care must be taken in the threshing floor
to avoid mixing among other varieties of soybean or other crop seeds. The
seeds obtained should be sun-dried and moisture content should be 12%.
The seeds may be stored in gunny bags and kept on wooden racks in a
well-ventilated and dry store.
11.23 UTILIZATION
As soybean is highly nutritious, different canned food and dry foods are
made from soybean like soy beverage, soy milk and curd, ice cream,
candy, soy nuts, cheese, nuggets, chunks, soy flour, and snacks as value-
added products. The oil can be used as edible oil. Besides, there is several
industrial use of soy oil as glycerin, explosives, varnish, printing ink,
paint, soap, celluloids, and lecithin tocopherols (vitamin E) are produced.
The remaining plant parts can be used as forage or making of silage and
hay. In Europe, there is a restriction in using animal protein in animal
feeds and this increased the use of soybean meals in animal diet. Globally,
soybean is the major source of protein in animal feed and its use is growing
steadily. In India also, it has enormous potential as an ingredient in poultry
feed. About 85% of the world’s soybeans are processed annually into
soybean meal and oil. Approximately 98% of the soybean meal is crushed
and further processed into animal feed with the balance used to make soy
flour and proteins. Of the oil fraction, 95% is consumed as edible oil; the
rest is used for industrial products such as fatty acids, soaps, and biodiesel.
Soybean seeds supply 446 calories, 9% water, 11–30% carbohydrates,

20% total fat, and about 40% good quality protein and almost no starch
(beneficial to diabetic patient) in each 100 g of raw product. The soybean oil
is having 85% unsaturated fatty acids including 55% polyunsaturated fatty
acid. It also contains 4–5% minerals and vitamins as well as antioxidants
like ascorbic acid (9–10 mg/100 g sprouted soybean), beta-carotene (0.2
mg/100 g sprouted soybean), and about 0.3% isoflavones. Soybean forage
is rich in crude protein (18.2–20.3%) and with low in fiber (Reddy, 2001).
Soybean is called a “wonder crop” and “golden bean” for this reason.
FIGURE 11.1 (See color insert.) Soybean.
KEYWORDS
•• soybean
•• origin
•• morphology
•• characteristics
•• cultivation
•• fodder yield
REFERENCES
Agarwal, D. K.; Hussain, S. M.; Ramteke, R.; Bhatia, V. S.; Srivastava, S. K. Soybean
Varieties in India. Directorate of Soybean Research, ICAR: Indore, India, 2010; p 76.
Bhatnagar, P. S.; Joshi, O. P. Soybean in Cropping Systems in India. In FAO Series on
Integrated Crop Management; FAO: Rome, Italy, 1999; Vol. 3, p 39.
Billore, S. D.; Vyas, A. K.; Joshi, O. P. Soybean Agronomy. In Soybean Production and
Improvement in India; Singh, N. B., Chauhan, G. S., Vyas, A. K., Joshi, O. P., Eds.; NRC
for Soybean, ICAR: Indore, India, 2004; pp 106–111.
Chang, R. Studies on Origin of Cultivated Soybean (Glycine max L./Merrill). Oil Crops
China 1989, 1, 1–6.
Gupta, G. K. Management Strategies for Soybean Diseases in India. Souvenir. Harnessing
the Soy Potential for Health and Wealth. India Soy forum, 2001; pp 38–45.
Maitra, S.; Ghosh, D. C.; Sounda, G.; Jana, P. K.; Roy, D. K. Productivity, Competition and
Economics of Intercropping Legumes in Finger Millet (Eleusine coracana) at Different
Fertility Levels. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 2000, 70 (12), 824–828.
Nagata, T. Studies on Differentiation of Soybean in Japan and the World. Men Ityogo Univ.
Agric. Ser. 1960, 4, 63–102.
Pal, S. S.; Gangwar, B. Nutrient Management in Oilseed Based Cropping System. Fertil.
News 2004, 49 (2), 37–45.
Reddy, V. R. In Quality of Indian Soybean Meal for Livestock and Poultry, Proceedings of
India Soy Forum; Bhatnagar, P. S., Ed.; 2001; pp 208–211.
Tandon, H. L. S. Nutrient Management Recommendations for Pulses and Oilseeds;
Fertilizer Development Consultation Organization: New Delhi, 2002.
CHAPTER 12
FENUGREEK (GREEK CLOVER)

PARVEEN ZAMAN1, MD. HEDAYETULLAH2*, and
KAJAL SENGUPTA2
1
2

*
ABSTRACT
Fenugreek is an annual leguminous crop native to Asia and Southeast

Europe. Fenugreek is a short-duration winter forage crop and can tolerate
drought. The fact that fenugreek produces high-quality forages in all growth
stages, does not create bloat problem in cattle, and contains animal growth-
promoting substances makes it an attractive forage crop. Irrigated fenugreek
crop gives 250–350 q/ha green fodder but rainfed crop gives 150–250 q/ha.
The average seed yield of fenugreek is 6–8 q/ha. The chemical composi-
tions of fenugreek are crude protein (3.6%), ether extract (3.5%), crude fiber
(7.1%), nitrogen-free extract (9.5%), and ash (2%) at the flowering stage
on dry weight basis. Coumarin-like compounds present in fenugreek may
interfere with the activity and dosing of anticoagulants and antiplatelet drugs
and cause birth defects in animals and it can pass through the placenta.
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Genus: Trigonella
Species: foenum graecum
Binomial name: Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
12.2 BOTANICAL NAME
Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
12.3 COMMON NAME
Methi, metha, fenugreek, greek hay, greek clover, bockshornklee, alholva;

it is known as methi in Hindi, Oriya, Bengali, Punjabi, and Urdu language.
Fenugreek also known in other languages like methya in Marathi, menthya
in Kannada, vendayam or venthayam in Tamil, menthulu in Telegu, uluva
in Malayalam, and Medhika or chandrika in Sanskrit language.
12.4 INTRODUCTION
Fenugreek is a self-pollinating, annual leguminous crop native to Asia

(probably India) and Southeast Europe and is cultivated worldwide. Fenu-
greek is a short-duration winter forage crop and can tolerate drought. The
fact that fenugreek produces high-quality forages in all growth stages, does
not create bloat problem in cattle, and contains animal growth-promoting
substances makes it attractive forage crop (Acharya et al., 2008).
It is believed that fenugreek was known in India since 3000 years ago.
Fenugreek is native to Asia (probably India) and Southeast Europe and
is cultivated worldwide (Acharya et al., 2008). Its growth in the wild is
reported from Kashmir, Punjab, and the Upper Gangetic plains. Fenugreek
is also reported in ancient Egypt and India and later in Greece and Rome.
A notable practice reported is its use as fumigant in incense burning in
Fenugreek (Greek Clover) 123
religious ceremonies in Egypt to spread “holy smoke.” Other countries

where it is grown are Argentina, Egypt, and Mediterranean region. Use of
its seed as a spice and its leaves and tender pods as vegetable were also
reported. Fenugreek is also used as cattle feed.
12.6 PRODUCTION
Major fenugreek-producing countries are Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Iran,

Nepal, Bangladesh, Argentina, Egypt, France, Spain, U.S.S.R., Ethiopia,
Iraq, Turkey, and Morocco. The largest producer is India and fenugreek
production in India is concentrated in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Utta-
rakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana, Punjab,
and West Bengal. Rajasthan is the leading producer of fenugreek, which
produces about 80% of India’s output (Parthasarathy et al., 2000).
Fenugreek leaves are alternate and consist of three ovate leaflets. White
flowers appear in early summer and develop into long slender green pods;
mature brown pods contain 20 small yellow seeds. The stalks grow up to
2-ft (60-cm) tall.
Fenugreek favors cool and dry climate for its growth and development.
Production happens well in areas where temperatures range from 8°C to
12°C and have an annual precipitation of 100–150 mm and a soil pH of
5.3–8.2. Fenugreek tolerates slightly saline soil but not acid soil. Growth is
slow and weak in cold temperatures and wet soils. High humidity, freezing
temperatures, and water stagnation are detrimental to this crop.
This crop prefers loamy and alluvial soil for its growth. It prefers neutral to
slightly alkaline soil and is tolerant to saline conditions. The plant cannot
survive under waterlogged situation. Fenugreek can withstand in low

moisture retention capacity, light sandy soil. In heavy soil, drainage facility
should be there for draining excess water. Fenugreek can grow in lightly
land preparation, but for higher green fodder, production field should be
well prepared. Before plowing, well-decomposed farmyard manure or
organic manure can broadcast for higher green fodder production. Gener-
ally, field is prepared by one plowing with mold board plow followed
by one or two cross-harrowing. After final plowing, land is planked by
wooden or iron plank for the proper distribution of seeds. To ensure good
germination, presowing irrigation is given (Chatterjee and Das, 1989).
12.10 VARIETIES
The variety FOS-8 has very good forage production ability. Some other
fenugreek varieties have special characters like Lam selection 1 (tolerant
to powdery mildew, root rot, caterpillars, and aphid), Pusa Early Bunching
(resistant to downy mildew, rots), Kasuri methi (resistant to leaf minor),
Rajendra Kranti (tolerant to leaf spot, suitable for intercropping), RMt-143
(moderately resistant to powdery mildew), etc. T-8 variety was developed
by Anand Agriculture University (AAU), Anand in 1989 and is recom-
mended for cultivation in Gujarat. ML-150 variety has been developed
by Punjab Agriculture University (PAU), Ludhiana through intervarietal
hybridization of Type 8 × Type 36. It is a medium-to-late variety with red
leaf margins and yellow seeds (Pandey and Roy, 2011).
12.11 SOWING TIME
Fenugreek is usually sown in October and mid-November. The optimum

sowing period is mid-October for its better plant establishment and better
vegetative growth. The staggered sowing is helpful for constant supply of
green fodder during January–March. The seeds are generally broadcast.
The fenugreek is sown in line at 2–3-cm soil depths.
To treat the seed with fungicide, apply Thiram @ 3 g/kg of seed. Seeds
should be inoculated with bacteria before sowing for fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen. Apply 20 g rhizobium for 1 kg of seed before sowing for better

nodulation.
The seed rate is 30–36 kg/ha for the sole crop by broadcasting. The seed
rate is 15–20 kg/ha for intercropping systems. For dry areas, seed rate
should be 40 kg/ha as a mixed cropping system. The seed can be sown in
line with seed drill or seed cum fertilizer drill machines.
12.14 SPACING
For line sowing, row-to-row spacing is maintained about 25–30 cm.

but depending upon the soil, climate, and irrigation facilities, it may be
increased. In dry areas, the spacing may be increased up to 50 cm when it
is grown in intercropping systems with oats and barley.
For quality and quantity forge production, fenugreek is grown in associa-

tion with oats and barley. The seed rate is reduced to 60–65% of normal
seed rates for both the crops. During the winter season, anjan, Rhodes
grass, Setaria, Guinea grass, etc. remain dormant; fenugreek is oversown
to get an extra harvest of fenugreek green fodder.
• Some of the important rotations of the fenugreek are given below:

• Maize–fenugreek
• Oats + fenugreek
• Barley + fenugreek
• Pearl millet–fenugreek
• Fenugreek–pearl millet
The crop requires less use of fertilizers. Application of organic manure,

nitrogen, and phosphorus has been found to give higher green fodder
yield. Farm yard manure or compost at 5–10 t/ha is desired for the crop
under rainfed conditions. Apply 20–25 kg/ha N and 50–60 kg/ha P2O5 at
the time of sowing as a basal is beneficial for this crop.
The seed requires high moisture or one irrigation immediately after sowing
for quick germination. Sometimes, presowing irrigation is advisable for
getting proper soil moisture germination if soil moisture is not sufficient
to germinate the seed. In winter, if rain fails, then supplementary irrigation
may be required for better growth.
Broadcasted fenugreek fodder crop generally is not practiced intercultural

operation and weeding. Crop weed competition is more common in early
stage of crop growth (25–35 days after sowing). Normally in most growing
areas of Southeast Asia, weeds are controlled by hand weeding. This crop
often is considered a low-input crop and therefore weeding may not take
place. Regular cultivated field weeding does not require.
Some important insects are stem fly: Ophiomyia spp., cowpea aphid: Aphis
craccivora Koch, serpentine leaf miner: Liriomyza trifolii Burgess, thrips:
Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood, lucerne weevil: Hypera postica Gyllenhal,
spotted pod borer: Maruca testulalis Geyer, mite: Tetranychus cucurbitae
Rahman and Sapra. Some important diseases are given: Cercospora leaf
spot: Cercospora traversiana Sacc., charcoal rot: Macrophomina phaseo-
lina (Tassi) Goid; powdery mildew: Erysiphe polygoni DC, Leveillula
taurica (Lev.) arm; downy mildew: Peronospora trigonellae Gaum; rust:
Uromyces trigonellae Pass; root rot/collar rot/foot rot: Rhizoctonia solani
Kuhn; Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc.; damping off: Pythium aphanidermatum
(Edson) Fitzp; Fusarium wilt: Fusarium oxysporum (Schlecht.); yellow
mosaic disease: bean yellow mosaic virus.
12.20 HARVESTING
The suitable time for green forage harvesting is small pod development
stage. Generally, fenugreek first harvesting is done at 60 days after sowing
and subsequent second cut is taken in 5 weeks after first cut. Seed produc-
tion fenugreek crop harvested at fully ripening stage.
12.21 YIELD
Irrigated fenugreek crop gives 250–350 q/ha green fodder but rainfed crop
gives 150–250 q/ha.
During seed production, extra care should be taken to avoid mixing with
other crop variety and weed seeds. For obtaining pure seed, fenugreek
seed production unit should maintain isolation distance to avoid cross-
pollination. Seed rate of fenugreek is 20 kg/ha optimum with 45–50 cm
spacing in line-sown crop. The average seed yield of fenugreek is 6–8 q/ha.
The chemical compositions of fenugreek are crude protein (CP) (3.6%),

ether extract (3.5%), crude fiber (7.1%), nitrogen-free extract (9.5%), and
ash (2%) at flowering stage on dry weight basis. One cutting of fenugreek
has been reported to yield between 5 and 8 dry matter ton per acre. CP
content of fenugreek cut at 15 and 19 weeks and of early bloom alfalfa
(19.8%, 15.7%, and 18.2%, respectively) was not different (Darby, 2004).
12.24 TOXICITIES
Because of the high content of coumarin-like compounds in fenugreek,

it may interfere with the activity and dosing of anticoagulants and anti-
platelet drugs and causes birth defects in animals and it can pass through
the placenta (Ouzir et al., 2016).
12.25 UTILIZATION
Fenugreek is used as an herb (dried or fresh leaves) spice (seeds) and

vegetable (fresh leaves and sprouts). Sotolon is the chemical responsible
for fenugreek’s distinctive sweet smell. Fenugreek used for both whole
and powdered in the preparation of pickles, vegetable dishes, dals, and
spice mixes such as panch phoron and sambar powder. They are often
roasted to reduce bitterness and enhance flavor. The maple aroma and
flavor of fenugreek have led to its use in many baked goods and imitation
maple syrup. Seeds are also ground and used in curries. Young seedlings
and other portions of fresh plant materials are eaten as vegetables. Fenu-
greek is also used as a livestock feed. As a medicinal plant, fenugreek
has traditionally been considered a carminative, demulcent, expectorant,
laxative, and stomachic. The plant has also been used against bronchitis,
fevers, sore throats, wounds swollen glands, skin irritations, and diabetes.
Fenugreek has been used to promote lactation and as an aphrodisiac. Fenu-
greek seeds have been used as an oral insulin substitute and seed extracts
are used to lower blood glucose (Ouzir et al., 2016).
KEYWORDS
•• metha
•• fodder yield
•• toxicities
•• utilization
REFERENCES
Acharya, S. N.; Thomas, J. E.; Basu, S. K. Fenugreek, an Alternative Crop for Semiarid
Regions of North America. Crop Sci. 2008, 48, 841–853.
Darby, H. Fenugreek: An Ancient Forage with a New Twist. NODPA News 2004, 4 (1),
12–13.
Ouzir, M.; Bairi, K. E.; Amzazi, S. Toxicological Properties of Fenugreek (Trigonella
foenum graecum). Food Chem. Toxicol. 2016, 96, 145–154.
Pandey, K. C.; Roy, A. K. Forage Crops Varieties; IGFRI: Jhansi, India, 2011.
Parthasarathy, V. A.; Kandinnan, K.; Srinivasan, V. Fenugreek. Organic Spices; New India
Publishing Agencies: Delhi, 2000; p 694.
CHAPTER 13
SENJI (SWEET CLOVER)

MD. HEDAYETULLAH1*, PARVEEN ZAMAN2, and
RAGHUNATH SADHUKHAN3
1

2
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Bidhan Chandra Krishi
3
Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur 741252, Nadia, West Bengal, India

*
ABSTRACT
It is popularly known as senji or Indian clover or King Island clover.

Melilotus spp. is not true clovers. Two common species are Melilotus alba
(white sweet clover) and Melilotus officinalis (L.) Pall. (yellow sweet
clover). It is a common leguminous weed and also a cultivated winter
annual forage crop of Northern India, particularly of Punjab and Uttar
Pradesh. It is persistent and aggressive in growth and does not require
good tillage, fertile soil, much irrigation, and aftercare. The average yield
of green fodder ranges between 300 and 400 q/ha depending upon the soil
type and management practices. The average seed yield ranges between
8 and 10 q/ha. The chemical composition of green fodder of senji is
crude protein 3.8%, ether extract 0.6%, crude fiber 5.8%, ash 2.3%, and
nitrogen-free extract 97%.
Kingdom: Plantae
Orders: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Tribe: Trifolieae
Genus: Melilotous L.
Species: indica
Binomial name: Melilotus indica L.
13.2 BOTANICAL NAME
Melilotus indica L. or Melilotus officinalis L. or Melilotous parviflora

Desf.; synonyms: Trifolium indicum L.
13.3 COMMON NAME
Senji or sweet clover or melilot or annual yellow sweet clover or

common melilot (Hindi: senji; English: Indian sweet clover or King
Island clover).
13.4 INTRODUCTION
This legume is commonly named for its sweet smell, which is due to
the presence of coumarin in its tissues. It is popularly known as senji or
Indian clover or King Island clover. Melilotus spp. is not true clovers. Two
common species are Melilotus alba (white sweet clover) and Melilotus
officinalis (L.) Pall. (yellow sweet clover). It is a common leguminous
weed and also a cultivated winter annual forage crop of Northern India,
particularly of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. It is persistent and aggressive
in growth and does not require good tillage, fertile soil, much irrigation,
and aftercare.
Senji (Sweet Clover) 133
Indian clover is indigenous to India and it has been under cultivation since
ancient times. Originally from Europe and Asia, now it is found worldwide.
It is grown in Pakistan and to a limited extent in Argentina, Tasmania,
Canada, Southern Australia, and Southern United States. Originally, it
grew as a weed but when farmers found it is useful for farm animals, they
started cultivated it as a fodder crops.
It is an annual herb of about 80–100 cm height. The stems are hollow and
cylindrical; leaves are pinnately trifoliate, stipules adnate, flowers small
and yellow on slender axillary racemes, and pods small pod. The midrib
is reddish in young leaves but this reddish color disappears in later stage.
Sweet clover grows well under a wide range of climatic and soil conditions.
The crop thrives well in cool and mild winter along with bright sunlight in
temperate and subtropical regions. High humidity is detrimental for crop
growth and higher green fodder production. The Indian clover can tolerate
drought for 5–6 weeks and more heat compared to other species. This crop
prefers loamy and alluvial soil for its growth. It prefers neutral to slightly
alkaline soil and is tolerant to saline conditions. The plant cannot survive
under waterlogged situation (ICAR, 2006).
This crop prefers loamy and alluvial soil for its growth. It prefers neutral
to slightly alkaline soil and is tolerant to saline conditions. The plant
cannot survive under waterlogged situation. Indian clover can withstand
low moisture-retention capacity of light sandy soil. In heavy soil, drainage
facility should be there for draining excess water. Sweet clover can grow in
light land preparation but for higher green fodder production, field should
be well prepared. Before plowing, well decomposed farmyard manure or

organic manure can broadcast for higher green fodder production. Gener-
ally, field is prepared by one plowing with moldboard plow followed by
one or two cross harrowing. After final plowing, land is planked by wooden
or iron plank to well establishment of seeds. To ensure good germination,
presowing irrigation is given (Chatterjee and Das, 1989).
13.9 VARIETIES
Selections at Sirsa have led to the development of few varieties such as FS

14 and FS 18. Some improved varieties of Indian clover (Pandey and Roy,
2011) are given below:
FOS-1: Choudhury Charan Singh Hariyana Agriculture University
(CCSHAU), Hisar developed the variety through selection from local
material.
Senji safed-76: The variety was developed through hybridization
between strain no. 341 and strain no. 174 by Punjab Agriculture
University (PAU), Ludhiana.
YSL-106: The variety is a derivative of FOS-1 × strain no. 807 by PAU,
Ludhiana. The variety has been recommended for cultivation under
irrigated and timely sown conditions of rabi season in Punjab.
PC-5: The variety has been developed through hybridization between
S 67 × Karak by PAU, Ludhiana. The variety has been recommended
for cultivation under irrigated and timely sown condition of rabi in
Punjab. The variety is of long duration and matures in 172 days. It
provides green fodder yield of 23 t/ha.
HFWS-55: This variety is developed through selection from local mate-
rial by CCSHAU, Hisar. The variety is released for all senji growing
areas of Haryana. It is medium to late in maturity, leafy, palatable,
and white flowered. It provides 45–50 t/ha green fodder and 8–10 dry
fodder and seed yield is 12.0–15.0 q/ha.
13.10 SOWING TIME
Indian clover is usually sown in late September and mid-November. The

optimum sowing time is mid-October for its better plant establishment.
Staggered sowing is helpful for constant supply of green fodder during

January–March. Hard seed coat creates problem of germination of sweet
clover, hence scarification is must for speedy and better germination. The
scarification is done by rubbing with stones or sand on a hard or concrete
floor. The seeds are usually sown by drilling or by broadcasting. The seeds
are soaked overnight and sown in standing water.
13.11 SEED TREATMENT AND SEED INOCULATION
To treat the seed with fungicide apply Thiram @ 3 g/kg of seed. Seeds
should be inoculated with bacteria Azotobacter before sowing for fixation
of atmospheric nitrogen. Apply 20 g Azotobacter for 1 kg of seed before
sowing for better nodulation. Rhizobium inoculation is not essential for
senji crop.
The unhooked seed rate is 50 kg/ha for the sole crop by broadcasting. For
line sowing, unhusked seed rate should be 35 kg/ha and husked 25 kg/ha.
13.13 SPACING
For line sowing row-to-row spacing is maintained about 25–30 cm.
For quality and quantity forage production, senji is grown in association

with oats and barley. The seed rate is reduced to 60–65% of normal seed
rates for both the crops. During the winter season hybrid Napier, blue
panic, anjan, Rhodes grass, setaria, guinea grass, etc. remain dormant;
senji is oversown to get an extra harvest of senji.
Some of the important rotations of the senji are given bellow:
• Maize–senji
• Lucerne + senji
• Shaftal or hubam + senji

• Pearl millet–senji
Application of organic manure, nitrogen, and phosphorus has been found

to give higher green fodder yield. Farmyard manure or compost at 5–10 t/
ha is desired for the crop under rainfed conditions. Apply 20–25 kg/ha N
and 50–60 kg/ha P2O5/ha at the sowing time as a basal.
The hard coated seed requires high moisture or standing water or one
irrigation immediately after sowing for quick germination. In winter,
if rain fails then supplementary irrigation may be required for better
growth.
Broadcasted senji fodder crop generally does not practice intercultural

operation and weeding. Crop–weed competition is more common in early
stage of crop growth (25–35 days after sowing). Normally in most growing
areas of Southeast Asia, weeds are controlled by hand weeding (Ogle et
al., 2008). This crop is often considered as a low-input crop with lower
returns and therefore weeding may not take place.
No serious pests and diseases have been reported in India on Indian clover.
The diseases such as soft rot (Phytophthora cactorum), a soil borne and
damping off, or seedling blight are reported in other countries. Sweet-
clover weevil (Sitona cylindricollis) reduces sweetclover stands. Brown
root rot, common leaf spot, and gray stem canker can also pose problems.
“Yukon” is reported to be resistant to brown rot and gray stem canker.
Control common leaf spot by cutting, before defoliation becomes severe.
Gray stem canker can be controlled with a good crop rotation and by
cutting fields cleanly (Smith and Gorz, 1965).
13.19 HARVESTING
Indian clover is harvested at small pod development stage when the pods
are just being formed. In sole crop, senji sown by mid-October makes two
cuttings possible, first at 60 days after sowing and second 40 days after
first cut. Mixture forage crop with oats and barley, and senji is harvested
at 90–100 days after sowing for single cut.
13.20 YIELD
The average yield of green fodder ranges between 300 and 400 q/ha
depending upon the soil type and management practices.
The seed crop of Indian clover requires clean cultivation and balance
fertilization. The seed rate is reduced to 75% of that fodder crops. The
average seed yield ranges between 8 and 10 q/ha.
The senji fodder crops are highly palatable and nutritious. It is rich in
protein content than berseem and lucerne. The chemical composition of
green fodder of senji is crude protein 3.8%, ether extract 0.6%, crude fiber
5.8%, ash 2.3%, and nitrogen-free extract 97%.
13.23 UTILIZATION
Sweet clover can be used as pasture or livestock feed. It is most palat-

able in spring and early summer, but livestock may need time to adjust
to the bitter taste of coumarin in the plant. Prior to World War II, before
the common use of commercial agricultural fertilizers, the plant was

commonly used as a cover crop to increase nitrogen content and improve
subsoil water capacity in poor soils. Sweet clover is a major source of
nectar for domestic honey bees as hives near sweet clover can yield
up to 200 lb of honey in a year (USDA, 1937). Sweet clover has been
used as a phytoremediation and phytodegradation plant for treatment of
soils contaminated with dioxins. In the chemical industry, dicoumarol is
extracted from the plant to produce rodenticides.
KEYWORDS
•• senji
•• fodder yield
REFERENCES
ICAR. Handbook of Agriculture. ICAR: New Delhi, 2006.
Ogle, D.; John, L. S.; Tilley, D. Plant Guide for Yellow Sweet Clover [Melilotus officinalis
(L.)] Lam. and White Sweet Clover (M. alba) Medik.; USDA, Natural Resources
Conservation Service, Idaho Plant Materials Center: Aberdeen, 2008 (ID. 83210).
Pandey, K. C.; Roy, A. K. Forage Crops Varieties; IGFRI: Jhansi, India, 2011.
Smith, W. K.; Gorz, H. J. Sweet Clover Improvement. Adv. Agron. 1965, 17, 163–231.
USDA Forest Service. Range Plant Handbook. US Government Printing Office:
Washington, DC, 1937.
CHAPTER 14
MUNG BEAN (GREEN GRAM)

KAJAL SENGUPTA*
*
ABSTRACT
Mung bean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) is an important annual leafy legume

crop grown widely in Southeast Asia. It is a short duration (60–90 days)
crop that can be grown twice a year, that is, in spring and autumn. In India,
mung bean is mainly cultivated as a pulse crop in three different seasons,
namely, spring/summer, rainy (kharif), and winter (rabi); however, this
can be used as a fodder particularly during the lean period. It is consumed
as whole grains, sprouted form as well as dhal in a variety of ways in
homes. It is also used as a green manuring crop. Mung bean can be used as
a feed for cattle; even husk of the seed can be soaked in water and used as
cattle feed. The green gram fodder contains, on an average, 10–15% crude
protein, 20–26% crude fiber, 2–2.5% ether extract, 40–49% nitrogen-free
extract, and 11–15% ash on dry matter basis. Fodder value of second cut
is generally low.
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Sub family: Faboideae

Genus: Vigna
Species: radiata
Binomial name: Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek
Synonyms: Phaseolus aureus Roxb/Phaseolus radiatus L.
Diploid chromosome number of 2n = 22
14.2 BOTANICAL NAME
Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek.
14.3 COMMON NAME
Green gram and mung bean. It is known as mung in Hindi, Oriya, Bengali,
Punjabi, and Urdu language. Green gram is also known as mudga or
moong in Sanskrit language.
14.4 INTRODUCTION
Mung Bean is a common pulse crop; however, this can be used as a fodder
particularly during the lean period. Being a legume fodder, it has special
significance because of high herbage protein and partial independence for
their nitrogen needs. Mung bean, also known as mung, moong, mash bean,
munggo, or monggo, green gram, golden gram, and green soy, is the seed
of Vigna radiata which is native to India. The split bean is known as moong
dal, which is green with the husk, and yellow when dehusked. The beans
are small, ovoid in shape, and green in color. The English word “mung”
derives from the Hindi moong. It is also known by the names hesaru bele
(Kannada), moog (Marathi), payiru (Tamil), cheru payaru (Malayalam),
and pesalu (Telugu). In the Philippines, it is called munggo or monggo.
The mung bean is one of many species moved from the genus Phaseolus
to Vigna and is still often seen cited as Phaseolus aureus or Phaseolus
radiatus. These are all the same plant.
Mung bean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) is an important annual leafy
legume crop grown widely in Southeast Asia. It is a short duration (60–90
days) crop that can be grown twice a year, that is, in spring and autumn.
Mung Bean (Green Gram) 141
It has less water requirement as compared to other summer crops (Abd

El-Salam et al., 2013). Moreover, it is drought tolerant that can withstand
adverse environmental conditions, and hence successfully be grown
in rainfed areas. It has the potential to enrich soil through atmospheric
nitrogen fixation, it fixes atmospheric nitrogen at 50–100 kg per hectare
annually. Although mung bean is grown mostly for grain production, it can
be used as a double-purpose (forage and seed) crop. Although mung bean
is grown mostly for seeds production, it can be used as a dual-purpose
crop (early season forage production followed by seed production). Green
gram can be used as green manure, cover crop, and as fodder in cut-and-
carry system and as a concentrate feed. It can be incorporated into cereal
cropping systems as a legume ley to address soil fertility decline and is
used as an intercrop species with maize to provide better legume/grass
feed quality (Abd El-Salam et al., 2008; Abd El-Salam and El-Habbasha,
2008). Mung bean can be used as green forage for livestock and may give
farmers a chance to improve the quantity and quality of forage available
for clipping or grazing.
The promising multicutting mung bean varieties with the high nutritive
value could effectively be employed to narrow the summer green forage
gape and overcome the critical forage shortage period.
The mung bean is thought to have originated from the Indian subcontinent
where it was domesticated as early as 1500 B.C. It was selected from a
wild species of mung bean (subsp. sublobata), which is widely distributed
in Asia and Africa. The crop is produced on a large scale in Southern and
Eastern Asia. China, Australia, the United States, and other countries have
started growing the crop.
Cultivated mung beans were introduced to Southern and Eastern
Asia, Africa, Austronesia, the Americas, and the West Indies. It is now
widespread throughout the tropics and is found from sea level up to an
altitude of 1850 m in the Himalayas (Lambrides and Godwin, 2006;
Mogotsi, 2006).
Mung bean production is mainly (90%) situated in Asia: India is the
largest producer with more than 50% of world production but consumes
almost its entire production. China produces large amounts of mung
beans, which represents 19% of its legume production. Thailand is the
main exporter and its production increased by 22% per year between
1980 and 2000 (Lambrides and Godwin, 2006). Though it is produced
in many African countries, the mung bean is not a major crop there
(Mogotsi, 2006).
14.6 PRODUCTION AREA
Green gram is widely grown in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar,

Thailand, Philippines, China, and Indonesia. Its cultivation has now spread
to Australia, Africa, and America. About 70% of world’s green gram
production comes from India. The Indian states producing this pulse are
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Karnataka, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu.
Mung bean plant is an erect or suberect, deep rooted, and hairy annual
herb. The growth habit includes both upright and vine types. Leaves are
alternate, trifoliate (occasionally quadra- or pentafoliate). Inflorescence
is an axillary or terminal raceme with a cluster of 10–20 papilionaceous
flowers. Flowers are pale yellow in color, borne in clusters of 10–20 near
the top of the plant. Pods are long, thin, and cylindrical, slightly bulged
over the seeds, and the color varies from black and brown to pale gray
when matured. They are 7–10-cm long, each having 8–15 seeds. They
develop in clusters at a leaf axil, with typically 20–40 pods per plant.
Seeds color exhibits a wide range of variations at maturity from yellow,
greenish yellow, light green, and shiny green to dark green, dull green,
black, brown, and green mottled with black.
Wild types tend to be prostrate while cultivated types are more erect
(Lambrides and Godwin, 2006). The stems are multibranched, sometimes
twining at the tips (Mogotsi, 2006). The leaves are alternate, trifoliolate
with elliptical to ovate leaflets, 5–18-cm long × 3–15-cm broad. The flowers
(4–30) are papilionaceous, pale yellow or greenish in color. The pods are
long, cylindrical, hairy, and pending. They contain 7–20 small, ellipsoid, or
cube -shaped seeds. The seeds are variable in color: they are usually green,
but can also be yellow, olive, brown, purplish brown, or black, mottled
and/or ridged. Seed colors and presence or absence of a rough layer are
used to distinguish different types of mung bean (Lambrides and Godwin,

2006; Mogotsi, 2006). Cultivated types are generally green or golden
and can be shiny or dull depending on the presence of a texture layer
(Lambrides and Godwin, 2006). Golden gram, which has yellow seeds,
low seed yield, and pods that shatter at maturity, is often grown for forage
or green manure. Green gram has bright green seeds, is more prolific and
ripens more uniformly, with a lower tendency for pods to shatter. In India,
two other types of mung beans exist, one with black seeds and one with
brown seeds (Mogotsi, 2006).
Mung bean is a warm season crop, requiring 60–90 days of frost-free

conditions from sowing to maturity, depending on variety. The optimum
temperature range for growth is between 27°C and 30°C. Seed can be
sown when the minimum temperature is above 15°C. Crop plants are
susceptible to water logging. So, proper drainage system is to be provided
for better growth and development of the crop.
In India and Bangladesh, the crop is grown during two seasons.
One is the rabi (winter) season (starting November), and the other is
the summer or rainy (kharif) season (starting March). Green gram is
tropical (or subtropical) crop, and requires warm temperatures (optimal
at 30–35°C). High humidity and excess rainfall late in the season can
result in disease problems and harvesting losses owing to delayed
maturity.
The mung bean is a fast-growing, warm season legume. It reaches
maturity very quickly under tropical and subtropical conditions where
optimal temperatures are about 28–30°C and always above 15°C. It can
be sown during summer and autumn. It does not require large amounts of
water (600–1000 mm rainfall/year) and is tolerant of drought. It is sensi-
tive to water logging. High moisture at maturity tends to spoil the seeds
that may sprout before being harvested.
The mung bean grows on a wide range of soils such as red laterite soils,
black cotton soils, and sandy soils but prefers well-drained loams or sandy
loams, with a pH ranging from 5 to 8. It is somewhat tolerant to saline soils

(Mogotsi, 2006).
A well-drained loamy to sandy loam soil is best for its cultivation. This
crop prefers loamy and alluvial soil for its growth. It prefers neutral soil.
Loamy soil is best for green gram cultivation. Mung beans do well on
fertile, sandy loam soils with good internal drainage and a pH of between
6.5 and 7.5. The crop does not grow well on saline and alkaline soil or
waterlogged soils.
Green gram requires proper drainage and ample aeration in the field so
that activities of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria are not hampered at any stage
of plant growth. Crop plants are susceptible to water logging. So, proper
drainage system is to be provided for better growth and development of
the crop.
14.10 VARIETIES
Some important varieties of mung bean grown in India are IPM 2-3, Co-6,
TM 96-2, Vamban 2, Vamban 3 (for Tamil Nadu); IPM 02–14 and 2-3,
HUM 1, PKVAKM-4, COGG 912, KKM 3, LGG 460, TARM-1, OBGG
52 (for Karnataka); HUM 1, BM 2002-1, PKVAKM-4, BM 4, TARM 2,
Meha (for Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra); Pant Mung 5, Pant Mung
4, Narendra Mung 1 (for Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand); Madhira 429,
Pusa-9072, WGG-2, IPM-02-14, OUM 11-5, CoGG-912, LGG-460,
LGG-450, LGG-407, and TM 96-2 (for Andhra Pradesh). Varieties found
suitable under West Bengal (India) conditions are Sonali, Panna, Sukumar,
Bireswar, Samrat, PDM-54, and Pant Mung 2. Most of these varieties
are harvested in 40–45 days with 25–30 green pods per plant. From any
variety approximate 20–25 t/ha green fodder yield and 900 kg/ha of seed
yield can be obtained.
Some South African varieties are: Chainat 60, BPI Mg 7 and
Merpati; varieties suitable for Bangladesh and Pakistan are BARI
Mung-2 (Kanti), BARI Mung-3 (Progoti), BARI Mung-4 (Rupsha),
BARI Mung-5 (Taiwani), BARI Mung-6, BINA Mung-1, BINA
Mung-2, BINA Mung-3, BINA Mung-4, BINA Mung-5, BINA Mung-6,
BINA Mung-7, BINA Mung-8, BU mug-1, BU mug-2, BU mug-3, and
BU mug-4, NM-2006, NM-51, NM-54, NM-98, Chakwal Mung-97,
Chakwal Mung-2006; some Australian varieties are: Jade-AU, Crystal,

and Celera II-AU.
14.11 SOWING TIME
For the summer or spring crop, mung bean should be sown after the harvest
of last crop (potato, sugarcane, mustard, cotton, etc.). The first fortnight
of March is most suitable for spring/summer cultivation. In India, kharif
mung bean is generally sown during the last week of June to mid- or first
week of July.
Well dried seed may be treated with captan or Thiram @ 3 g/kg seed
against any seed borne fungal disease. Rhizobium inoculation is highly
recommended in fields where mung bean cultivation is taken up for the
first time.
Seeds which are healthy, undamaged, and free from insect-pests and fungi
should be selected. The seed rate varies with seed size and season. In the
case of bold seed types, a seed rate of 40 kg/ha is appropriate in spring
and autumn, and 30 kg/ha in summer. It is advised to establish a plant
population of 25–30 plants/m2 for obtaining good seed yield.
14.14 SPACING
Line sowing is more advantageous as it requires less seed, produces a

more even crop that is easier to manage and will have higher yield poten-
tial. The space between the lines is kept at 25–30 cm and 10 cm between
the plants. Broadcasting of seed, although an established practice, makes
weeding, crop management, and harvest much more labor intensive and
significantly reduces crop productivity and economic return.
Some important crop rotations with mung bean are:

Main rotation patterns:
Hybrid pearl millet–cluster bean–mung bean–rapeseed–mustard
Hybrid pearl millet–mung bean–sunflower/safflower
Mung bean–fallow–wheat/barley
Mung bean (summer)–rice–wheat
Mung bean–rice–mustard
Mung bean–maize
Mung bean–maize + mung bean–wheat
Mung bean–maize (early)–potato (early)–wheat
Promising intercropping systems that include legumes in India:

Maize + mung bean (1:1)
Jute + mung bean (1:1)
Pearl millet + mung bean (1:1)
Cotton + mung bean (1:1)
Sugarcane + mung bean (1:2)
Sorghum + mung bean (1:1)
Mung beans are commonly grown along with sorghum for dual
purposes, that is, fodders and gains.
The application of well decomposed 10 t of farmyard manure (FYM)

provides the desired quality to the soil. The FYM is mixed with soil 1
month before sowing. Trichoderma inoculation is recommended and for
that culture of Trichoderma viride @ 5 kg/ha with FYM is applied to
soil before sowing (this mixture is kept under partial shade for 4–5 days
before application). In addition to the above, a fertilizer mix containing
N, P2O5, and K2O at the rate of 0, 60, and 40 kg/ha, respectively, is
broadcasted and incorporated into the soil before sowing. Sometimes
top dressing of N at 10 kg/ha is done at preflowering stage for better
fodder yield.
Usually, one light irrigation is given just before sowing or just after
seedling emergence. Later, apply two to three more irrigations at 15-day
intervals during the dry season. The crop may be irrigated depending upon
weather, soil, and field conditions. The last irrigation should be stopped
about 45–50 days after sowing. Generally, no irrigation is needed during
the rainy season except when drought occurs.
Weed control options are limited in mung bean and the most effective
practice is to select a field with lower weed pressure. Weed control can
be obtained either by manual weeding or by using herbicides, although
herbicide application is not advocated.
The important pests of mung bean and their control measures are described
here.
Bihar hairy caterpillar (Spodoptera litura): The small larvae are black
whereas grown up larvae are dark green with black triangular spots on
body. Its moth lays eggs in masses covered with brown hairs on the lower
side of leaves. After hatching, first and second instar larvae feed gregari-
ously and skeletonize the foliage. Besides leaves, they also damage floral
buds, flowers, and pods.
Control: (1) Collect egg masses and young larvae with leaves and
destroy them. (2) Spray with neem (commercial neem formulations or neem
oil or neem seed kernel extract), Bacillus thuringiensis formulations and/or
Spodoptera litura nuclear polyhedrosis virus, Novaluron 10 EC @ 1.5 mL/L
or Acephate 75 SP @ 8 g/L or chlorpyrifos 20 EC @ 15 mL/L of water.
Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci): Whitefly is a vector of number of viral
diseases especially mungbean yellow mosaic virus. The adults are tiny and
very delicate and have white or smoke colored wings with which they flitter
away from plants on little disturbance. Insects stick to the lower surface of
leaves. The leaves of infested plants show yellowish discoloration.
Control: (1) Spray the crop with Neem oil at 20 mL/L or with Meta-
systox (oxydemeton methyl) 25 EC @ 3 mL/L of water to control white-
flies. (2) Use yellow sticky traps against whiteflies.
14.19.2 DISEASES
The important diseases affecting this crop and control measures are
described below.
Seed and seedling rot: A number of fungi such as Fusarium sp., Macro-
phomina phaseolina, and Rhizoctonia solani, cause seed and seedling rot.
This results in poor germination. It is a serious disease and sometimes
resowing of the crop has to be done if it is not controlled well on time.
Control: (1) Treat the seeds with Thiram or captan @ 3 g/kg of seed,
(2) sow fresh and clean seeds obtained from a healthy crop, and (3) adopt
crop rotation.
Yellow mosaic: This disease is caused by virus, starting as small yellow
specks along the veinlets and spreading over the lamina; the pods become
thin and curl upward. The disease is transmitted by whitefly (Bemisia tabaci).
Control: (1) Spray the crop with Neem oil at 20 mL/L or with
Metasystox (oxydemeton methyl) 25 EC @ 3 mL/L of water to control
whiteflies. (2) Grow disease resistant varieties. (3) Use yellow sticky traps
against whiteflies.
Cercospora leaf spot: Cercospora is recognized by the appearance of
leaf spots that are circular to irregularly shape with grayish white centers
and reddish brown to dark brown margins.
Control: (1) Spray Dithane Z-78 or Dithane M-45 @ 3.2 g/L of water.
(2) Remove the plant debris from the field. (3) Remove all the infected
plants and burn them. (4) Do not sow the seeds in the field which was
affected last year by this disease.
Powdery mildew (Erysiphe sp./Podospora sp.): It occurs under cool
temperature (20–26°C) and is favored by cloudy weather. A white–gray
powdery mildew appears first in circular patches, but later spreads over the
surface of the leaves, stems, and pods.
Control: (1) Spray neem seed kernel extract at 50 g/L or Neem oil at 20
mL/L twice at 10 days interval from initial disease appearance. (2) Spray
Eucalyptus leaf extract 10% at initiation of the disease and 10 days later.
(3) Spray carbendazim @ 1 g/L or wettable sulfur @ 2.5 g/L of water.
14.20 HARVESTING
The plants are cut 10 cm above ground level. The crop may be cut at three
occasions: at 40, 50, and 60 days after sowing. The suitable time for green
forage harvesting is small pod development stage. Vigna radiata stalks,
leaves, and husks constitute a significant proportion of livestock feed. It
can be used for forage, silage, hay, and chicken feed.
Since mung beans are relatively high priced seeds (about twice the
cost of other pulses), it is not cost effective to feed good quality seed
to livestock. However, splits, cracked seed, and other material left after
cleaning are often fed to cattle, substituting for part of the soybean ration.
Mung bean plants have occasionally been used for beef cattle forage. In
Afghanistan, the straw of mung bean and black gram is valued as a fodder
for cattle and small stock, although ranking below lucerne and clover hay.
In some locations, as in the Helmand valley, Persian clover (Dari: shaftal)
is sometimes undersown in the mung bean crop to grow on after the mung
has been harvested.
The mung bean can be grazed 6 weeks after planting and two grazings
are usually obtained (FAO, 2012). It can be used to make hay, when it is
cut as it begins to flower and then quickly dried for storage. It is possible
to make hay without compromising seed harvest.
Mung bean seed yields are about 0.4 t/ha but yields as high as 2.5 t/
ha can be reached with selected varieties in Asia (AVRDC, 2012). Mung
beans can be sown alone or intercropped with other crops, such as other
legumes, sugarcane, maize, sorghum, fodder grasses, or trees (Göhl,
1982). Intercropping can be done on a temporal basis: modern varieties
ripen within 60–75 days and there is enough time to harvest another crop
during the growing season. For instance, in monsoonal areas, it is possible
to sow mung bean and harvest it before the monsoon season when rice is
planted. It is also possible to grow mung bean on residual moisture after
harvesting the rice (Mogotsi, 2006). Forage yields range from 0.64 t/ha
of green matter under unfertilized conditions to about 1.8 t/ha with the
addition of fertilizer (FAO, 2012).
14.21 YIELD
Usually mung bean gives 25–35 t/ha green fodder.
The good quality mung bean should be with 98% genetic purity and
70% germination. In mung bean, seed inert material is restricted to 2%
only. Besides, 1 kg good quality seed of mung bean should not contain
more than 10 numbers of other crop seed and 10 numbers of weed seeds.
General agronomic managements should be adopted for seed production
of mung bean as already has been stated earlier. However, some steps are
to be followed to get proper quality seeds.
The parent material, that is, nucleus/breeder’s/foundation seed should
be collected from the authentic source as approved by the Seed Certi-
fying Agency. It is normally self-pollinated crop and cross pollination by
insects is less than 1%. But an isolation distance of 3 m from other mung
bean field is sufficient to maintain genetic purity. Proper plant protec-
tion measures should be adopted to avoid yellow mosaic disease. From
2 to 3 weeks after sowing rouging of mosaic affected plants should be
done and it will be continued until harvest. At flowering stage, offtype
plants should be removed on the basis of plant characteristics and flower
color. Final roughing should also be done at maturity on the basis of pod
characteristics.
The seed crop of mung bean should be harvested only on maturity and
premature harvesting must be avoidable. After that standard postharvest
to avoid mixing among other varieties of mung bean or other crop seeds.
The seeds obtained should be sun dried and moisture content should be
12%. The seeds may be stored in gunny bags and kept on wooden racks in
a well ventilated and dry store.
Mung bean as a forage is rich in protein content, being about 16–18% on

the dry matter basis (El-Karmany et al., 2005; Chumpawadee et al., 2007;
Abd El-Salam et al., 2008; Abd El-Salam and El-Habbasha, 2008). Mung
bean, like other legume fodders, is highly palatable legume attracted by

the livestock and even more nutritious in nature (Boe et al., 1991; Hediat-
Ullah et al., 2012).
Generally forage quality of the second cut is low, possessed lower
content of crude protein (CP), ash, and Total digestable nitrogen. This may
due to that the first cut possessed greater assimilates especially in the pods
than the second cut. Green fodder contained, on an average, 10–15% CP,
20–26% crude fiber, 2–2.5% ether extract.
14.24 TOXICITIES (ANTINUTRITIONAL FACTORS)
Many raw legumes (especially tropical varieties) and other high-protein

grains contain antinutritional factors; toxic compounds such as protease
inhibitors, alkaloids, and tannins, which reduce intake or the animal’s
ability to digest feed, reducing growth and production. These antinutri-
tional factors have major effects on monogastrics (pigs, poultry), but have
less effect on ruminants as microbial fermentation in the rumen can break
down some toxic compounds such as the protease inhibitors. Tannins,
trypsin inhibitors content of mung bean grains is low; thus can be fed in
balanced diets without a problem.
14.25 UTILIZATION
Mung bean is mostly used as a cut fodder or grazed pasture. Fodder may
be fed directly to livestock or used after conservation as fermented green
matter (silage and haylage) or dried for products like hay, pellets, or cube
concentrates. The husk of the seed can be soaked in water and used as a
cattle feed (Khatik et al., 2007).
Several mung bean products are useful for livestock feeding (Vaidya,
2001) Mung beans, raw or processed, as well as split or weathered seeds.
By-products of mung bean processing: mung bean bran (called chuni
in India), which is the by-product of dehulling for making dhal, and the
by-product of the manufacture of mung bean vermicelli. Mung bean is
sometimes grown for fodder as hay, straw, or silage (Mogotsi, 2006). It
is particularly valued as an early forage as it outcompetes other summer
growing legumes such as cowpea or velvet bean in their early stages
(Lambrides and Godwin, 2006).
FIGURE 14.1 (See color insert.) Green gram.
KEYWORDS
•• green gram
•• yield
•• toxicities
•• utilization
REFERENCES
AVRDC. Mung Bean, Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center—The World
Vegetation Center: Shanhua, Taiwan, 2012.
Abd El-Salam, M. S.; El-Habbasha, S. F. Evaluation of Maize–Mung Bean Intercropping
Systems at Different Sowing Dates for Forage Production. Egypt J. Agron. 2008, 30 (2),
279–294.
Abd El-Salam, M. S.; Ashour, N. I.; Abd El-Ghany, H. M. Forage Production in Sole and
Mixed Stands of Fodder Maize (Zea mays L.) and Mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek).
Bull. NRC Egypt 2008, 33 (1), 27–34.
Abd El-Salam, M. S.; El-Metwally, I. M.; Abd El-Ghany, H. M.; Hozayn, M. Potentiality
of Using Mungbean as a Summer Legume Forage Crop Under Egyptian Condition. J.
Appl. Sci. Res. 2013, 9 (2), 1238–1243.
Boe, A.; Twidwell, E. K.; Kephart, K. D. Growth and Forage Yield of Cowpea and
Mungbean in the Northern Great Plains. Can. J. Plant Sci. 1991, 71 (7), 709–715.
Chumpawadee, S.; Chantiratikul, A.; Chantiratikul, P. Chemical Compositions and
Nutritional Evaluation of Energy Feeds for Ruminant Using In Vitro Gas Production
Technique. Pak. J. Nutr. 2007, 6 (6), 607–612.
EL-Karamany, M. F.; Tawfic, M. M.; Amany, A.; Abdel-Aziz, M. A. Double Purpose
(Forage and Seed) of Mung Bean Production 2—Response of Two Mung Bean Varieties
to Replacement Part of Chemical Fertilizers by Organic Fertilizers. Egypt J. Agric. Res.
2005, 2 (1), 257–268.
Rome, Italy, 2012.
Göhl, B. Les Aliments du Bétail Sous Les Tropiques, FAO, Division de Production et Santé
Animale: Roma, Italy, 1982.
Hediat-Ullah, H., Khalil, I. H., Lightfoot, D. A., Nayab D., Imdadullah. Selecting
Mungbean Genotypes for Fodder Production on the Basis of Degree of Indeterminacy
and Biomass. Pak. J. Bot. 1982, 44 (2), 697–703.
Khatik, K. L.; Vaishnava, C. S.; Gupta, L. Nutritional Evaluation of Green Gram (Vigna
radiata L.) Straw in Sheep and Goats. Indian J. Small Rumin. 2007, 13 (2), 196–198.
Lambrides, C. J.; Godwin, I. D. Mungbean. In Genome Mapping and Molecular Breeding
in Plants; Kole, C., Ed.; 2006; Vol. 3, pp 69–90.
Mogotsi, K. K. Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek. In PROTA 1: Cereals and Pulses/Céréales et
Légumes Secs. [CD-Rom]; Brink, M., Belay, G., Eds.; PROTA: Wageningen, Netherlands,
2006.
Vaidya, S. V. The Indian Feed Industry; AGRIPPA, FAO: Rome, 2001.
CHAPTER 15
URD BEAN (BLACK GRAM)

KAJAL SENGUPTA* and MD. HEDAYETULLAH
*
ABSTRACT
Urd bean is an important annual leafy legume crop grown widely in South-
east Asia. It is a short duration (60–90 days) crop that can be grown twice
a year, that is, in spring and autumn. In India, urd bean is mainly cultivated
as pulse crop in three different seasons, namely, summer, rainy (kharif),
and winter (rabi); however, this can be used as fodder particularly during
the lean period. It is consumed as whole grains, sprouted form, as well
as dhal in a variety of ways in homes. It is also used as a green manuring
crop. Urd bean can be used as a feed for cattle; even husk of the seed can
be soaked in water and used as cattle feed. The black gram fodder contains,
on an average, 10–15% crude protein, 20–26% crude fiber, 2–2.5% ether
extract, 40–49% nitrogen-free extract, and 11–15% ash on dry matter
basis. Fodder value of second cut is generally low.
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Order: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Genus: Vigna
Species: mungo
Binomial name: Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper
Synonyms: Azukia mungo (L.) Masam.; Phaseolus hernandezii Savi;
Phaseolus mungo L.; Phaseolus roxburghii Wight & Arn.
15.2 BOTANICAL NAME
Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper.
15.3 COMMON NAME
Black gram and urd bean. It is known as urd in Hindi, Oriya, Bengali,
Punjabi, and Urdu language. Black gram is also known as kalai or urad in
Hindi language.
15.4 INTRODUCTION
Vigna mungo is known by various names across South and Southeast

Asia. Its name in most languages of India derives from Proto-Dravidian
uẓ-untu, borrowed into Sanskrit as uḍida (Krishnamurti, 2003). Urd bean
is a common pulse crop; however, this can be used as fodder particularly
during the lean period. Being a legume fodder it has special significance
because of high herbage protein and partial independence for their nitrogen
needs. Urd bean, also known as urad, kalai, and black gram, is the seed
of Vigna mungo which is native to India. The split bean is known as urad
dal, which is black with the husk, and white when dehusked. The beans are
small, ovoid in shape, and black in color. The English word “urd” derives
from the Hindi urad.
Urd bean is an important annual leafy legume crop grown widely in
Southeast Asia. It is a short duration (60–90 days) crop that can be grown
twice a year, that is, in spring and autumn. It has less water requirement
as compared to other summer crops. Moreover, it is drought tolerant that
can withstand adverse environmental conditions and hence successfully
be grown in rainfed areas. It has the potential to enrich soil through atmo-
spheric nitrogen fixation; it fixes atmospheric nitrogen at 50–100 kg per
Urd Bean (Black Gram) 157
hectare annually. Although urd bean is grown mostly for grain production,
it can be used as a double-purpose (forage and seed) crop. Although urd
bean is grown mostly for seeds production, it can be used as a dual-purpose
crop (early season forage production followed by seed production). Black
gram can be used as green manure, cover crop, and as a fodder in cut-
and-carry system; and as a concentrate feed. It can be incorporated into
cereal cropping systems as a legume ley to address soil fertility decline
and is used as an intercrop species with maize to provide better legume/
grass feed quality. Urd bean can be used as green forage for livestock and
may give farmers a chance to improve the quantity and quality of forage
available for clipping or grazing.
The promising multi-cutting urd bean varieties with the high nutritive
value could effectively be employed to narrow the summer green forage
gape and overcome the critical forage shortage period.
The urd bean is thought to have originated from the Indian subcontinent
which is widely distributed in Asia and Africa. The crop is produced on
a large scale in Southern and Eastern Asia. China, Australia, the United
States, and other countries have started growing the crop.
Cultivated urd beans were introduced to southern and eastern Asia,
Africa, Austronesia, the Americas, and the West Indies. It is now wide-
spread throughout the tropics and is found from sea level up to an altitude
of 1850 m in the Himalayas.
Urd bean production is mainly (90%) situated in Asia: India is the
largest producer with more than 50% of world production but consumes
almost its entire production. China produces large amounts of urd beans,
which represents 19% of its legume production. Thailand is the main
exporter and its production increased by 22% per year between 1980
and 2000.
15.6 PRODUCTION AREA
Black gram is widely grown in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar,

Thailand, Philippines, China, and Indonesia. Its cultivation has now spread
to Australia, Africa, and America. About 70% of world’s black gram
production comes from India. The Indian states producing this pulse are
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Andhra Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Karnataka, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu.
Urd bean plant is an erect or suberect, deep rooted, and hairy annual herb.
The growth habit includes both upright and vine types. Leaves are alter-
nate and trifoliate. Inflorescence is an axillary or terminal raceme with
a cluster of 10–20 papilionaceous flowers. Flowers are pale yellow in
color, borne in clusters of 10–20 near the top of the plant. Pods are long,
thin, and cylindrical, slightly bulged over the seeds, and the color varies
from black and brown to pale gray when matured. They are 7–10-cm
long, each having 8–15 seeds. They develop in clusters at a leaf axil,
with typically 20–40 pods per plant. Seeds color exhibits a wide range
of variations at maturity from blackish to dull black, brown, and black
mottled with black.
Wild types tend to be prostrate while cultivated types are more erect.
The stems are multibranched, sometimes twining at the tips. The leaves
are alternate, trifoliolate with elliptical to ovate leaflets, 5–18-cm long ×
3–15-cm broad. The flowers (4–30) are papilionaceous, pale yellow, or
blackish in color. The pods are long, cylindrical, hairy, and pending. They
contain 7–20 small, ellipsoid, or cube-shaped seeds. The seeds are variable
in color: they are usually black colored seeds and presence or absence of a
rough layer is used to distinguish different types of urd bean.
Urd bean is a warm season crop, requiring 60–90 days of frost-free

conditions from sowing to maturity, depending on variety. The optimum
temperature range for growth is between 27°C and 30°C. Seed can be
sown when the minimum temperature is above 15°C. Crop plants are
susceptible to water logging. So, proper drainage system is to be provided
for better growth and development of the crop.
In India and Bangladesh, the crop is grown during two seasons. One is
the rabi (winter) season (starting November), and the other is the summer
or rainy (kharif) season (starting March). Black gram is tropical (or
subtropical) crop, and requires warm temperatures (optimal at 30–35°C).

High humidity and excess rainfall late in the season can result in disease
problems and harvesting losses owing to delayed maturity.
The urd bean is a fast-growing, warm season legume. It reaches matu-
rity very quickly under tropical and subtropical conditions where optimal
temperatures are about 28–30°C and always above 15°C. It can be sown
during summer and autumn. It does not require large amounts of water
(600–1000 mm rainfall/year) and is tolerant of drought. It is sensitive to
water logging. High moisture at maturity tends to spoil the seeds that may
sprout before being harvested.
The urd bean grows on a wide range of soils such as red laterite soils,
black cotton soils, and sandy soils but prefers well-drained loams or
sandy loams, with a pH ranging from 5 to 8. It is somewhat tolerant to
saline soils.
A well-drained loamy to sandy loam soil is best for its cultivation.
This crop prefers loamy and alluvial soil for its growth. It prefers neutral
soil. Loamy soil is best for black gram cultivation. Urd beans do well on
fertile, sandy loam soils with good internal drainage and a pH of between
6.5 and 7.5. The crop does not grow well on saline and alkaline soil or
waterlogged soils.
Urd bean requires proper drainage and ample aeration in the field so
that activities of the nitrogen fixing bacteria are not hampered at any stage
of plant growth. Crop plants are susceptible to water logging. So, proper
drainage system is to be provided for better growth and development of
the crop.
15.10 VARIETIES
Some important varieties of urd bean grown in India are Pant U 19, T-9,
Azad Urd 1, PDU-1, KU-300, Kalindi, Naveen, Pusa-1, TAU-1, BDU-1,
Pant U-35, TPU-4, Krishna, Pant U 30, Uttara, LBG-20, WBG-26,
WBU-109, WBU-108, Mash-479, PU-40, Sekhar-1, Sekhar-2, Sekhar-3,
LBG-752, Mash-114, Vamban-2, etc.
Some popular varieties of southern India are CO-1, CO-2, CO-3,

ADT-2, ADT-3, ADT-4, ADT-5, TMV-1, VBN-1, VBN-2, VBN-3 (for rice
fallows), VBN-4, KM-1, KM-2, etc.
15.11 SOWING TIME
For the summer or spring crop, urd bean should be sown after the harvest
of last crop (potato, sugarcane, mustard, cotton, etc.). The first fortnight
of March is most suitable for summer cultivation. In India, kharif urd
bean generally sown during the last week of June to mid- or first week
of July.
Well dried seed may be treated with captan or Thiram @ 3 g/kg seed
against any seed borne fungal disease. Rhizobium inoculation is highly
recommended in fields where urd bean cultivation is taken up for the
first time.
The seed rate of black gram is almost double for fodder production than
grain seed production. Seeds which are healthy, undamaged, and free
from insect-pests and fungi should be selected. The seed rate varies with
seed size and season. In the case of bold seed types a seed rate of 40 kg/
ha is appropriate in spring and autumn, and 30 kg/ha in summer. It is
advised to establish a plant population of 25–30 plants/m2 for obtaining
good seed yield.
15.14 SPACING
For fodder production, broadcasting is generally done but line sowing is

adventitious. Line sowing is more advantageous as it requires less seeds,
produces a more even crop that is easier to manage, and will have higher
yield potential. The space between the lines is kept at 25–30 cm and 10 cm
between the plants. Broadcasting of seed, although an established practice,

makes weeding, crop management and harvest much more labor intensive
and significantly reduced crop productivity and economic return.
Some important crop rotations with urd bean are:

Main rotation patterns:
Hybrid pearl millet–cluster bean–urd bean–rapeseed–mustard
Hybrid pearl millet–urd bean–sunflower/safflower
Urd bean–fallow–wheat/barley
Urd bean (summer)–rice–wheat
Urd bean–rice–mustard
Urd bean–maize
Urd bean–maize + urd bean–wheat
Urd bean–maize (early)–potato (early)–wheat
Promising intercropping systems that include legumes in India:

Maize + urd bean (1:1)
Jute + urd bean (1:1)
Pearl millet + urd bean (1:1)
Cotton + urd bean (1:1)
Sugarcane + urd bean (1:2)
Sorghum + urd bean (1:1)
The important rotations with black gram in North India (Ahlawat et al.,
2000) are as given below:
Maize–wheat–urd bean
Maize–toria–urd bean
Paddy–wheat–urd bean
Black gram–wheat–urd bean
Maize–potato–urd bean
Urd beans are commonly grown along with sorghum for dual purposes,
that is, fodders and gains.
The application of well decomposed 10 t of farmyard manure (FYM)

provides the desired quality to the soil. The FYM is mixed with soil 1
month before sowing. Trichoderma inoculation is recommended and for
that culture of Trichoderma viride @ 5 kg/ha with FYM is applied to soil
before sowing (this mixture is kept under partial shade for 4–5 days before
application). In addition to the above, a fertilizer mix containing N, P2O5,
and K2O at the rate of 0, 60, and 40 kg/ha, respectively is broadcasted and
incorporated into the soil before sowing. Sometimes top dressing of N at
10 kg/ha is done at preflowering stage for better fodder yield.
Usually one light irrigation is given just before sowing or just after
seedling emergence. Later, apply two to three more irrigations at 15-day
intervals during the dry season. The crop may be irrigated depending upon
weather, soil, and field conditions. The last irrigation should be stopped
about 45–50 days after sowing. Generally, no irrigation is needed during
the rainy season except when drought occurs.
Weed control options are limited in urd bean and the most effective
practice is to select a field with lower weed pressure. Weed control can
be obtained either by manual weeding or by using herbicides, although
herbicide application is not advocated.
The important pests of urd bean and their control measures are described
here.
Bihar hairy caterpillar (Spodoptera litura): The small larvae are black
whereas grown up larvae are dark black with black triangular spots on
body. Its moth lays eggs in masses covered with brown hairs on the lower
side of leaves. After hatching, first and second instar larvae feed gregari-
ously and skeletonize the foliage. Besides leaves, they also damage floral
buds, flowers, and pods.
Control: (1) Collect egg masses and young larvae with leaves and
destroy them. (2) Spray with neem (commercial neem formulations or
Neem oil or neem seed kernel extract), Bacillus thuringiensis formulations
and/or Spodoptera litura nuclear polyhedrosis virus, novaluron 10 EC @
1.5 mL/L or Acephate 75 SP @ 8 g/L or chlorpyrifos 20 EC @ 15 mL/L
of water.
Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci): Whitefly is a vector of number of viral
diseases especially urd bean yellow mosaic virus. The adults are tiny and
very delicate and have white or smoke colored wings with which they flitter
away from plants on little disturbance. Insects stick to the lower surface of
leaves. The leaves of infested plants show yellowish discoloration.
Control: (1) Spray the crop with Neem oil at 20 mL/L or with Meta-
flies. (2) Use yellow sticky traps against whiteflies.
15.19.2 DISEASES
The important diseases affecting this crop and control measures are
described below.
Seed and seedling rot: A number of fungi such as Fusarium sp., Macro-
phomina phaseolina, Rhizoctonia solani, cause seed and seedling rot. This
results in poor germination. It is a serious disease and sometimes resowing
of the crop has to be done if it is not controlled well on time.
Control: (1) Treat the seeds with Thiram or captan @ 3 g/kg of seed,
(2) sow fresh and clean seeds obtained from a healthy crop, and (3) adopt
crop rotation.
Yellow mosaic: This disease is caused by virus, starting as small
yellow specks along the veinlets and spreading over the lamina; the pods
become thin and curl upward. The disease is transmitted by whitefly
(Bemisia tabaci).
Control: (1) Spray the crop with neem oil at 20 mL/L or with Meta-
flies. (2) Grow disease resistant varieties. (3) Use yellow sticky traps
against whiteflies.
Cercospora leaf spot: Cercospora is recognized by the appearance of

leaf spots that are circular to irregularly shaped with grayish white centers
and reddish brown to dark brown margins.
Control: (1) Spray Dithane Z-78 or Dithane M-45 @ 3.2 g/L of water.
(2) Remove the plant debris from the field. (3) Remove all the infected
plants and burn them. (4) Do not sow the seeds in the field which was
affected last year by this disease.
Powdery mildew (Erysiphe sp./Podospora sp.): It occurs under cool
temperature (20–26°C) and is favored by cloudy weather. A white–gray
powdery mildew appears first in circular patches, but later spreads over the
surface of the leaves, stems, and pods.
Control: (1) Spray neem seed kernel extract at 50g/L or Neem oil at 20
mL/L twice at 10-days interval from initial disease appearance. (2) Spray
Eucalyptus leaf extract 10% at initiation of the disease and 10 days later.
(3) Spray carbendazim @ 1 g/L or wettable sulfur @ 2.5 g/L of water.
15.20 HARVESTING
The plants are cut 10 cm above ground level. The crop may be cut at three
occasions: at 40, 50, and 60 days after sowing. The suitable time for black
forage harvesting is small pod development stage. Vigna mungo stalks,
leaves, and husks constitute a significant proportion of livestock feed. It
can be used for forage, silage, hay, and chicken feed.
Since urd beans are a relatively high priced seeds (about twice the cost
of other pulses), it is not cost effective to feed good quality seed to live-
stock. However, splits, cracked seed, and other material left after cleaning
are often fed to cattle, substituting for part of the soybean ration. Urd bean
plants have occasionally been used for beef cattle forage. In Afghanistan,
the straw of urd bean and green gram is valued as a fodder for cattle and
small stock, although ranking below lucerne and clover hay.
Urd beans can be sown alone or intercropped with other crops, such
as other legumes, sugarcane, maize, sorghum, fodder grasses, or trees.
Intercropping can be done on a temporal basis: modern varieties ripen
within 60–75 days and there is enough time to harvest another crop during
the growing season. For instance, in monsoonal areas, it is possible to sow
urd bean and harvest it before the monsoon season when rice is planted.
It is also possible to grow urd bean on residual moisture after harvesting
the rice.
15.21 YIELD
Usually urd bean gives 25–35 t/ha green fodder.
The good quality urd bean should be with 98% genetic purity and 70%
germination. In urd bean, seed inert material is restricted to 2% only.
Besides, 1 kg good quality seed of urd bean should not contain more than
10 numbers of other crop seed and 10 numbers of weed seeds. General
agronomic managements should be adopted for seed production of urd
bean as already has been stated earlier. However, some steps are to be
followed to get proper quality seeds.
The parent material, that is, nucleus/breeder’s/foundation seed should
be collected from the authentic source as approved by the Seed Certifying
Agency. It is normally self-pollinated crop and cross pollination by insects
is less than 1%. But an isolation distance of 3 m from other urd bean field
is sufficient to maintain genetic purity. Proper plant protection measures
should be adopted to avoid yellow mosaic disease. From 2 to 3 weeks
after sowing rouging of mosaic affected plants should be done and it
will be continued until harvest. At flowering stage, offtype plants should
be removed on the basis of plant characteristics and flower color. Final
roughing should also be done at maturity on the basis of pod characteristics.
The seed crop of urd bean should be harvested only on maturity and
premature harvesting must be avoidable. After that standard postharvest
to avoid mixing among other varieties of urd bean or other crop seeds. The
seeds obtained should be sun dried and moisture content should be 12%.
The seeds may be stored in gunny bags and kept on wooden racks in a well
ventilated and dry store.
Urd bean as a forage is rich in protein content, being about 16–18% on

the dry matter basis. Urd bean, like other legume fodders is highly palat-
able legume attracted by the livestock and even more nutritious in nature.
Generally, forage quality of the second cut is low, possessed lower content
of crude protein (CP), ash, and TDN. This may due to that the first cut
possessed greater assimilates especially in the pods than the second cut.
Black fodder contained, on an average, 10–15% CP, 20–26 % crude fiber,
and 2–2.5% ether extract. Black gram complements the essential amino
acids provided in most cereals and plays an important role in the diets of
the people of Nepal and India. Black gram has been shown to be useful in
mitigating elevated cholesterol levels (Menon and Kurup, 1976).
15.24 TOXICITIES (ANTINUTRITIONAL FACTORS)
Many raw legumes (especially tropical varieties) and other high protein
grains contain antinutritional factors; toxic compounds such as protease
inhibitors, alkaloids, and tannins, which reduce intake or the animal’s
ability to digest feed, reducing growth, and production. These antinutri-
tional factors have major effects on monogastrics (pigs and poultry), but
have less effect on ruminants as microbial fermentation in the rumen can
break down some toxic compounds such as the protease inhibitors. Tannins,
trypsin inhibitors content of urd bean grains is low, thus can be fed in
balanced diets without a problem. Antinutritional factors such as phenolic
compounds, tannins, saponins, phytic acid, trypsin inhibitors, and enzymes
related to them such as acid- and alkaline phosphatases, α-galactosidase are
found in some cultivars of black gram (Suneja et al., 2011).
15.25 UTILIZATION
Urd bean is mostly used as cut fodder or grazed pasture. Fodder may be
fed directly to livestock or used after conservation as fermented green
matter (silage and haylage) or dried for products such as hay, pellets, or
cube concentrates. The husk of the seed can be soaked in water and used
as a cattle feed.
In South India, the husked dal ground into a fine paste and allowed to
ferment and mixed with equal quantity of rice flour to make dosa and idli.
Urd dal is also used in preparation of halva and imarti. It is also used as a
green manuring crop (Ahlawat et al., 2000). Urd bean is sometimes grown
for fodder as hay, straw, or silage. It is particularly valued as an early
forage as it outcompetes other summer growing legumes such as cowpea
or velvet bean in their early stages.
FIGURE 15.1 (See color insert.) Black gram.
KEYWORDS
•• black gram
•• yield
•• toxicities
•• utilization
REFERENCES
Ahlawat, I. P. S.; Prakash, O.; Saini, G. S. Scientific Crop Production in India; Aman
Publishing House: Meerut, 2000.
Krishnamurti, B. The Dravidian Languages; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge,

2003; p 16. ISBN 978-0-521-02512-6.
Menon, P. V.; Kurup, P. A. Dietary Fibre and Cholesterol Metabolism: Effect of Fibre Rich
Polysaccharide from Blackgram (Phaseolus mungo) on Cholesterol Metabolism in Rats
Fed Normal and Atherogenic Diet. Biomedicine 1976, 24 (4), 248–253.
Suneja, Y.; Kaur, N.; Kaur, S.; Gupta, A. K.; Kaur, N. Levels of Nutritional Constituents
and Antinutritional Factors in Black Gram (Vigna mungo L. Hepper). Food Res. Int.
2011, 44 (2), 621–628.
PART III
Nonleguminous and
Nongraminaceous Forages
CHAPTER 16
SUNFLOWER (SUJYOMUKHI)
A. ZAMAN1* and PARVEEN ZAMAN2
1
Department of Agronomy, M. S. Swaminathan School of
Agriculture, Centurion University of Technology and Management,
Paralakhemundi 761211, Odisha, India
2
Sub-station, Beldanga 742133, Murshidabad, West Bengal, India
*
ABSTRACT
Sunflower is used as bird food, as livestock forage, and in some industrial

applications. The plant was first domesticated in the America. Helianthus
annuus (wild) is a widely branched annual plant with many flower heads.
The domestic sunflower, however, often possesses only a single large
inflorescence (flower head) atop an unbranched stem. The name sunflower
may have been derived from the shape of flower head, which resembles
the sun, or from the impression that the blooming plant appears to slowly
turn its flower toward the sun as the latter moves across the sky on a
daily basis. Sunflowers can be processed into a peanut butter alternative,
sunflower butter. It is also sold as food for birds and can be used directly
in cooking and salads. American Indians had multiple uses for sunflowers
in the past such as in bread, medical ointments, dyes, and body paints.
Sunflower is a fast-growing crop with high forage yield capacity. In Cuba,
fresh matter yields are 450–750 q/ha in 60–70 days in dry conditions, and
up to 900 q/ha in Brazil. The local cultivar gave highest seed production
up to 15 q/ha.
Kingdom: Plantae
Orders: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Subfamily: Asteroideae
Genus: Helianthus
Species: annuus L.
Binomial name: Helianthus annuus L.
16.2 BOTANICAL NAME
Helianthus annuus L.; synonyms—Harpalium (Cass.).
16.3 COMMON NAME
Sunflower, sujyomukhi, flower crop.
16.4 INTRODUCTION
Helianthus annuus L., commonly known as sunflower, is large number of

the genus Helianthus grown as an oilseed crop for its edible oil and edible
fruits. This sunflower species is also used as bird food, as livestock forage,
and in some industrial applications. The plant was first domesticated in the
America. H. annuus (wilds) is a widely branched annual plant with many
flower heads. The domestic sunflower, however, often possesses only a
single large inflorescence (flower head) atop an unbranched stem. The name
sunflower may have been derived from the shape of flower head, which
resembles the sun, or from the impression that the blooming plant appears
to slowly turn its flower toward the sun as the latter moves across the sky on
a daily basis. Sunflowers can be processed into a peanut butter alternative,
sunflower butter. In Germany, it is mixed with rye flour to make Sonnen
(literally: sunflower whole seed bread), which is quite popular in German-
speaking Europe. It is also sold as food for birds and can be used directly in
cooking and salads. American Indians had multiple uses for sunflowers in
the past such as in bread, medical ointments, dyes, and body paints.
Sunflower (Sujyomukhi) 173
16.5 DESCRIPTION
The plant has an erect, rough, and hairy stem, reaching typical average
height of 3 m (9.8 ft). The tallest sunflower recorded is 9.17 m (Annon,
2016). Sunflower leaves are broad, coarsely toothed, rough, and mostly
alternate. What is often called the “flower” of the sunflower is actually a
“flower head” or pseudanthium of numerous small individual five-petaled
flowers (“florets”). The outer flowers, which resemble petals, are called
ray flower. Each “petal” consists of a ligule composed of fused petals of
an asymmetrical ray flower. They are sexually sterile and may be yellow,
red, orange, or other colors. The flowers in the center of the head are called
disk flowers. These mature into fruit (sunflower “seeds”). The disk flowers
are arranged spirally. Generally, each floret is oriented toward the next by
approximately the golden angle, 137.5°, producing a pattern of intercon-
necting spirals, where the number of left spirals and the number of right
spirals are successive Fibonacci numbers. Typically, there are 34 spirals
in one direction and 55 in the other; however, in a very large sunflower
head there could be 89 in one direction and 164 in the other (Adam, 2003).
This pattern produces the most efficient packing of seeds mathematically
possible within the flower head (Motloch, 2000).
Most cultivars of sunflower are variants of H. annuus, but four other
species (all perennials) are also domesticated. This includes Helianthus
tuberosus which produces edible tubers.
Sunflower seeds were brought to Europe from the Americas in the 16th
century, where, along with sunflower oil, they became a widespread
cooking ingredient. Although it was commonly accepted that the sunflower
was first domesticated in what is now the Southeastern United States,
roughly 5000 years ago, there is evidence that it was first domesticated in
Mexico around 2600 B.C. These crops were found in Tabasco, Mexico at
the San Andres dig site. The earliest known examples in the United States
of a fully domesticated sunflower have been found in Tennessee, and date
to around 2300 B.C. Many Americans used the sunflower as the symbol
of their solar deity, including the races such as Aztecs and the Otomi of
Mexico and the Incas in South America. In 1510, early Spanish explorers
encountered the sunflower in the Americas and carried its seeds back to
Europe.
The use of sunflower oil became very popular in Russia, particularly
with members of the Russian Orthodox Church, because sunflower oil
was one of the few oils that were allowed during Lent, according to some
fasting traditions during the 18th century (Penichet et al., 2008).
The flowers have a wide central disk surrounded by shorter petals in shades
of cream, yellow, rust, and burgundy. Sunflower’s sturdy stems can grow
10 ft or more and may hold single flowers or be multibranched. The seeds
are edible and are favored by birds. They are also used to make oil and as
livestock feed. There is a reason they are called sunflowers. The flower
heads follow the sun. So, give some thought to where you plant your
sunflowers. If you plant them on an east/west axis, you will be looking at
the back of the flower heads for most of the day. Traditionally, sunflowers
were a sunny yellow colored with a darker central disk. However, now
we have a choice of rich chocolate browns, deep burgundies, and luscious
multicolored flowers. Flowers should begin to mature in early fall. The
heads will turn downward and the florets in the center disk will shrivel.
The only sure way to tell if the seeds are ready to harvest is to pull a few
out and open them. If they are full, they are ready. To harvest, cut the
whole flower head with about 1 ft of stem attached and hang in a warm,
dry, ventilated spot, away from insects and rodents. Cover the seed heads
with cheesecloth or a paper bag, to catch loose seeds. Poke some small
holes in the paper bag for ventilation. When the seed is completely dried
and ready for use, it can be easily rubbed off the flower head and collected.
To grow best, sunflowers need full sun. They grow best in fertile, moist,
well-drained soil with heavy mulch. In commercial planting, seeds are
planted 45 cm (1.48 ft) apart and 2.5-cm (0.98 in.) deep. Sunflower “whole
seed” (fruit) are sold as a snack food, raw, or after roasting in ovens, with
or without salt and/or seasonings added.
The sunflower grows wide, shallow roots that rot and fail in standing
water. Do not choose a site that puddles regularly or that tends to mud.
Sunflowers do not like to have their feet wet. Sunflowers grow in poor
to fertile soil as long as the gardener makes the right amendments. Mix
organic compost into the top 8 in. of the soil to start, to provide the
loose foundation, sunflowers require for drainage. Sunflowers grow
best in locations with direct sun (6–8 h per day); they prefer long, hot
summers to flower well. Sunflowers prefer a well-drained location, and
prepare soil by digging an area of about 2–3 ft in circumference to a
depth of about 2 ft. Though they are not too fussy, sunflowers thrive
in slightly acidic to somewhat alkaline pH (6.0–7.5). Sunflowers are
heavy feeders, so the soil needs to be nutrient rich with organic matter
or composted (aged) manure. Or, work in a slow release granular fertil-
izer 8-in. deep into your soil. The field should be selected in which
sunflower was not grown in the previous year unless they were of the
same variety and were of equivalent or higher class and were certified.
In addition, the selected field should be well drained and the soil deep,
fertile, and with neutral pH.
16.10 VARIETIES
Choice of suitable variety is very important for higher yield. Some

sunflower hybrids are suitable for higher green forage production; these
are PAC 36 (late sown condition) >105 days, Jwalamukhi, Sungene-85,
APSH-1, MSFH-8, KBSH-1, KBSH-44, PAC-1091, Pro. Sun.-09, DSH-1,
etc. High-green fodder production sunflower varieties are Morden, DRSF-
108, Surya, SS-56, LS-11, CO-1, CO-2, TNAUSUF-7, etc.
16.11 SOWING TIME
In preparing a bed, dig down 2 ft in depth and about 3 ft across, to ensure

the soil is not too compact as sunflowers have long taproots which need
to stretch out; so, the plants prefer well-dug, loose, well-draining soil.
Sunflower, unlike most other crops is not season bound. Barring the
periods of extreme freezing temperatures, the sowing time can be adjusted
as per availability of land for planting. However, sowing should be so

adjusted that the maturity of the crop does not coincide with the rains,
since rains during maturity period adversely affect the seed quality. It is
best to sow sunflower seeds directly into the soil after the danger of spring
frost is past. Ideally, the soil temperature has reached 55–60°F.
Plants should be allowed plenty of room, especially for low-growing
varieties that will branch out making rows about 30 in. apart. Plant the
large seeds no more than 1-in. deep and about 6 in. apart after it has
thoroughly warmed, from mid-November to late November. Two to three
seeds could be planted and thin them to the strongest contenders when the
plants are 6-in. tall. A light application of fertilizer mixed in at planting
time will encourage strong root growth to protect them from blowing over
in the wind. Experiment with plantings staggered over 5–6 weeks to keep
enjoying continuous blooms.
16.12 SEED TREATMENT
The treated seeds (control, KNO3, and hydropriming) of sunflower

(Helianthus annuus L.) cultivar Sanbro were evaluated at germination
and seedling growth for tolerance to salt (NaCl) and drought conditions
induced by PEG-6000 at the same water potentials of 0.0, −0.3, −0.6, −0.9,
and −1.2 MPa. Electrical conductivity values of the NaCl solutions were
0.0, 6.5, 12.7, 18.4, and 23.5 dS/m, respectively. The factors responsible
for germination and early seedling growth due to salt toxicity or osmotic
effect and to optimize the best hydropriming treatment for these stress
conditions could easily be determined.
The seed rate found to be optimum was 8–10 kg per hectare. The crop
should be sown in rows. The depth of seedling should be 2–4 cm, having
row-to-row 60 cm and plant-to-plant 30-cm distance. There was a significant
interaction between seeding rate and nitrogen rate for sunflower head width,
lodging, and bird damage in this experiment. These interactions indicate
that sunflower seeding rate responds differently across nitrogen rates for
these measurements. However, the interaction between seeding rate and
nitrogen rate was difficult to interpret from a biological perspective. More
data would need to be collected to help further identify if this interaction

is agriculturally meaningful to farmers and sunflower production (Putt,
1997) It does appear that at low N rates and seeding rates, there is less bird
damage, less lodging, and larger head widths. As N rate and seeding rates
increase, the data become less clear and it is difficult to interpret the impact
that these rates have on sunflower growth characteristics.
16.14 INTERCROPPING
Sunflower could be intercropped with wider ranges of winter legumes: in

between rows of sunflower a short duration legume crop may be accom-
modated without any adverse effect on seed yield of sunflower.
Sunflower could easily be sown as mixed crop with several winter crops
particularly crop having same duration during winter months. Some
important sequence cropping and intercropping are given below.
i. Sorghum–sunflower
ii. Maize–sunflower
iii. Soybean–sunflower
iv. Maize–sunflower–groundnut
v. Fallow–sunflower
vi. Sorghum–soybean–sunflower
vii. Sorghum–sunflower–maize + cowpea
viii. Groundnut–sunflower–maize + cowpea
ix. Sorghum + pigeon pea–sunflower
16.16 CROP SEQUENCE
Growing rice, nowadays can only ensure livelihood security where the
resource-poor farmers are operating, if the attitudes of the rice grower
remain unaltered. Sunflower could easily be accommodated during the
post rice period.
Upland: Rice/maize/jowar/bajra/ragi/arhar/niger/mesta/groundnut/
vegetables
Intercropping: Groundnut + sunflower/soybean + sunflower
Medium land (coastal): Rice–sunflower
Lowland (coastal): Jute–Aman paddy–sunflower
16.17 NUTRIENTS MANAGEMENT
Application of farmyard manure @ 10 t/ha, N:P2O5:K2O @ 60:40:40 kg/

ha as urea, single superphosphate, and muriate of potash. Full P2O5 and
K2O along with ½ N was applied as basal and remaining ½ N was top
dressed during earthing up was recommended for the crop. However, the
fertilizer required for raising a good sunflower crop is 80 kg nitrogen, 40
kg phosphorus, and 40 kg potash per hectare. At the time of planting, 50 kg
nitrogen and the full amounts of phosphorus and potash should be applied
as a basal dose and the remaining 30 kg nitrogen at the time of earthing,
that is, after 40–45 days of crop growth.
Soil temperature should be a minimum of 7°C for planting and around
10°C for germination. Soils are often found to be deficient in nitrogen,
phosphorus, and sulfur. Potassium, calcium, and magnesium are also
frequently deficient in high-rainfall areas. Boron may also be required in
some soils. Because the majority of sunflowers in the United States are
grown in the Great Plains, recommendations for plant populations and
fertilization rates are limited to this specific region and climate. Due to
the temperate climate of the northeast, it is likely that optimal seeding
rates and nitrogen (N) rates for sunflower production will differ from the
Great Plains. A crop’s N requirements are often linked to population; this
study attempts to evaluate the impact of both seeding rates and N rates on
sunflower yield and quality.
Sunflower seeds were sown in small furrows made by small country plow
design. Initial soil moisture was 17.56% (gravimetric) in 15-cm topsoil.
A light irrigation (2 cm) with help of thali was given for easy and even
emergence of the crop. So presowing irrigation is necessary in the spring
to summer seasons, and desirable for rabi sowing for uniform germination
and better stand. Sunflower is comparatively drought tolerant and yields

higher than oilseeds crops under moisture stress conditions. In rabi and
zaid planting two and four irrigations, respectively, are necessary for
higher yields. In kharif, if rainfall distribution is favorable, one irrigation
is sufficient, to be applied between the flowering and grain filling stages.
Sunflower, an oilseed crop was very sensitive to irrigation management.
The highest seed yield (52.28 q/ha) was obtained with highest soil mois-
ture regime irrespective of dates of sowing. The wetted moisture regime
created increase in yield by 7.51% over drier moisture regime. The yield
reduction was observed in accordance to deferred dates of sowing. Depth
of irrigation considered to be optimum was 5 cm.
The sunflower plants may root lodge because of large heavy heads.
Earthling, preferably before and, if needed, after irrigation around 48 days
after sowing is highly desirable, 10–15-cm high earth is sufficient. One
to two weeding regimes during the first 6 weeks after germination are
necessary. Thereafter, growth rate is high and the crop covers the ground
and smothers most of the weeds. Chemicals such as trifluralin, 6.25 pints/
ha, may also be applied to control the weeds.
16.20 PLANT PROTECTION (PESTS AND DISEASES)
One of the major threats that sunflowers face today is Fusarium, a fila-
mentous fungi that is found largely in soil and plants. It is a pathogen
that over the years has caused an increasing amount of damage and loss
of sunflower crops, some as extensive as 80% of damaged crops Downy
mildew is another disease to which sunflowers are susceptible. Its suscep-
tibility to downy mildew is particularly high due to the sunflower’s way
of growth and development. Sunflower seeds are generally planted only
an inch deep in the ground. When such shallow planting is done in moist
and soaked earth or soil, it increases the chances of diseases such as downy
mildew. Another major threat to sunflower crops is broomrape, a parasite
that attacks the root of the sunflower and causes extensive damage to
sunflower crops, as high as 100%.
One of the major problematic weeds in the sunflower crop is wild oat,
this can cause severe yield loss and should be treated if the threshold level
is reached. Other potentially damaging problems include birds, rabbits,
deer, mice, flooding, and frost.
Birds and squirrel will show interest in the seeds. If you plan to use
the seeds, deter critters with barrier devices. As seed heads mature and
flowers droop, you can cover each one with white polyspun garden fleece.
If you have deer, keep them at bay with a tall wire barrier. Sunflowers
are relatively insect free. A small gray moth sometimes lays its eggs in
the blossoms. Pick the worms from the plants. Downy mildew, rust, and
powdery mildew can also affect the plants. If fungal diseases are spotted
early, spray with a general garden fungicide.
Sunflower moth: lays its eggs on the plant and the larvae feed on the
flower heads, tunneling and leaving holes in the seed. Aphids and whiteflies
can also be pests of the crop. Fungal diseases: Sclerotina (white mold),
downy mildew, and rust—provide adequate air circulation.
The best control of diseases is prevention, by changing where you plant
each year and disposing of any infected plants. Flowers in the vegetable
garden are great for attracting more pollinators. To further foil squirrels,
plant a coarse leaved vegetable such as squash, at their base.
The main insect problems in sunflower crops include cutworms,
sunflower bud moth, sunflower stem weevil, sunflower root weevil, and
the sunflower midge. Lower temperatures will increase the susceptibility
of seedlings to diseases such as downy mildew.
16.21 HARVESTING
Animals can graze sunflower but waste a lot of forage when they enter
the field. For that reason, ensiling is generally preferable. The best harvest
time for ensiling sunflower is highly variable, depending on climatic
conditions and sunflower genotypes (Toruk et al., 2010). Recommended
stages vary between 25% flowers blooming and the final flowering stage
(Demiirel et al., 2006). Half the flower area filled with immature seeds
can be a signal for harvest. In Nebraska, sunflower intended for silage
can be sown as late as July and be used in double-cropping systems after
the wheat harvest (Anderson, 2010). After the flowering stage has passed,
crude protein level declines and lignin content greatly increases. Once
sunflower has been harvested for silage, livestock can enter the field and
graze on the leftover stalks.
To harvest seeds, keep an eye out for ripeness. The back of the flower
head will turn from green to yellow and the bracts will begin to dry and
turn brown; this happens about 30–45 days after bloom and seed moisture
is about 35%. Generally, when the head turns brown on the back, seeds
are usually ready for harvest. For indoor bouquets, cut the main stem just
before its flower bud has a chance to open to encourage side blooms. Cut
stems early in the morning. Harvesting flowers during middle of the day
may lead to flower wilting. Handle sunflowers gently. The flowers should
last at least a week in water at room temperature. Arrange sunflowers in
tall containers that provide good support for their heavy heads, and change
the water every day to keep them fresh. Cut the head off the plant (about
4 in. below the flower head) and remove the seeds with your fingers or a
fork. To protect the seeds from birds, you can cover the flowers with a light
fabric such as cheesecloth and a rubber band. Or, you can cut the flower
head early and hang the heads upside down until the seeds are dry; hang
indoors or in a place that is safe from birds and mice.
16.22 YIELD
Sunflower is a fast-growing crop with high forage yield capacity. In Cuba,

fresh matter yields are 450–750 q/ha in 60–70 days in dry conditions, and
up to 900 q/ha in Brazil (Penichet Cortiza et al., 2008). The highest seed
yield of sunflower obtained was 60 q/ha with optimum soil moisture, the
wetted moisture regime created increased in yield by 7.51% over drier
moisture regime. The yield reduction was observed in accordance to
deferred dates of sowing.
The crop is ready for harvest when top leaves are dry and flowers are
shriveled. Heads may be removed with shears or knife. Heads after cutting
are sun dried on the threshing floor. Hand threshing can also be done by
rubbing seed heads on a metal sheet or beating with sticks. Threshed seed
must be dried to 8–10% moisture before storage. The local cultivar gave
highest seed production up to 15 q/ha.
Sunflower seed meal was superior to both wheat and corn germ meal
(three times superior to soybean meal), giving an average gain in weight
of 56 g per rat by the end of the same period of time. By the end of 16
weeks, the average gain was 70 g per rat with 5% wheat and corn germ
meals and 70% greater, or 119 g per rat, with the sunflower seed meal.
The sunflower seed meal as a light gray palatable powder (53% protein)
which can be satisfactorily blended with wheat flour or corn meal to make
appetizing baked foods. Its high nutritional properties (vitamin content)
suggest that sunflower seed may be of much more practical value in
human nutrition than hitherto assumed. Weanling rats were divided into
different groups with due regard to litter membership, sex, and weight.
Each group was fed the same basic ration plus 5–10% of the product to
be tested, this product being the sole source of vitamin B complex. The
supplements were defatted wheat germ meal, defatted corn germ meal,
defatted sunflower seed meal, defatted soybean meal, and Brewer’s yeast
(control). The growth rate was least rapid with soybean meal.
16.25 UTILIZATION
The composition of the sunflower meal after oil extraction would depend
mainly on the seed variety and the extraction method. Protein and crude
fiber are the main compounds in sunflower meal. Plant proteins are
economic and sustainable alternatives to animal proteins as functional
ingredients in food formulations. Oilseeds are the most important source
of plant protein preparations. Sunflower seeds are interesting in view of
their widespread availability in areas where soy is not produced or is only
sparsely produced. The focus of the industry in sunflower cultivation has
been put almost exclusively on oil extraction and production. Most of
the research activities carried out in recent years have clearly revealed
the potential of sunflower proteins as a high value-added component for
human nutrition and biofilms production. However, limitation on the
production of large quantities to satisfy the growing market demands
include the lack of viable bioprocesses that are transferable to industrial
scale. Consequently, the main current use of this protein by-product is
in animal feed. Process development for production of sunflower-based
protein concentrates, isolates, and hydrolysates tailored for specific food
applications and the improvement of the functional and rheological prop-

erties of the sunflower proteins could expand their market potential.
16.26 SPECIAL FEATURES
The edible sunflower seeds can be eaten raw, cooked, roasted, or dried
and ground for use in bread or cakes, as a snack. The seeds and the roasted
seed shells have been used as a coffee substitute. Oil can be extracted
and used for cooking and soap making. Yellow dyes have been made
from the flowers, and black dyes from the seeds. The residue oil cake has
been used as cattle and poultry feed, and high quality silage can be made
from the whole plant. The buoyant pith of the stalk has been used in the
making of life preservers. Wild sunflower is highly branched with small
heads and small seeds, in contrast to the single stem and large seed head
of domesticated sunflower. Sunflower perfumes are also popular. The
modern sunflower kitchens have a large number of sunflower decorated
items such as sunflower painted crockery, dinner sets, and living rooms
with sunflower wallpaper, sunflower wallpaper art, sunflower wallpaper
borders, sunflower rugs, and sunflower pillows. Golden mini sunflowers
herald sunny summer days. The carefree sunflower bouquet sends cheery
wishes for all those special occasions—birthday, wedding anniversary,
new baby, get well, or to simply say thanks.
16.27 COMPATIBILITY
Sunflower has a wide potential sowing window. High yields may be

produced from early plantings, yet yields may be reduced by increased
pest problems. Soil temperature should be a minimum of 7°C for planting
and around 10°C for germination. Lower temperatures will increase the
susceptibility of seedlings to diseases such as downy mildew. The main
insect problems in sunflower crops include cutworms, sunflower bud
moth, sunflower stem weevil, sunflower root weevil, and the sunflower
midge. In the future, it is believed that sunflower will be grown in the more
arid areas of the world; this trend is predicted to accelerate particularly in
the next 10 years. The next trend will be to establish a higher value market
for the product and to make sunflower oil more competitive with palm and
soybean oil on the world market. Recent developments in the fatty acids
in sunflower oils have occurred, oleic acid values have been increased to
make the oil more stable. More developments in this area are expected. As
with many other major crops, gene transfer is possible in sunflowers. This
is the only method of reducing some of the production problems relating to
the sunflower crop despite consumer concerns in some countries.
Sunflower is perceived to be a drought-tolerant crop as it roots deeply
and extracts water at depths not reached by other crops. Sunflower is
comparable to maize in many ways, although it can extract water more
efficiently in low-rainfall areas. The seedbed should be prepared so that
a moist soil environment is available for germination and growth. The
soil surface should be left as rough as possible to reduce the risk of soil
erosion; drifting and blowing soil can seriously damage young seedlings.
If the soil becomes compacted prior to planting, then reduced aeration
and restricted water movement will occur, these conditions will increase
the risk of downy mildew occurring. Breakdown of soil structure also
reduces nutrient and water uptake and therefore yield. Sunflower has a
wide potential sowing window. High yields may be produced from early
plantings, yet yields may be reduced by increased pest problems. Nitrogen
applications of 50–75 kg/ha are generally sufficient.
FIGURE 16.1 (See color insert.) Sunflower.

KEYWORDS
•• sunflower
•• origin
•• morphology
•• characteristics
•• cultivation
REFERENCES
Annon. Tallest Sunflower. Guinness World Records, 2016.

Adam, J. A. Mathematics in Nature, ISBN 978-0-691-11629-3, 2003.
Anderson, V. Sunflowers are Suitable Late Silage Crops. Hay and Forage Grower; Penton
Media Inc.: New York, USA, 2010.
Demiirel, M.; Bolat, D.; Celik, S.; Bakici, Y.; Tekeli, A. Evaluation of Fermentation
Qualities and Digestibilities of Silages Made from Sorghum and Sunflower Alone and
the Mixtures of Sorghum–Sunflower. J. Biol. Sci. 2006, 6 (5), 926–930.
Motloch, J. L. Introduction to Landscape Design, ISBN 978-0-471-35291-4, 2000.
Penichet Cortiza, M.; Carballo García, P.; Guerra Gárcés, M.; Alemán Pérez, R. El Cultivo
del Girasol como Alternativa Forrajera Viable Para la Alimentacion del Ganado Vacuno
Lechero. Observatorio de la Economía Latinoamericana. 2008; p 95.
Putt, E. D. Early History of Sunflower. In Sunflower Technology and Production Agronomy
Series 35; Schneiter, A. A., Ed.; American Society of Agronomy: Madison, Wisconsin,
1997; pp 1–19.
Toruk, F.; Gonulol, E.; Kayısoglu, B.; Koc, F. Effects of Compaction and Maturity Stages
on Sunflower Silage Quality. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 2010, 5 (1), 055–059.
Forage Crops of the World, Volume II A
FIGURE 1.1 Setaria grass.

B Forage Crops of the World, Volume II
FIGURE 3.1 Bermuda grass.
FIGURE 9.1 Lathyrus.

Forage Crops of the World, Volume II C
FIGURE 11.1 Soybean.
FIGURE 14.1 Green gram.

D Forage Crops of the World, Volume II
FIGURE 15.1 Black gram.
FIGURE 16.1 Sunflower.

Forage Crops of the World, Volume II E
FIGURE 17.1 Mustard.
FIGURE 20.1 Amaranthus in flowering stage.

F Forage Crops of the World, Volume II
FIGURE 21.1 Subabul.
FIGURE 22.1 Gliricidia.

Forage Crops of the World, Volume II G
FIGURE 25.1 Various types of pits for Azolla cultivation.

CHAPTER 17
BRASSICAS
UTPAL GIRI1*, SOMA GIRI2, NAVENDU NAIR3, ABHIJIT SAHA1,
SONALI BISWAS4, NILADRI PAUL5, M. K. NANDA6, and
PROTIT BANDYOPADHYAY4
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Lembucherra,
1
West Tripura 799210, Tripura, India

Horticulture division, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ashoknagar,
2
North 24 Parganas 741723, West Bengal, India

Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Lembucherra,
3
West Tripura 799210, Tripura, India

4
Mohanpur, Nadia 741252, West Bengal, India

Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of
5
Agriculture, Lembucherra, West Tripura 799210, Tripura, India

6
Department of Agricultural Meteorology and Physics,
Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia 741252,
West Bengal, India
*
ABSTRACT
The members of the Brassica family such as radish, turnip, swedes, broc-
coli, brussel sprouts, cauliflower, and cabbage are cultivated as forage
crops during winter season in India. However, these crops are generally
cultivated as vegetable crops. They are commonly sown in October–
November onwards as they require cool temperature, and harvested in
spring and early summer when pasture quality is often low or in winter
when pasture quantity is limited. Forage brassicas can provide quick

and abundant feed, with high digestibility, energy, and protein. Bras-
sicas are high-quality forage if harvested before heading. Aboveground
parts normally have 20–25% crude protein and 65–80% total digestable
nitrogen. The roots of turnips and kale usually have 10–14% crude protein
and 80–85% digestibility.
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Cruciferae
Tribe: Brassicaceae
Genus: Brassica
17.2 BOTANICAL NAME
Leaf turnip: Brassica rapa; syn. B. campestris var. Rapa

Bulb turnip: Brassica rapa; syn. B. campestris var. Rapa
Swedes: Brassica napus spp. napobrassica
Rape: Brassica napus spp. biennis
Kale: Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala
Chinese cabbage: Brassica campestris var. pekinensis
17.3 COMMON NAME
Leaf turnip or forage hybrids brassica (or turnip cross) (Chinese cabbage
× turnip hybrid brassica); bulb turnip; swedes; rape; kale; Chinese
cabbage.
17.4 INTRODUCTION
The members of the Brassica family such as radish, turnip, swedes,

broccoli, brussel sprouts, cauliflower, and cabbage are cultivated as
forage crops during winter season in India. However, these crops are
generally cultivated as vegetable crops. They are commonly sown in
Brassicas 189
October–November onwards as they require cool temperature, and

harvested in spring and early summer when pasture quality is often
low or in winter when pasture quantity is limited. Forage brassicas
can provide quick and abundant feed, with high digestibility, energy,
and protein. They require relatively low cost for their establishment.
Forage brassicas can suppress the weed growth by their rapid initial
growth and more vegetative cover. Therefore, it is an excellent cover
crop. It appears to be a good tool as a biofumigant cover crop for
control of nematodes, soil-borne diseases including the fungal pathogen
(Rhizoctonia) responsible for damping-off, weeds, and other pests.
When biomass is incorporated into the soil, soil microbes break down
sulfur compounds in the plant into isothiocyanate, which can act as a
fumigant and weed suppressant (Olmstead, 2006). Brassica crops can
also reduce the incidence of soil-borne plant diseases by producing
naturally occurring chemicals called glucosinolates which breakdown
in the soil to produce beneficial compound that inhibit pathogen growth
also. The aboveground parts (stems and leaves) of rape and kale and all
parts (stems, leaves, and roots) of turnips and swedes are utilized by
livestock. Brassicas are high-quality forage if harvested before heading.
Aboveground parts normally have 20–25% crude protein and 65–80%
total digestable nitrogen. The roots of turnips and kale usually have
10–14% crude protein and 80–85% digestibility.
Brassica crops have the ability to outcompete “bought in feeds” as a
cost-effective source of dry matter. It can produce large quantities of feed
for a relatively low cost of production. It can be grazed where they are
grown, thereby eliminating additional costs associated with hay, silage,
and grain. Break the perennial weed cycle using nonselective herbicides
leading to weed-free pastures. Break clover pest and disease lifecycles for
better clover content in subsequent pastures (Ruiter et al., 2009). Break
the wild endophyte cycle for sowing of novel endophyte grass seed.
Grow with low water requirement. Have no significant increase in labor
requirements.
17.5 TYPES OF FORAGE BRASSICAS
There are mainly six types of forage brassicas cultivated all over the world
(Table 17.1). These six types of forage brassicas differ in their characteris-
tics and uses. In general the differences are explained as follows.
TABLE 17.1 Latin Name and Vegetative Description of the Different Types of Forage Brassicas. 190
Common name Latin name Vegetative description
Leaf turnip or forage hybrids brassica Brassica rapa; syn. Brassica Nonbulb producing
(or turnip cross) (Chinese cabbage × campestris var. rapa Swollen taproot provides multiple growing points
turnip hybrid brassica)
Able to regrow after grazing
Leafy
Bulb turnips B. rapa; syn. B. campestris Fleshy bulb
var. rapa No neck
Yellow fleshed (hard)
White fleshed (soft)
Swedes Brassica napus spp. Fleshy bulb
napobrassica Obvious neck
White or yellow fleshed
Rape B. napus spp. biennis Numerous leaves
Fibrous stem
No bulb or fleshy stem
Grows to various heights
Kale (Chou Moellier) Brassica oleracea L. var. Large swollen stem with varying leaf percentage
acephala Stem—woody outer layer, soft fleshy marrow
Grows to various heights
Chinese cabbage B. campestris var. pekinensis Elongated head (pe-tsai)
Nonheading type with a rosette of oblong, dark green leaves,
Forage Crops of the World, Volume II
thick white petioles, resembling celery, or Swiss chard

Brassicas 191
17.5.1 FORAGE RAPE
Forage brassicas are also referred to as rape. Most types have a stringent
grazing management requirement and must reach maturity before being
grazed. Maturity is indicated by a change in leaf color to a purplish or
bronze color that occurs 10–14 weeks after sowing. It is a multistemmed
crop with fibrous root and stem height, diameter, and palatability vary
with the variety. Rape is one of the best crops for fattening lambs and
flushing ewes. Yield is maximized with a 180-day growth period for many
varieties while most hybrids; on the other hand, produce greatest yields
when allowed to grow 60 days before first harvest and 30 days before the
second harvest.
17.5.2 LEAFY TURNIPS OR FORAGE BRASSICA HYBRIDS
Grazing leafy turnips can commence earlier than rapes (6–10 weeks),
without waiting for the leaf to turn a characteristic bronze or purple color.
Leafy turnips can vary in their ability to maintain palatability and leaf
quality with age.
17.5.3 KALES
Most of the animals those eat any kind of leafy foods love kale. Kale is
the tallest growing of all forage brassicas, and is slower to mature than the
hybrid brassicas. It will produce large quantities of leaf and stem which is
utilized mostly by cattle. Most kales have a characteristic winter habit and
a greater cold tolerance than other brassicas. Kale varieties vary greatly in
establishment, stem development, and time requirement to reach maturity.
Stemless type reach a height of 25 in., the narrow stem type reach a height
of 60 in. with primary stem up to 2 in. in diameter, whereas stemless kale
reaches maturity in about 90 days (Masabni, 2011).
17.5.4 TURNIPS
Both turnip leaf and bulbs are utilized by grazing animals. The turnip
bulb is a large storage organ that develops in the first year. The dry matter
of turnip feed is around 60% for bulb and 40% for leaf, depending on the
size/age and variety of turnip. Turnips are best grazed once at maturity
(10–16 weeks). Regrowth is possible from a light first grazing if the leaf
growing points attached to the bulb are not damaged. Turnips suffer less
from insect attack than other forage brassicas; however, they are not as
drought tolerant.
17.5.5 SWEDES
Swedes require higher rainfall than turnips. Swedes have a larger bulb than
turnips and are slower to mature (20–24 weeks). Swedes are better than
turnips at maintaining bulb quality over winter. Swedes usually produce a
short stem but can have stems up to 2½-ft long when grown with tall crops
which shade the swede. Grazing normally commences during winter and
the crop is usually only grazed once. Swede is very high in energy and dry
matter content.
17.5.6 CHINESE CABBAGE
It is not a member of cole group but it is regarded as a closely allied crop

due to similarity in breeding systems, cultivation practices, and season of
growing and other features. Chinese cabbage is a leading market vegetable
in China, Japan, and Southeast Asia and grown on more than 500,000 ha.
In tropical Africa, Chinese cabbage is common in city markets and is
occasionally recorded as vegetable in many countries. It is recorded as a
weed in Ethiopia, Kenya, Zimbabwe, and Kenya.
Brassica genus has 100 species including coles and mustards, native to
north temperate parts of the eastern hemisphere.
Leafy turnips—Middle and Eastern Asia
Bulb turnip—Middle and Eastern Asia
Swedes—Mediterranean region
Brassicas 193
Forage rape—Southwest Europe

Kale—Europe
Chinese cabbage—China and Eastern Asia, heading Chinese cabbage—
Eastern Asia
These crops are mainly cultivated in temperate region such as New

Zealand, European countries, United States, and Australia in the world and
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Uttarakhand in India. Turnip
is extensively cultivated in Bihar, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab,
and Tamil Nadu.
Forage brassicas are the crops of temperate climates. Cool and moist
climate is most favorable for growing. However, it can also be grown at
higher altitude in the tropics or where summers are mild. Crops require
about 15–25°C temperature, low humidity for their better growth and
development. However, bulbs develop best flavor, texture, and size at a
temperature of 10–15°C. The crop growth is optimum at <25°C, while
it ceases at <3°C and >35°C (Table 17.2). Rainfall, high humidity, and
cloudy weather are not favorable for the crops. The short-day length and
cool weather favor proper development of the crops. Excessive cold and
frost are harmful to the crop. They require an annual precipitation of
40–100 cm.
TABLE 17.2 Optimum Temperature (°C) Requirement for Growth of Forage Brassicas.
Crop Optimum temperature (°C)
Leafy turnips 15–22
Bulb turnip 10–15 (bulb development); 15–22
Swedes 18–25
Forage rape 18–25
Kale 15–20, it can withstand −10 to −20
Chinese cabbage 18–25
17.8 SOIL REQUIREMENT
Brassica forages flourish well on wide range of soils especially on

those with high moisture-retention capacity, but they cannot survive in
waterlogged condition. With good drainage, fertile loam soil having high
humus content is best suited for their better growth and development.
The extremely light sandy soil or too heavy soils should be avoided.
The pH of the soil should be at least 5.6 but ideally between 5.8 and 7.8
(Table 17.3).
TABLE 17.3 Optimum Soil pH Requirement for Forage Brassicas Cultivation.

Crop pH
Leafy turnips 5.8–7.7
Bulb turnip 5.8–7.7
Swedes 5.8–7.7
Forage rape 6.0–7.5
Kale 6.0–7.5
Chinese cabbage 5.8–7.8
17.9 FIELD PREPARATION
Brassica seeds are very small, so a fine but firm seedbed is desirable. First
plowing should be done with a mould board plow, and subsequent two
cross plowings with cultivator or harrow followed by planking. Direct
drilling is sometimes used but results may be variable. Successful estab-
lishment of the crop depends on good seedbed preparation, weed and pest
control, soil type, and rainfall following sowing.
17.10 SOWING METHOD
Broadcasting method is very old method, it requires more seeds but still
farmers are using this method particularly for forage cultivation. For line
sowing, seeds are sown directly either in lines or on ridges. Normally, flat
beds are used for sowing but sowing in low lying area or during the rainy
season should be done on ridges. Seeds are sown on ridges or rows 15–20
Brassicas 195
cm apart, while a spacing of 5–7 cm is kept within the plant (Table 17.4).

Seeds can be mixed with sand or ash to facilitate uniform sowing. Gener-
ally, thinning is done 10–15 days after germination. The optimum sowing
depth for brassica seeds is 1.0–1.5 cm. Brassica seeds are very small,
therefore to ensure maximum germination, sow no deeper than 2 cm into
a firm, moist seedbed. Forage brassicas can be successfully sown with
pastures. Brassica sowing rates should be reduced by half to two-thirds
when under sowing pastures.
TABLE 17.4 Seed Rate (kg/ha) and Spacing for Line Sowing of Forage Brassicas.
Crop Sowing method Seed rate (kg/ha) Spacing for line sowing
Leafy Line sowing 3.0–4.0 30–45 cm× 5–15 cm
turnips Broadcasting 5.0–6.0
Bulb turnip Line sowing 0.8–1.0 30 cm × 5–7 cm × 1.5 cm
Broadcasting 1.0–3.0
Swedes Line sowing 0.8–1.0 15–20 cm × 5–7 cm
Broadcasting 1.0–3.0
Forage rape Line sowing 2.5–4.0 15–20 cm × 5–7 cm
Broadcasting 5–6.5
Kale Line sowing 3.0–5.0 15–60 cm × 5–30 cm
Broadcasting 5.0–5.5 depending on the purpose
of the crop
Chinese Line sowing 10–12 kg/ha in irrigated land 20 cm × 15 cm
cabbage Broadcasting 20–25 kg/ha in rainfed
condition
17.11 SEED TREATMENTS
Commercial seed treatments are available for use on brassica seeds. These
include insecticides for red-legged earth mite and blue oat mite control,
fungicides for seedling diseases, and molybdenum (a trace element often
deficient in acid soils). Broadcast and direct drilled crops may be more
susceptible to seed theft by birds and may require a bird repellent. Seeds
should be treated for control of seed-borne diseases with fungicides such
as Bavistin @ 2 g/kg of seeds or mancozeb 75% WP @ 2 g/kg of seed or
Trichoderma viride @ 5 g/kg of seed.
17.12 PLANTING TIME
In the temperate region of India such as Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal

Pradesh, hilly region of Uttarakhand, and Uttar Pradesh, the forage brassicas
are sown in the month of March–April and the grazing can be continued
to July–August. For better forage production, the crop should be sown as
early as possible to avail the extended period of low temperature which is
required for better vegetative growth. With the increase in temperature,
the flowering will be initiated, particularly in the plains of India. However,
the cropping sequence should be selected as per the requirement of the
farmers (Table 17.5).
TABLE 17.5 Sowing Time for Forage Brassicas Cultivated in Plains of India.
Crop Sowing time
Leafy turnips October–December
Bulb turnip Asiatic turnips are sown from July to September
European type is sown in October–December
Swedes November–December
Forage rape October–December and February–March
Kale November–December
Chinese cabbage November–December
17.13 VARIETIES (Table 17.6)
TABLE 17.6 List of the Varieties of Forage Brassicas.

Crop Varieties
Leafy Hunter, Pasja, Tyfon
turnips
Bulb Early Milan Red Top, Pusa Swarnima, Pusa Sweti Golden Ball Punjab, Safed
turnip 4, Purple Top White Globe, Pusa Chandrima, Snow Ball, and Pusa Kanchan
Swedes Aparima Gold, Dominion, Doon Major, Highlander, Invitation, Major Plus,
Keystone Winton Virtue, Champion Purple Top, Caldon, and Sensation
Forage Greenland, Giant Titan Wairoa Winfred, Hobson, Hungry Gap, and Interval
rape (Hyb.)
Kale Dwarf Blue Curled Scotch, Dwarf Blue Curled Vates, Green Curled, Nero
di Toscano, Rebor, Red Russian, Dwarf Green Curled Scotch, Dwarf Moss
Curled, Marrow Stem, and Gruner
Chinese Tropical Delight, Tropical Prince, Tropical Queen, Nozomi, and Optico
cabbage
Brassicas 197
17.14 FERTILIZER REQUIREMENT
The quantity of manures and fertilizers to be applied depends upon climate,

fertility status, pH level, and texture of the soil. The proper time of appli-
cation is equally important to facilitate optimum intake of plant nutrients
for good harvest. Different doses of NPK have been recommended for
various agroclimatic zones of India. However, a basal dose of 20–25 t/
ha of farmyard manure should be applied at the time of land preparation.
Brassicas are grown on soils with a wide range of soil fertility. There
are no standard recommendations for fertilizer management because
each crop has a different yield potential and therefore different nutrient
requirement. Phosphorus is the main element required by brassica crops.
Phosphorus rates of at least 40–60 kg/ha are suggested depending on soil
phosphorous levels, and soil type. Brassica crops are often sown with
compound or starter fertilizers containing varying amounts of nitrogen.
However, care is needed, as too much N placed close to the seed at sowing
can inhibit germination of the crop particularly in dry conditions. Approxi-
mately 100 kg/ha of N is commonly used and this can increase both yield
and crude protein content. Care must be taken when grazing the crop after
N application due to increased risk of nitrate poisoning. Applications of N
are recommended at 4–6 weeks and again at 8–12 weeks after emergence
depending on the duration of crop as well as variety.
In highly acidic soils, molybdenum deficiency is common. A fertilizer
or seed treatment containing molybdenum to supply 50–100 g/ha can be
used to overcome deficiencies. Alternatively, liming to increase soil pH
may also overcome molybdenum deficiency. Boron deficiency has been
known to occur relatively rare particularly in recently limed soils or soils
with a high pH. In situations where boron deficiency is suspected or has
occurred, a boron fertilizer should be used to supply approximately 2 kg/
ha (Table 17.7).
TABLE 17.7 Fertilizer Dose (kg/ha) for Forage Brassicas.

Crop Fertilizer dose (kg/ha) N:P2O5:K2O
Leafy turnips 69–98:44:44
Bulb turnip 70–100:50:50
Swedes 120–160:90–150:250–370
Boron (B/ha) 1.5 kg
TABLE 17.7 (Continued)

Crop Fertilizer dose (kg/ha) N:P2O5:K2O
Forage rape 150–225:60:60
Top dressing—75 kg/ha N
Kale 220–240:100–160:100–160
½ applied preplant with the remaining at thinning (12–15 DAS)
Chinese cabbage 200–220:100–150: 00–250
MgO—50–100 kg/ha
DAS, days after sowing.
The crop needs frequent irrigations for realizing the yield potential of
the crop. With irrigation, yield responses to applied water are variable,
depending on season and location. Irrigation requirements will depend
on the prevailing conditions. During the dry months of April–June, crop
requires irrigation at an interval of 7–10 days, if required and 15–20 days
interval in the month of October–March. The water requirement of these
crops varies from 380 to 500 mm.
Brassicas are especially susceptible to weed competition during the early

crop development phases. Two or three weeding regimes at 20 days
interval are required to control the weeds. A single spray with a high
rate of roundup 2−4 days before plowing is usually sufficient for a good
control of weed. Preemergence application of Treflan at 2 L/ha on a light
soil or 3 L/ha on a heavy soil may be recommended. Alachlor (4 L/ha)
applied preemergence can be used to control weeds. The preemergence
application of herbicide, Tok E-25 (Nitrofen) @ 2 kg/ha effectively
controls the weeds. Apply Dicamba at 700−850 mL/ha for control of
broad leaf weeds. Note, this should not be applied to bulbing crops such
as turnips and swedes, and will check growth of rape and kale if applied
at higher rates.
Brassicas 199
Forage brassicas are attacked by several pests and diseases among

which few are very destructive, but the intensity varies from year to year
depending on the prevailing weather condition and the crop history. Some
of the major pests and diseases, their causal organisms, damage symptoms,
and control measures are given below:
17.17.1.1 DIAMONDBACK MOTH: Plutella xylostella

(PLUTELLIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA)
Full grown larvae are tapering toward both ends and measure about
1–1.5 cm in length. Larvae are greenish in color with short thin hairs
on the body. Caterpillars feed on green tissues by scrapping from under
surface of leaves leaving the upper epidermis intact. Severely infested
plants show withered appearance due to presence of numerous holes on
leaves. Foliar spray with Lufenuron 5.4% EC @ 240 mL in 200 L of
water/acre or spinosad 2.5% SC @ 240–280 mL in 200 L of water/acre
is effective.
17.17.1.2 CRUCIFEROUS LEAF WEBBER: Crocidolomia binotalis

(PYRALIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA)
Larvae are pale violet in body color with red head, brown longitudinal
stripes, and rows of tubercles on its body. Caterpillars web together the
foliage and feed from within. Removal and destruction of the webbed
leaves along with larvae inside is effective. Chemical control is same as in
case of diamondback moth.
17.17.1.3 APHID: Lipaphis erysimi (APHIDIDAE: HEMIPTERA)
They are soft bodied, pear shaped, small insects, and pale-greenish in
color, winged or wingless. Both the nymphs and adults remain in colonies
and suck cell sap from tender plant parts. Infested parts get deformed and
the crop yield is drastically reduced. Installation of yellow sticky traps

and foliar spray with dimethoate 30% EC @ 300 mL in 200 L of water/
acre or acetamiprid 20 % SP @ 40 g in 200 L of water/acre are effective
in managing the pest.
17.17.1.4 TOBACCO CATERPILLAR: Spodoptera litura

(NOCTUIDAE: LEPIDOPTERA)
Stout-bodied full grown caterpillars measure about 35–40 mm in length

and velvety black in color with some light color markings. The young
larvae are gregarious in nature and scrape the green tissues of leaf lamina
giving a papery appearance, whereas the grown-up larvae voraciously feed
on leaves causing extensive damage. Collection and destruction of egg
masses and gregarious larvae at initial stages is very effective. Spraying
with indoxacarb 15.8% EC @ 200 mL in 200 L of water/acre or emamectin
benzoate 5% SG @ 100 g in 200 L of water/acre can also control the pest
effectively.
17.17.1.5 CABBAGE BUTTERFLY: Pieris brassicae (PIERIDAE:

LEPIDOPTERA)
Full-grown larvae are greenish in color with black dots and measure
about 40–50 mm in length. The young larvae feed on leaves gregariously,
whereas the grown-up larvae get dispersed and feed on leaves from margin
inwards leaving intact the main veins resulting in skeletonized leaves.
Management is same as in case of tobacco caterpillar.
17.17.2 DISEASES
17.17.2.1 CLUB ROOT
It is caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae. Infection of the disease results

in club formation in roots which interferes with root functioning restricting
water and nutrient uptake. Application of lime @ 2.5 t/ha to raise the soil
pH slightly above neutral and seed treatment with Thiram @ 2 g/kg seed
are effective.
Brassicas 201
17.17.2.2 BLACK LEG
It is caused by Phoma lingam. Whole root system of the infected plants get
decayed leading to falling down of the plants. Seed treatment with Thiram
@ 2 g/kg of seed can be done to get rid from the disease.
17.17.2.3 DAMPING OFF
It is caused by Pythium aphanidermatum and Fusarium spp. Infection by

the pathogens results in rotting of collar portion at the ground level leading
to death of young seedlings. Soil drenching with Captan 75% WP @ 1000
g in 400 L of water/acre or seed treatment with captan 75% WP @ 2–3 g/
kg seed can be done to prevent the disease.
17.17.2.4 ALTERNARIA LEAF SPOT
It is caused by Alternaria spp. Circular spots with concentric rings are

formed on the leaves which then coalesce leading to blighting of leaves.
Spraying with zineb 75% WP @ 600–800 g in 300–400 L of water/acre or
mancozeb 75% WP @ 600–800 g in 300 L of water/acre is recommended
to control the disease.
17.17.2.5 WHITE RUST
It is caused by Albugo candida. Patches of white powdery substance

are observed on the under surface of the leaves and floral parts become
distorted. Spraying with mancozeb 75% WP @ 600–800 g in 300 L of
water/acre is suggested to control the disease.
17.18 HARVESTING AND YIELD
Crops are harvested either by cutting them by sickle or by uprooting them

along with tubers, depending on the crop and growing condition. Rapid
cooling after harvest is must for the prevention of wilting and maintenance
of quality of kale crop (Table 17.8).
TABLE 17.8 Duration and Forage Yield (t/ha) of Forage Brassicas.

Crop Duration Forage
yield (t/ha)
Leafy turnips 45–60 days (6–8 weeks) 2–8
Bulb turnip 65–70 days (early) 2–12
80–100 days (medium) 19–25
90–120 days (late) 20–40
Swedes 125–140 days (18–20 weeks) 5–20
Forage rape 80–100 days (12–14 weeks) 3–10
Kale 60–90 (early) 5–20
110–140 days (long) 10–25
Chinese Eight leaf stage after 60–95 days. Harvesting commences 25–50
cabbage usually in January and continues up to February and until
the peduncle has elongated and the first flower has opened
17.19 GRAZING
Brassicas can be harvested for green chop or silage but are most frequently
grazed. Grazing management is important to optimize the true potential
of these crops. Strip grazing small areas of brassica at a time provides
the most efficient utilization. Grazing large areas increases trampling and
waste of the available forage. Rape is more easily managed for multiple
grazing than are the other Brassica species. Grazing can begin when the
forage is about 12-in. tall (70–90 days after planting). The pasture should
be grazed for a short time period and the livestock removed to allow
the brassica to regrow. Rape may be grazed to 10-in. stubble and one to
four grazing periods may occur, depending on planting date and growing
conditions. Approximately 6–10 in. of stubble should remain after grazing
rape to promote rapid regrowth. Regrowth may be grazed in as few as 4
weeks after the first grazing (Smyth, 2015). Graze rape close to ground
level during the final grazing. When turnips are to be grazed twice only the
tops should be grazed during the first grazing. Turnip regrowth is initiated
at the top of the root, so this part of the plant should not be removed until
the second and final grazing when the whole plant can be consumed. Like
rape, regrowth of turnips can be sufficient to graze again within 4 weeks
of the first grazing.
Brassicas 203
Brassica crops can cause animal health disorders if not grazed

properly. The main disorders are hypothyroidism, and polioencephalo-
malacia. The disorders can be avoided by the following two management
practices:
1. Introduce grazing animals to brassica pastures slowly (over 3–4

days). Avoid abrupt changes from dry summer pastures to lush
brassica pastures. Do not turn hungry animals that are not adapted
to brassicas into a brassica pasture.
2. Brassica crops should not constitute more than 75% of the
animal’s diet. Supplement with dry hay if continually grazing
brassicas or allow grazing animals to access grass pastures while
grazing brassicas.
The forage quality of brassica is so high that it should be considered

similar to concentrate feeds and precautions should be taken accordingly.
Livestock should not be hungry when to be put on pasture the first time,
so they do not gorge themselves. A lower quality hay should be made
available to provide some fiber in the animals’ diet.
Brassicas can provide grazing at any time during the summer or
winter depending on seeding date. A promising use may be for late winter
grazing. These crops maintain quality, if not heading, well into freezing
temperatures and may be grazed into November (Table 17.9).
TABLE 17.9 Planting and Grazing Sequence for Forage Brassicas.

Crop Plant part consumed Seeding to harvest Regrowth after
(days) harvest
Kale Herbage 150–180 No
Rape Herbage 80–90 Yes
Swede Herbage and root 150–180 No
Turnip Herbage and root 80–90 Yes
Chinese cabbage Herbage 60–95 Yes
17.20 ANIMAL HEALTH ISSUES
Livestock health problems from grazing brassicas are relatively rare and
can largely be avoided by good agronomic and grazing management
(Ayres, 2002). Some livestock health problems that are known to occur
include the following.
17.20.1 PHOTOSENSITIZATION
Grazing crops too early, prior to maturity, can cause animals to suffer
from photosensitization. Young animals (especially lambs) are prone to
photosensitization, while animals with dark pigmented skins and wool
covering are much more tolerant. The most common sign of photosen-
sitization occurs on unprotected body parts such as the face and ears.
Swelling occurs followed by blistering and scabbing of the ears and
face. Rapes and kales are most commonly associated with the disorder,
while turnips, swedes, and hybrid brassicas are less likely to cause
photosensitization.
17.20.2 NITRATE POISONING
Nitrates accumulate in plant leaves, and in very high concentrations may

cause livestock death. This problem is largely caused by high soil nitrate
levels following prolonged dry conditions being quickly taken up with
rapid growth following rainfall or irrigation.
17.20.3 GOITER (ENLARGED THYROID)
This is sometimes a problem in young lambs, where pregnant ewes have

been grazing leafy brassica crops.
17.20.4 KALE ANEMIA
This disorder (sometimes referred to as red water) can occur with all bras-
sica crops, but is more common with kale crops. Anemia is caused by
excess levels of the amino acid compound S-methyl cysteine sulphoxide
(SMCO) in the plant. SMCO causes a decrease in hemoglobin concentra-
tion and a depression of appetite.
Brassicas 205
Digestive disturbances, respiratory problems, blindness, pulpy kidney,

choking, etc. are some other problems which may occur in livestock during
their grazing.
Brassicas vary greatly in maturity, bulb shape, leaf to stem ratio, and
winter hardiness. The choice of brassica and variety will depend on when
the crop will be grazed, livestock class or type, and if multiple grazing is
required.
FIGURE 17.1 (See color insert.) Mustard.
KEYWORDS
•• Brassica
•• fodder yield
•• animal health issues
REFERENCES
Ayres, L. Forage Brassicas: Quality Crops for Livestock Production. District Agronomist,
Orange Bruce Clements, District Agronomist, Bathurst, Agfact First Ed. [online] 2002,
P 2.1.13 (accessed Dec 15, 2016).
Masabni, J. Collards/Kale; Commercial and Specialty Crop Guides Department of
Horticulture Texas AgriLifeExtensionServicehttp://aggie.horticulture.tamu.edu/vegetable/
files/2011/10/collardskale.pdf (accessed Dec 26, 2016).
Olmstead, M. A. Cover Crops as a Floor Management Strategy for Pacific Northwest
Vineyards. EB2010. Washington State Univ. Extension, Prosser, [online] 2006, http://
cru.cahe.wsu.edu/CEPublications/eb2010/eb20 20.pdf (accessed Dec 15, 2016).
Production Guidelines of Chinese Cabbage. Department of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries, 2013, http://www.nda.agric.za/docs/Brochures/chinese.pdf (accessed Dec 26,
2016).
Ruiter, J. de.; Wilson, D.; Maley, S.; Fletcher, A.; Fraser, T.; Scott, W.; Berryman, S.;
Dumbleton A. and Nichol, W. Management Practices for Forage Brassicas. Forage
Brassica Development Group New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited,
Lincoln University, Ag. Research and PGG Wrightson Seeds, [online] June, 2009, http://
bal.preprod.intergen.net.nz/Documents/Farm/Management%20practices%20for%20
forage%20brassicas.pdf (accessed Dec 26, 2016).
Smyth, S. Root & Forage Crops. Mole Valley Farmers Arable Department, [online] 2015,
www.molevalleyfarmers.com (accessed Dec 26, 2016).
CHAPTER 18
TURNIP (SALGAM)
PARVEEN ZAMAN1* and MD. HEDAYETULLAH2
1
2
AICRP on Chickpea, Directorate of Research, Bidhan Chandra
Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Kalyani 741235, Nadia, West Bengal, India
*
ABSTRACT
Turnip is popularly known as salgam. This root crop is palatable, succu-

lent, easily digestible, and a popular feed of all livestock. The turnip or
white turnip is a root vegetable commonly grown in temperate climates
worldwide for its white, bulbous taproot system. Small, tender varieties are
grown for human consumption, while larger varieties are grown as a feed
and fodder for livestock. The average yield of turnip fodder is 400–600 q/
ha under good management conditions. The feeding of freshly harvested
roots can cause scouring in the livestock. When boiled turnips are fed to
the animals, they may suffer from nitrite toxicity.
Kingdom: Plantae
Orders: Brassicales
Family: Brassicaceae
Genus: Brassica
Species: rapa L.
Variety: rapa
Binomial name: Brassica rapa var rapa L.
18.2 BOTANICAL NAME
Brassica rapa var rapa L.
18.3 COMMON NAME
Turnip, salgam.
18.4 INTRODUCTION
Turnip or white turnip belongs to mustard family and is popularly known

as salgam. This root crop is palatable, succulent, easily digestible, and
popular feed of all livestock. The turnip or white turnip is a root vege-
table commonly grown in temperate climates worldwide for its white,
bulbous taproot system. Small, tender varieties are grown for human
consumption, while larger varieties are grown as a feed and fodder for
livestock. Turnip is profusely used as a fodder for livestock worldwide.
Turnip leaves are sometimes eaten as vegetables, like mustard. Turnip
greens are a common side dish in many countries. Smaller leaves are
preferred as vegetables but the bitter taste of larger leaves can be reduced
by pouring off the water from the initial boiling and replacing it with
fresh water. The feeding of freshly harvested roots can cause scouring in
the livestock. When boiled turnips are fed to the animals, they may suffer
from nitrite toxicity.
Turnip is a native of Eurasia. It is now grown in Europe, the United

States, New Zealand, Canada, Australia, the Middle East, and Far East
countries. It is grown as a fodder in the states of North and West India
but as a vegetable, it is grown throughout the country. Some evidence
shows that the turnip was domesticated before the 15th century B.C.; it
Turnip (Salgam) 209
was grown in India at this time for its oil-bearing seeds. The turnip was
a well-established crop in Hellenistic and Roman times, which leads to
the assumption that it was brought into cultivation earlier. The wild forms
of the hot turnip and its relatives, the mustards and radishes, are found in
West Asia and Europe.
The turnip stem is short and elongates slowly to form the floral shoot.
The leaves are hairy and the taproot is swollen and napiform type. The
seeds are globose and borne in two-celled pods. The most common type
of turnip is mostly white skinned apart from the upper 1–6 cm, which
protrude above the ground and are purple or red or greenish where the
solar radiation comes in contact. This aboveground part develops from
stem tissue but is fused with the root. The interior flesh is entirely white.
The root is roughly globular, from 5 to 20 cm in diameter, and lacks side
roots. Underneath, the taproot is thin and 10 cm or more in length. The
leaves grow directly from the above the ground shoulder of the root, with
little or no visible crown or neck.
Turnip grows best in cool and moist climate. The temperature ranges
between 18 and 28°C during the growing period. It is cultivated
throughout the mild winter in the plains and Central India. It is also
a rainfed crop during the monsoon. Hot and dry summer and freezing
conditions should be avoided. Highly fertile and well drained loam is
the best soil for its growth. Sandy soils require less manuring and irriga-
tion. The crop tolerates salinity even up to 8 mmhos/cm. Clay soils are
not preferred.
The root crop requires deep, loose, and friable seedbed for easy develop-
ment of the taproot. One deep plowing with a country plow, followed by
three to four operations with a country plow or cultivator and disc harrows,
is necessary to prepare the desired tilth. Soil moisture conservation is

important for successful establishment of turnips.
18.9 VARIETIES
Some important varieties of turnip are Appin, Barabas, Barkant, Marco,

Purple Top, Polybra, Rondo, Samson, Vollenda, etc. for high-yielding
fodder crops (Jacobs et al., 2001).
18.10 SOWING TIME
In the plains, it may be from September to November and in north Hima-

layan region it may be from April to June, after snow melts away. The
seeds are either sown as: broadcast or in lines. The average sowing date
recorded on a survey of 142 commercial farms was mid-October to 17th
December (Jacobs et al., 2001). A study by Jacobs et al. (2002) in South-
west Victoria showed that, sowing early (mid-October) rather than later
(mid-November) ensured higher soil moisture at sowing time.
To treat the seed with fungicide apply Thiram @ 3 g/kg of seed. Seeds
should be inoculated with bacteria before sowing for fixation of atmo-
spheric nitrogen. Apply 20 g each Azotobacter and phosphorus solubilizing
bacteria for 1 kg of seed before sowing for nitrogen fixation.
The seed rate for normal sowing is varying from 3 to 5 kg/ha. When grown
in association with oats for fodder, this rate may be reduced to half. Sowing
rates from 1.6 to 2.2 kg/ha has been used in Southern Victoria, reaching
seedling densities from 28 to 45 plants/m2 (Jacobs et al., 2001). Lower
rates (0.5 kg/ha) encourage bulb development and high rates (up to 2 kg/
ha) allow early yield and a high leaf:bulb ratio.
Turnip (Salgam) 211
18.13 SEED BED
Turnips should be sown shallow (5–10 mm) in a loose, friable, and moist
seedbed. Rolling after sowing to improve the seed–soil contact is a normal
practice with this species. They can also be suitable for direct drilling in
friable soils, although a successful establishment is more difficult with
this technique.
18.14 SPACING
In line sowing, row-to-row spacing is maintained about 30 cm and between

plants 10 and 15 cm; but depending upon the soil, climate, and irrigation
facilities it may be increased. In dry areas, the spacing may be increased up
to 50 cm when it is grown in intercropping systems with oats and barley.
18.15 CROP MIXTURE
Turnip crop can be grown in association with oats, wheat, barley, gram, etc.
Some of the important rotations of the turnip are given bellow:
• Sorghum–turnip
• Maize–turnip
• Pearl millet–turnip
Farmyard manure or compost may be used at the rate of 10–15 t/ha at the
time of land preparation as a basal. Basal application of N at the rate of
25 kg/ha in the form of ammonium sulfate to provide sulfur to the crops.
Sulfur is essential for its growth and development. Turnips are normally
sown with 20–25 kg P2O5/ha as: triple superphosphate, monoammonium
phosphate, and diammonium phosphate. It is important to ensure that
molybdenum (Mo) and boron (Bo) are not deficient (Mo can be provided
with seed coating). Turnips can adapt to a broad range of pH; they perform
better on soils with a pH more than 5.5.
The seed requires high moisture or one irrigation immediately after sowing
for quick germination. After germination, the taproot should be allowed to
go into deep. Turnip requires three to four irrigations. If rain fails then
supplementary irrigation may be required for better growth.
Turnip fodder crop requires weeding very early. Crop–weed competition

is more common in early stage of crop growth. This is a smothering crop;
it suppresses the weed and covers the land.
In a survey by Jacobs et al. (2001), insect damage had the highest impact
on total yields compared to other factors such as total water received,
soil temperature, soil moisture, and seedling density. Several pests affect
turnips: red legged earth mite, slugs, aphids, cabbage moth, cabbage white
butterfly, diamondback moth, cutworms, lucerne flea, wingless grasshop-
pers, and leaf miners. The diamondback moth is the most common and
damaging pest of Brassica crops and has had a severe impact in forage
turnip crops of dairy farms in Southern Victoria.
18.20 HARVESTING
The forage harvesting is done by hand lifting at the age of 8–10 weeks.
The fodder can be harvested from the month of November up to April.
18.21 YIELD
Turnip is the most quickly growing fodder crop. The average yield of
turnip fodder is 400–600 q/ha under good management conditions. The
fodder yield may be as high as 700–800 q/ha under best management
package and practices.
Turnip (Salgam) 213
Turnip requires cooler climate for its seed production. For seed produc-
tion, entire leaves are harvested with a height of 5–6 cm in the months
of January–February. Then, the bottom one-third portions of the root are
chopped off. The top portions of the roots with trimmed leaves are then
planted in a well prepared field. The spacing is maintained in 50–60 cm
row-to-row and 25–30 cm plant to plant. Then the crop is required frequent
light irrigation every 3–4 weeks. The flowers come in the month of April
and are harvested in May. The average seed yield may vary from 6 to 8 q/
ha (Chatterjee and Das, 1989).
On dry matter basis, the roots contain 14–18% crude protein and 40%
sugar. The turnips are quite rich in vitamins and minerals. The turnip root
is rich in vitamin C. The green leaves of the turnip top are a good source
of vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin K, and calcium. Turnip greens are also
high in lutein (8.5 mg/100 g).
18.24 TOXICITIES
The feeding of freshly harvested roots can cause scouring in the livestock.
When boiled turnips are fed to the animals, they may suffer from nitrite
toxicity.
18.25 UTILIZATION
Turnip is profusely used as a fodder for livestock worldwide. Turnip

leaves are sometimes eaten as vegetables, like mustard. Turnip greens are
a common side dish in many countries. Smaller leaves are preferred as
vegetables but the bitter taste of larger leaves can be reduced by pouring
off the water from the initial boiling and replacing it with fresh water.
Most baby turnips can be eaten whole, including their leaves. Their flavor
is mild, so they can be eaten raw in salads.
KEYWORDS
•• turnip
•• fodder yield
•• utilization
REFERENCES
Jacobs et al. A Survey on the Effect of Establishment Techniques, Crop Management,
Moisture Availability and Soil Type on Turnip Dry Matter Yields and Nutritive
Characteristics in Western Victoria. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 2001, 41, 743–751.
Jacobs et al. Effect of Seedbed Techniques, Variety, Soil Type and Sowing Time, on
Brassica Dry Matter Yields, Water Use Efficiency and Crop Nutritive Characteristics in
Western Victoria. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 2002, 42, 945–952.
CHAPTER 19
GAJAR (CARROT)
MOHAMMED ABDEL FATTAH1 and MD. HEDAYETULLAH2*
Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture,
1
Cairo University, Giza Egypt

2

*
ABSTRACT
Carrot is popularly known as gajar in India. This root crop is palatable,

succulent, easily digestible, and popular feed of all livestock. The feeding
value is superior to other root forage crops. The carrot takes about 3 months
to be ready for harvest. Harvesting can start after last irrigation by pulling
by hand, a spade, or a country plow. Carrots are harvested when they have
reached a diameter of 20 mm and more, still young and tender. The carrot
is a root vegetable commonly grown in temperate climates worldwide
for its white, bulbous taproot system. Small, tender varieties are grown
for human consumption, while larger varieties are grown as a feed and
fodder for livestock. Carrot leaves are good poultry feed. Carrot is the
most quickly growing fodder crop. The average yield of carrot fodder is
500–600 q/ha under good management conditions. The average seed yield
may vary from 6 to 8 q/ha.
Kingdom: Plantae
Orders: Apiales
Family: Apiaceae or Umbelliferae
Genus: Daucus
Species: Carota
Variety: sativa DC
Binomial name: Daucus carota var sativa
19.2 BOTANICAL NAME
Daucus carota var sativa
19.3 COMMON NAME
Carrot.
19.4 INTRODUCTION
Carrot belongs to Apiaceae family and is popularly known as gajar in

India. This root crop is palatable, succulent, easily digestible, and popular
feed of all livestock. The feeding value is superior to other root forage
crops. Carrot is a root vegetable commonly grown in temperate climates
worldwide for its white, bulbous taproot system. Small, tender varieties
are grown for human consumption, while larger varieties are grown as
a feed and fodder for livestock. Carrot takes about 3 months to be ready
for harvest. Harvesting can start after last irrigation by pulling by hand, a
spade, or a country plow. Carrots are harvested when they have reached
a diameter of 20 mm and more, still young and tender. Carrot leaves are
good poultry feed. Carrot is the most quickly growing fodder crop. The
average yield of carrot fodder is 500–600 q/ha under good management
conditions. The tuber dry matter contains about 12–14% of which 1%
crude protein, 9% carbohydrate, and 1% fiber. The carrot leaves are quite
rich in calcium, phosphorus, and minerals.
Carrot is a native of India and Eurasia. It is now grown in Europe, the

United States, New Zealand, Canada, Australia, the Middle East, and Far
Gajar (Carrot) 217
East countries. It is grown as a fodder in the states of North and West India
but as a vegetable, it is grown in throughout the country.
The carrot is an erect, annual, or biennial plant, 30–100 cm in height. The

root is the edible part and it is basically a swollen base of the taproot that also
includes the hypocotyls. It is conical and its length varies from 5 to 25 cm.
The color of the roots varies from white, yellow, orange–yellow, light purple,
deep red to deep violet. The stem consists of a small plate-like “crown.”
Leaves are produced in the first season. They have long petioles and are
pinnately compound flower. The inflorescence is a terminal compound umbel,
subtended by pinnatifid bracts. The flowers of the umbel are white except for
the central ones which are either red or purple. Flowers are produced in the
second year. Seeds, like flowers, are produced in the second year.
The carrot is a cool-weather crop and it also does well in warm climates.
The optimum temperature for growth is between 15°C and 20°C. Temper-
atures below 10°C cause longer, more slender, and paler roots. Shorter,
thicker roots are produced at higher temperatures. Extended periods of
hot weather can cause strong flavor and coarse roots. Development is
also slower in winter than in spring and summer. Carrots require a steady
supply of moisture and it must be maintained at above 50% of available
moisture throughout growth. Generally, carrots require approximately 25
mm of water per week but under warm, dry conditions 50 mm will be
required and it also depends upon the soil type.
Carrots require a well-drained fine-textured or sandy soil to prevent

forking. Heavy soils and soil compaction can cause deformation and
stunting in roots (Sorensen, 2000). Carrots tolerate a wide range of pH
values ranging 4.2–8.7 but prefer a pH from 5.5 to 7.0 (OSU, 2004). Apply
lime only if the soil pH is lower than 5.2 (OSU, 2004). Carrot prefers deep,
loose, and sandy to loamy soils with a pH of 6.0–6.5. The soil should be
well plowed and as level as possible in order to obtain a good stand. It
must have a good crumbly structure and kept moist enough to allow seed
germination. Therefore, the soil must be deep plowed to loosen the soil to
a depth of at least 30 cm.
19.9 VARIETIES
Fodder varieties are generally large in size, white fleshed, and yield more
than the vegetable varieties. The popular varieties for fodder purposes
are Sirsa, Belgian, Improved Long Orange, Mastodon, and Giant yellow
oxheart. Many varieties, both indigenous and exotic, differing in tempera-
ture requirement, length, size, shape, and color of roots and duration of crop
are grown in India. Tropical or Asiatic or annual types do not require low
temperature for flowering and they produce seeds in plains of North India,
for example, Pusa Kesar and Pusa Meghali (Chatterjee and Das, 1989).
19.10 SOWING TIME
Sowing of carrot starts from September to November and it may be from

April to June after snow melts away in temperate regions.
The seeds are directly sown in the field on ridges or raised beds. Row
planting is preferred to broadcast sowing. The seeding depth should
be 10–25 mm or 40 mm in loose, light sand. Planting depth should be
shallow on heavier soils and in colder months. Slightly deeper planting is
recommended in summer when the soil dries out quickly. The chance of a
successful establishment of the crop will be increased.
19.12 SPACING
The rows are generally spaced from 20 to 40 cm apart. A planting density

of 180–190/m2 gives good results in double rows whereas a density of
130/m2 is ideal for single-row fodder crops.
Gajar (Carrot) 219
19.13 CROP MIXTURE
Carrot can be grown in association with oats, wheat, barley, gram, etc.
Some of the important rotations of the carrot are given bellow:
• Sorghum–carrot
• Maize–carrot
• Pearl millet–carrot
• Paddy–carrot
• Jute–carrot
Compost or organic manure should not be applied since they cause unat-
tractive, hairy roots, with a coarser texture. Fertilizer recommendations
should be based on soil analyses. A fertilizer dose of 40–50 kg N, 40–50
kg P2O5, and 80–100 kg K2O is recommended for the crop. As a general
guide, 100 kg/ha fertilizer mixture of 2:3:4 should be worked into the soil
before planting. Limestone ammonium nitrate at a rate of 100–200 kg/ha
should be applied as a top dressing 8 weeks after planting. Carrots have
low nitrogen requirements, and good yields can be obtained with 80 kg/ha
of nitrogen applications. Phosphorus at the rate of 40 kg/ha are sufficient
to produce a good crop. The crop has a high potassium requirement and a
half is applied as a side dressing at 4–8 weeks after planting. The balance
is applied as a late dressing.
The soil should never be allowed to dry out. Too much moisture causes
short carrots with light color and a larger diameter. The field should be
irrigated lightly immediately after sowing. Irrigation water should be
applied once or twice a day using a sprinkler system. Watering should
gradually be reduced to prevent longitudinal splitting of the roots when
the crop approaches maturity. Water stress during root development also
causes cracking of the roots, which also become hard. First irrigation should
be applied immediately after sowing followed by another 4–6 days after.
Soil should be kept moist by frequent light irrigation for proper growth
of roots. Excessive irrigation, that too towards the last stage, should be
avoided as it may result in excessive vegetative growth.
Soil cultivation between the rows is carried out at an early stage, merely to
control weeds. Weeds can be controlled mechanically, by hand, using a hoe,
chemically, or by combining all these methods. Integrated weed manage-
ment is also good practice in carrot for controlling weeds. Fluazifop-P-
butyl chemical may be sprayed over the crop, as an early postemergence
herbicide, for the control of many annual and perennial grasses. The dosage
depends on the grass species and its stage of growth; young weeds are
controlled with lower dosages than old ones. Flurochloridone herbicide is
applied as a preemergent, as soon as possible after sowing, for the control
of a wide range of broadleaf weeds. Its major disadvantage is its fairly
long residual action of about 6 months, which can damage susceptible
crops grown after the treated carrots. It is, thus, not a good option where
vegetables are grown in quick succession. Haloxyfop-R-methyl ester may
be used as a postemergent for the control of annual and perennial grasses.
Soil should be hoed frequently to allow proper aeration and to prevent
discoloration of crown.
Aphids sometimes occur on the leaves and crowns, and flower stems of
carrots. They suck the sap from the plants resulting in retarded growth,
yellowing, and restricted seed production. Control can be achieved
by spraying with a registered pesticide. Red spider mite is generally
not a serious pest in carrots but the numbers can increase rapidly as
it gets warm. Cutworms can cause problems throughout growth. They
cut young seedlings after emergence and feed on or around the carrots
shoulders later in growth. Cutworms can be controlled by applying
registered pesticides. Alternaria blight is dark brown to black spots,
some with a yellow edge, appearing on the leaves. The oldest leaves are
more susceptible than younger ones. The disease can be controlled by
disinfecting seeds with a seed dressing, containing Thiram, and sowing
Gajar (Carrot) 221
certified seeds. In areas where blight is a problem, carrots should not be

cultivated on fields that remain fallow or crop rotation. Bacterial blight
disease is characterized by brown spots developing on the leaves and
brown stripes on the petioles. In seed crops, the flower stems and inflo-
rescence can be affected, whereas in carrots, brown, horizontal lesions
appear on the leaves.
19.18 HARVESTING
The carrot takes about 3 months to be ready for harvest. Harvesting can
start after last irrigation by pulling by hand, a spade, or a country plow.
Carrots are harvested when they have reached a diameter of 20 mm and
more, still young and tender. Usually when the carrots have reached the
mature stage, their base tips appear on the soil surface.
19.19 YIELD
Carrot is the most quickly growing fodder crop. The average yield of
carrot fodder is 500–600 q/ha under good management conditions.
Carrot requires cooler climate for its seed production. For seed produc-
tion, entire leaves are harvested with a height of 5–6 cm in the months
of January–February. Then the bottom one third portions of the root are
chopped off. The top portions of the roots with trimmed leaves are then
planted in a well prepared field. The spacing is maintained in 50–60 cm
row-to-row and 25–30 cm plant to plant. Carrot is a cross-pollinated crop
due to protandry and pollination is done by honey bees. Being a cross-
pollinated crop, allow an isolation distance of 1000 m from other varieties.
Opening of umbel starts from periphery and is completed within 6–7 days.
Then the crop is required frequent light irrigation every 3–4 weeks. The
flowers come in the month of April and are harvested in May. The average
seed yield may vary from 6 to 8 q/ha.
Deep purple and yellow to orange colored carrots are rich in carotene
which is precursor of vitamin A. The tuber dry matter contains about
12–14% of which 1% crude protein, 9% carbohydrate, and 1% fiber. The
carrot leaves are quite rich in calcium, phosphorus, and minerals.
19.22 UTILIZATION
Carrot is used as a fodder for livestock worldwide for its balanced nutri-
tion. Roots are used for making soups, curries, pies, pickles, and for salad
purposes. Sweet preparation “gajar halwa” prepared out of carrot is deli-
cious and popular. Roots are also canned. Carrot roots are rich sources
of α- and β-carotenes (1890 μg/100 g) and contain sucrose 10 times that
of glucose or fructose. Carrot leaves are a good source of leaf protein. It
is used as a fodder and for preparation of poultry feeds. Carrot has many
medicinal properties. It increases quantity of urine and helps in elimina-
tion of uric acid. It has cooling effect and is beneficial for people suffering
from gall stones, constipation, and heat troubles. Purple and black carrots
are used for preparation of a beverage called “kanji” which is a good appe-
tizer. In France, essential oil separated from seeds is used for flavoring
liquors and all kinds of food substitutes.
KEYWORDS
•• carrot
•• fodder yield
•• utilization
Gajar (Carrot) 223
REFERENCES
Oregon State University (OSU). Carrots. Commercial Vegetable Production Guides, 2004.
http://hort-devel-nwrec.hort.oregonstate.edu/carrot.html (accessed Nov 10, 2017).
Sorensen, E. Crop Profile for Carrots in Washington State; Washington State University
Extension, 2000. http:// www.ipmcenters.org/cropprofiles/docs/wacarrot.html (accessed
Nov 12, 2017).
CHAPTER 20
AMARANTHUS (PIGWEED)
G. C. BORA*
Department of Plant Breeding & Genetics,
Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat 785013, Assam, India
*
ABSTRACT
Amaranthus can be grown as an important forage crop. This plant may be

fed to cattle and pigs as forage and fodder. When supplied in moderation, it
is regarded as an exceptionally nutritious fodder. However, excess amount
may cause many health problems in domestic animals. The amaranth is
grown throughout the year in India because of its low production cost and
high yield. The amaranth is really unique in many respects. It is easy to
cultivate in a kitchen garden or on large scale and responds very favorably
to fertilizer and organic manure. Such forage may cause fatal nephrotox-
icity, presumably because of its high oxalate content. Other symptoms,
such as bloat, might reflect its high nitrate content. Amaranth contains
phytochemicals that may be antinutrient factors, such as polyphenols,
saponins, tannins, and oxalates which are reduced in content and effect
by cooking. The average yield of green leaves is about 74–94 q/ha. The
average yield in “Shyamoli” and “Rodali” has been recorded to be 126 q/
ha and 111 q/ha, respectively.
Kingdom: Plantae
Order: Caryophyllales
Family: Amaranthaceae
Subfamily: Amaranthoideae
Genus: Amaranthus
Species: Spp.
20.2 BOTANICAL NAME
Amaranthus spp.
20.3 COMMON NAME
Amaranthus, pigweed, Tampala, Tassel Flower, Flaming Fountain, Foun-

tain Plant, Joseph’s Coat, Love-lies-bleeding, Molten Flower, Prince’s
Feather, and Summer Poinsettia.
20.4 INTRODUCTION
Amaranthus is one of the most common leafy vegetable crops grown in

India. In Western countries, it is grown mostly for grain and ornamental
purpose. Like many plant species, Amaranthus can be grown as an impor-
tant forage crop. This plant may be fed to cattle and pigs as forage and
fodder. When supplied in moderation, it is regarded as an exceptionally
nutritious fodder. However, excess amount may cause many health prob-
lems in domestic animals. The amaranth is grown throughout the year in
India because of its low production cost and high yield. It is easy to culti-
vate in a kitchen garden or on large scale and responds very favorably to
fertilizer and organic manure. Such forage may cause fatal nephrotoxicity,
presumably because of its high oxalate content. Other symptoms, such
as bloat, might reflect its high nitrate content. Amaranth contains phyto-
chemicals that may be antinutrient factors, such as polyphenols, saponins,
tannins, and oxalates which are reduced in content and effect, by cooking.
The average yield of green leaves is about 74–94 q/ha. The average yield
in “Shyamoli” and “Rodali” has been recorded to be 126 q/ha and 111 q/
ha, respectively.
Amaranthus (Pigweed) 227
20.5 DESCRIPTION
Amaranthus belongs to the family Amaranthaceae which comprises 65

genera and 850 species. The genus Amaranthus includes 50–60 species,
the leaves of which are edible. These are most important leafy vegetables
of the tropical countries, that is, South Asia, Southeast Asia, East Africa,
Central Africa, West Africa, Ethiopia, the Pacific, and Far East. The
important species of leafy amaranth are: A. tricolor L., A. dubious Mart.
ex Thell., A. lividus, A. blitum, A. tristis L, A. spinosus, A. viridis L. and A.
graecizans L. The most popular grain amaranth species are A. hypochon-
driacus L., A. cruentus L., and A. caudatus.
20.6 DISTRIBUTION
The green leafy amaranthus is said to be the native of India. The centers
of diversity for Amaranthus species are Central and South America, India,
and Southeast Asia. The secondary centers of diversity are West Africa
and East Africa. A wide variation is reported to exist within each species in
growth habit, disease resistance, caste, and quality, thus offering consider-
able scope for future breeding programs. In India, grain amaranthus is
grown along with the whole length of the Himalayas from Kashmir to
Bhutan on the South Indian hills. In the plains of India, particularly in
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, Delhi, Odisha, West Bengal, and Assam,
it is grown for leafy greens.
The amaranth plant is a grain and green crop plant. The plant develops
long flowers, which can be upright or trailing depending on the variety.
The flowers are used to produce the amaranth grain, while the leaves can
be used as amaranth greens. It is an annual or short-lived perennial plant.
Some amaranth species are cultivated as leaf vegetables, pseudocereals,
and ornamental plants. Most of the species from Amaranthus are summer
annual weeds and are commonly referred to as pigweed. Catkin-like cymes
of densely packed flowers grow in summer or autumn. Approximately, 60
species are recognized with inflorescences and foliage ranging from purple
and red to green or gold. Members of this genus share many characteristics
and uses with members of the closely related genus Celosia. Amaranthus
leaves are oval, 2–4-in. long, starting out green or dark red and changing to
bright yellow, orange, or florescent pink at the top (Fig. 20.1). The foliage
of all varieties of Amaranthus is edible, highly nutritious, and is described
as tasting like spinach.
Bisexual or unisexual, amaranthus flowers are typically very small
and usually prickly with bristly perianth and bracts. Bracts subtend the
flower with two scarious or membranous bractlets. The flower’s androe-
cium holds usually five stamens located opposite the sepals. Its stamens
are generally united for part or all of the length into a membranous tube
or crown-like structure, sometimes with tiny appendages between the
anthers. Leaves on the amaranthus are alternate, simple, estipulate, and
generally whole.
Amaranthus is a warm season crop adapted to the condition of hot, humid

tropics, but is also suitable for temperate climate during summer. Like
many vegetable crops, it needs at least 5 h of sunlight a day to do well.
Although it could be grown in rainy season but it is highly susceptible
to water logging. It belongs to C4 group of plants, species with efficient
photosynthetic abilities that respond best to full sunlight. It has rapid, short
growth cycles, high net assimilation rates, low CO2 compensation point,
and low transpiration coefficient (Nath, 1987).
It grows in every type of soil but the best crop is harvested from fertile
loamy soils. The proper drainage system in the field is necessary, because
this crop is susceptible to water logging. It can tolerate somewhat dry soil
too. The best growing soil pH range is between 5.5 and 7.5, but some
of the strains are successfully grown in soils with the pH up to 10. The
soil should be brought to a fine tilth by plowing three or four times and
leveling.
20.10 VARIETIES
While growing amaranth for food, it is best to select varieties of amaranth

that work well as a food crop. If amaranth is to be grown as a grain, some
amaranth varieties to consider include: Amaranthus caudatus, Amaran-
thus cruentus, Amaranthus hypochondriacus, and Amaranthus retroflexus.
If it is to be grown as leafy greens, some amaranth varieties best suited
to this include: Amaranthus cruentus, Amaranthus blitum, Amaranthus
dubius, Amaranthus tricolor, and Amaranthus viridis. There are “green”
and red or purple types of amaranthus both nutritionally similar but
aesthetically preferred based on local demand and choice. The varieties
“Co-1” (A. dubius), “Co-2” (A. tricolor Linn.), “Co-3” (A. tristis Linn.),
“Chotti Chaulai” (A. blitum Linn.), and “Badi Chaulai” (A. tricolor Linn.)
are green types. The Kerala Agricultural University has evolved “Kannara
Local” (A. tricolor Linn.) which is a red type. Recently Assam Agricul-
tural University (AAU) has developed and recommended two amaranth
varieties, namely, Shyamoli (JORAM-1) and Rodali (JORAM-2) for
the state of Assam (Bora, 2016; Bora et al., 2013). The plant and leaf
color of the first one is green whereas the second one is purple. There are
once-over harvest types and many cut types of amaranth. Many varieties
recommended by different states are presented in Table 20.1.
TABLE 20.1 Recommended Varieties of Amaranthus.

Sr. Variety Features
No.
1 Pusa Kirti Leaves green with broad ovate lamina, 6–8-cm long with 4–5-cm
wide. Petiole 3–4-cm long. The stem green and tender. Suitable
for growing in spring–summer (March–June) season in the plains.
Maturity 30–20 days.
2 Pusa Kiran Leaves glossy green with broad ovate lamina. The lamina 7–9-cm
long with 6–7-cm wide. Petiole 5–6.5-cm long. The stem glossy–
green. Suitable for growing in kharif (July–October) season in the
plains. Maturity 25–30 days.
3 Pusa Lal The upper surface of leaf deep red or magenta, lower surfaces
Chaulai purplish red. The lamina 8.5-cm long with 6.5-cm wide. Petiole
4.2-cm long. The stem deep red in color. Suitable for sowing in both
spring–summer and kharif seasons in the plains. Maturity 25–30
days.
4 Co-1 Dark green in color grows vigorously, high yielder. Released by
TNAU, Coimbatore.
TABLE 20.1 (Continued)

Sr. Variety Features
No.
5 Co-2 Dark green lanceolate leaves, 20–25 days duration, 10–11 t/ha.
Developed by TNAU, Coimbatore.
6 Co-3 Green leaves, 20–25 days for harvest up to 3 months, multicutting,
and yield 10–12 t/ha.
7 Co-4 A dual purpose type for greens and grains. Plants dwarf, 20–25
days for leaves, 80–90 days for grains. Yield 7–8 t/ha (green) and
2–2.5 t/ha (grain).
8 Lal Sag Grown popularly in many states. Belongs to A. mangostanus, high
yielding Indian variety. Produces seed early, has small flowers.
9 Arka Suguna It is a pure line selection from an exotic collection from Taiwan
(IIHR-47). Leaves are light green, broad, and succulent stem.
First harvest in 25–30 days after sowing and 5–6 cuts in 90 days.
It is moderately resistant to white rust. It is recommended for
Karnataka.
10 Arka A new mutant which is resistant to white rust and rich in calcium
Arunima and iron and low in antinutrient factors like oxalate and nitrates.
It is a multicut, purple amaranth variety. Its leaves are broad and
dark purple in color. It becomes ready for first cutting in 30 days
after sowing. Two subsequent cuttings can be taken at 10–12 days
interval. It grows well in kharif and rabi–summer seasons.
11 Badi Chaulai Green large leaves. Plants tall, 2–3 cuttings, suitable for summer
and kharif sowing. Developed by IARI.
12 Chotti Green, plants dwarf, suitable for spring–summer season, 6–7
Chaulai cuttings. Developed by IARI.
13 Amt 105 Green leaves. Stem green with reddish base. Suitable for central
zone of Kerala, yield 13 t/ha.
14 Amt 237 Green leaves and stem. Suitable for Kerala, yield 15–16 t/ha
(greens).
15 Shyamoli Green leaves and stems good in taste. Suitable for spring–summer
season. Yield 13 t/ha (greens). Duration 30–20 days for first
harvest. Developed by AAU, Jorhat and recommended for the state
of Assam.
16 Rodali Purple leaves and stem, good in taste. Suitable for spring–summer
season. Yield 11 t/ha (greens). Duration 30–20 days for first
harvest. Developed by AAU, Jorhat and recommended for the state
of Assam.
AAU, Assam Agriculture University; IARI, Indian Agriculture Research Institute; TNAU,
Tamil Nadu Agriculture University.
20.11 SOWING TIME
In the plains of North and Northeast India it is normally sown in March–

April to take as a summer crop. The rainy season crop is sown in June–July
or at the break of monsoon. In southern states, where the climate is favor-
able, it is sown throughout the year.
The seeds of amaranth may be treated before sowing with fungicides like
Thiram or emisan or captan @ 2 g/kg of seeds as a precaution against
damping off disease which is common in warm nursery. The nursery bed
may be drenched with 0.2% solution of captan. The seeds may be inocu-
lated with biofertilizers like Azospirillum and phosphorus solubilizing
bacteria (PSB) for making nitrogen and phosphorus easily available to
the seedlings and plants. They will further enhance the activity of the
microorganisms in the soil.
In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, amaranth is a transplanted crop. It is directly

sown in North India and Assam. The seed requirement for direct sowing
is 2–3 kg/ha and 1 kg/ha for transplanted crop. The seeds of amaranth are
very small and sown shallow at the depth of 1 cm in rows about 20–30 cm
apart in flat beds, if repeated cuttings are to be made. The seeds are usually
broadcast in flatbed and then transplanted after 3–4 weeks of sowing. If
plants are to be uprooted, 10 cm spacing is sufficient. Germination is seen
in 10–14 days at 70°F temperature.
20.14 CROP MIXTURE
The grain types are usually grown as mixed crops along with cereals,
pulses, and vegetables.
It grows on residual fertility of the previous crop taken in the field.

However, the basal application of 25–30 t of Farmyard manure per hectare
at the time of field preparation ensures a good crop. Some of the fertilizer
recommendations are as follows: 50 kg nitrogen, 50 kg phosphorus, and
20 kg of potash per hectare. Three top dressings of ammonium sulfate can
be done, first 1 month after sowing and the subsequent dressings soon
after the first and second cuttings. The clipping type amaranth “Co-3”
requires a higher fertilizer dose 75 kg N, 25 kg each of P2O5 and K2O
per hectare. Amaranth is highly adapted and quite efficient at extracting
necessary minerals from a poor soil. Nevertheless, it has a high potassium
requirement.
Water is the most essential commodity for growth and development

of vegetable crops. It is absorbed by roots and along with nutrients
it is translocated to different parts of the plant. Water influences
photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, utilization of mineral nutrients,
and cell division in plants. Vegetable crops require water almost
throughout the growing season. However, water use is critical in certain
specific growth periods of the plant, varying with the crop species. Water
available to the crops should neither be in excess nor shortage as both are
harmful to the plants. Water stress or even excess of water during critical
period will adversely affect the yield and quality of vegetable. The leafy
crops require uniform soil moisture throughout their development. In
amaranthus, moisture in soil is very necessary at the time of sowing in
heavy soils, and in light soils a light irrigation should be given soon after
sowing if soil moisture is insufficient. During summer, it is necessary to
irrigate the crop at 3–5 days interval. The flood irrigation is practiced
in crops grown in rows or by broadcast on well-leveled land with heavy
soil. Furrow system of irrigation may be practiced if the crop is planted
on ridges or raised beds (about 15–22-cm high). Sprinkler irrigation is
useful in sandy or sandy loam soil. In order to reduce the water loss drip
irrigation may be practiced.
The crop of amaranth is erect in growth allowing enough of weed growth

which may be removed from time to time. Hoeing is easy in the plots
with row sowing. First weeding should be done at 20 days after seedling
emergence.
Leaf webber is a serious pest of amaranth. It can be controlled by

destroying the larvae manually. Ants are also causing attack of this crop
which can be controlled by applying malathion dust in the soil. It is
advisable to avoid application of insecticides in amaranth. To control
seed-borne diseases, seed treatment with captan powder and to control
soil-borne diseases, soil drenching with captan solution is advocated
as stated above. Although diseases are not a severe problem, but leaf
spot and white rust are two diseases which affect the amaranth plants.
Leaf spots can be controlled by spraying Bordeaux mixture (5:5:50)
or 0.3% Blitox three times at an interval of 15 days (Singh, 2009).
White rust can be controlled by following crop rotation and by spraying
Dithane M-45 or any other copper fungicide at the rate of 1 kg per 500
L of water.
20.19 HARVESTING
The crop becomes ready for harvesting about 3–4 weeks after sowing and
subsequent cuttings may be done after 7–10 days. Cuttings may be done
at 7 days interval in “Chotti Chaulai” and at 10 days interval in “Badi
Chaulai”. In both “Shyamoli” and “Rodali” which were developed by
AAU, Jorhat and recommended for the state of Assam, cuttings may be
done at 10 days interval provided that adequate moisture in the soil is
maintained. The plants are harvested by cutting them periodically. The
crop rejuvenates quickly after each cutting. It does not stand storage for
more than a few hours under ordinary conditions.
20.20 YIELD
The average yield of green leaves is about 74–94 q/ha. The average yield
in “Shyamoli” and “Rodali” has been recorded to be 126 and 111 q/ha,
respectively.
The agronomic practices normally followed for production of tender

leaves and stems are also usually employed for seed production. In soil
of high alkalinity, the quality of seed will be very much affected. For
seed crop, a spacing of 30 cm × 30 cm is usually maintained. Amaranth
responds well to fertilizer schedule of 50 kg N and P, and 30 kg K per
hectare in respect of seed yield. In addition to the soil application,
spraying of urea at the rate of 12 kg N/ha and micronutrients at the rate of
400 g/ha once in 10 days from first flowering increased the yield of good
quality seed.
Since it is a cross-pollinated crop, an isolation distance of about 400
m has been recommended between two varieties for foundation seed and
200 m for certified seed (Anonymous, 1971). It is a quick growing crop
and forms seed in about 10–12 weeks. This is advantageous because after
taking a number of leaf cuttings, only few last cuttings can be omitted
to produce seeds well in June. Rouging of the offtype plants should be
done at different stages of crop growth. Harvesting of inflorescence starts
from 20 days after flowering when the glumes turn brown in color and
seeds turn black. Initial drying of the spikes is seen and drying the seeds
to a 15% moisture content are usually practiced so that the seeds can be
threshed with pliable bamboo sticks. Seeds are then sieved through 2-mm
sieve. The seed yield is about 200 kg/ha and is slightly higher in “Badi
Chaulai” and “Shyamoli.”
Amaranthus is widely adaptabable herb and distributed throughout the

world. Nutritive value per 100 g of edible part of the plant is given in
Table 20.2.
TABLE 20.2 Nutritive Value per 100 g of Edible Portion.

Moisture 85.7 g Protein 4.0 g
Fat 0.5 g Minerals 27 g
Fiber 1.0 g Other carbohydrates 6.3 g
Calories 46 Calcium 397 g
Magnesium 247 mg Oxalic acid 772 mg
Phosphorus 83 mg Iron 25.5 mg
Sodium 230 mg Potassium 341 mg
Copper 0.33 mg Sulfur 61 mg
Chloride 88 mg Vitamin A 9200 IU
Thiamine 0.03 mg Riboflavin 0.10 mg
Nicotinic acid 1.0 mg Vitamin C 99 mg
20.23 UTILIZATION
Amaranthus is used as edible greens, herbs, and grains in Africa, China,

Greece, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Tibet. The fresh tender leaves and
stem give delicious preparation on cooking as in the case of other fresh
leafy vegetables. Cooking is similar to spinach or spinach beet; it is a
cheap vegetable for the common people and is highly rich in vitamin A
and C. The leaves and whole plant is fed to the cattle and pigs as forage
and fodder. Silage can be prepared by chopping and fed to the animals.
Further, the chopped plants with rice bran and chapar are cooked in water
and giving some amount of salt makes it tasty for consumption by the
cattle. As it is having high amount of carbohydrate, the grains are used
as an energy source in different food preparations. The amaranth plant is
typically grown as a decorative flower in North America and Europe. The
seeds are edible, raw or toasted, and can be ground into flour and used
for bread, hot cereal, or as a thickener. In Kerala, it is used to prepare a
popular dish known as thoran by combining the finely cut leaves with
grated coconut, chili peppers, garlic, turmeric, and other ingredients.
When supplied in moderation, it is regarded as an exceptionally nutritious

fodder. However, excess amount may cause many health problems in
domestic animals. Like many other species of Amaranthus, this plant may
be harmful and even deadly when fed to cattle and pigs in large amounts
over several days. Such forage may cause fatal nephrotoxicity, presumably
because of its high oxalate content. Other symptoms, such as bloat, might
reflect its high nitrate content. Amaranth contains phytochemicals that
may be antinutrient factors, such as polyphenols, saponins, tannins, and
oxalates which are reduced in content and effect, by cooking.
FIGURE 20.1 (See color insert.) Amaranthus in flowering stage.
KEYWORDS
•• amaranthus
•• fodder yield
•• utilization
REFERENCES
Anonymous. Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards; Central Seed Committee,

Ministry of Foods and Agriculture, Community Development and Cooperation, New
Delhi; 1971.
Bora, G. C. Pustikar Khadya Hisabe Morisha Sak. Published in Assamese in Weekly
Janambhumi, Jorhat, Assam, March 16, 2016.
Bora, G. C.; Saikia, L.; Bhattacharyya, A.; Rahman, S.; Hazarika, G. N. “Shyamali” and
“Rodali”—Two Promising Varieties of Vegetable Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) Suitable
for Cultivation in NE India. In Book of Abstracts of the National Seminar; Held at
BNCA, AAU, Assam, 2013; Vol. 3, pp 20–19.
Nath, P. Vegetables for the Tropical Region; ICAR Low Priced Book Series No. 2; ICAR:
New Delhi, 1987.
Singh, B. Horticulture at a Glance; Kalyani Publishers: Kolkata, India, 2009.
PART IV
Leguminous Perennial Trees
CHAPTER 21
SUBABUL (RIVER TAMARIND)

SAGARIKA BORAH1, MOKIDUL ISLAM2*, and T. SAMAJDAR1
1
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region,
West Garo Hills, Umroi Road, Umiam 793103, Tura, Meghalaya,
India
SMS, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ri-Bhoi, ICAR Research Complex for
2
NEH Region, Umroi Road, Umiam 793103, Meghalaya, India

*
ABSTRACT
Subabul is an ideal plantation crop due to its multipurpose use and so can
be used by farmers for agroforestry. Subabul cultivation would be particu-
larly appropriate for marginal farmers who do not have access to large land
holdings for fodder production. Subabul is a small, fast-growing tree native
to Southern Mexico and northern Central America, but is now naturalized
throughout the tropics, known as subabul in India. It is used for a variety of
purposes, such as firewood, fiber, and livestock fodder. It is also important to
stabilize the exposed and degraded soils and to help regenerate natural succes-
sion. Dry matter productivity of subabul varies with soil fertility and rainfall.
Edible forage yields range from 30 to 300 q dry matter/ha/year. Subabul is
one the highest quality and most palatable fodder trees. It comprises digest-
ibility of 55–70%, crude protein 20–25%, nitrogen 3–4.5%, ether extract 6%,
ash 6–10%, N-free extract 30–50%, Ca 0.8–1.9%, and P 0.23–0.27%.
Kingdom: Plantae
Orders: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Mimosoideae
Tribe: Mimoseae
Genus: Leucaena
Species: leucocephala (Lam.) De Wit
21.2 BOTANICAL NAME
Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) De Wit.
21.3 COMMON NAME
White lead tree, jumbay, river tamarind, subabul, and white popinac.
21.4 INTRODUCTION
India inhabits 15% of world livestock on 2% geographical area with

5.23% cultivated fodder area. The fodder production in the country is not
sufficient to meet the requirement. Especially, the country’s dairy sector is
hugely affected by unavailability of fodder. At present, the country faces a
net deficit of 35.6% green fodder. The goal of the increased milk produc-
tion can be achieved only through ensuring availability of good-quality
fodder in balanced ratio. So, farmers should be encouraged for cultivation
of different fodder grasses and plantation of different fodder trees. Among
many good quality fodder trees, subabul (Leucaena leucocephala) is an
ideal plantation crop due to its multipurpose use and so can be used by
farmers for agroforestry. Subabul cultivation would be particularly appro-
priate for marginal farmers who do not have access to large land holdings
for fodder production.
Leucaena is a small, fast-growing tree native to Southern Mexico and
northern Central America, but is now naturalized throughout the tropics,
known as subabul in India. The specific name “leucocephala” comes
from “leu,” meaning white, and “cephala,” meaning head, referring to
the flowers. It is used for a variety of purposes, such as firewood, fiber,
and livestock fodder. During the 1970s and 1980s, it was promoted as
a “miracle tree” for its multiple uses. It has also been described as a
Subabul (River Tamarind) 243
“conflict tree” because it is used for forage production but spreads like
a weed in some places. The legume is promoted in several countries
of Southeast Asia, most importantly as a source of quality animal feed,
but also for residual use for firewood or charcoal production. It is
also important to stabilize the exposed and degraded soils and to help
regenerate natural succession.
21.5 BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
Leucaena leucocephala is a small, variably shrubby and highly branched

(ssp. leucocephala) to medium-sized tree with a short, clear bole to 5
m, upright angular branching and a narrow open crown (ssp. glabrata),
3–15 (max. 20) m tall, bole diameter 10–50 cm. Bark on young branches
smooth, grey–brown, slash salmon pink, darker gray–brown and rougher
with shallow, rusty orange–brown vertical fissures and deep red inner bark
on older branches and bole. This evergreen plant is deep rooted. It often
has a combination of flowers, immature and mature pods all present on the
tree at the same time.
Leaves with six to nine pairs pinnae; pinnular rachis 5–10.2-cm long,
leaflets 9–16-mm long, 2–4.5-mm wide, 13–21 pairs per pinna, slightly
asymmetric, linear-oblong to weakly elliptic, acute at tip, rounded to
obtuse at base, glabrous except on margins. Leaves and leaflets fold up
with heat, cold or lack of water.
Flower heads 12–21 mm in diameter, 100–180 flowers per head, in
groups of two to six in leaf axils, arising on actively growing young shoots,
flowers white or pale cream–white.
Pods (min. 9) 11–21-cm long, (min. 13) 15–21-mm wide, (min. 3)
5–20 (max. 45) per flower head, linear-oblong, acute, or rounded at apex,
flat, 8–18 seeded, mid- to orange-brown, glabrous and slightly lustrous
or densely covered in white velvety hairs, papery, opening along both
margins. Seeds are hard, dark brown with a hard, shining testa, 6.7–9.6-mm
long, 4–6.3-mm wide, aligned transversely in pod.
21.6 TYPES OF SUBABUL
There are four types of subabul.

21.6.1 HAWAIIAN TYPE
The plants are short, bushy, and remarkably drought tolerant. It is suited
to hilly terrains in drought prone areas. It is a prolific seed producer and is
good for fodder purpose. K-341 is a Hawaiian variety.
21.6.2 SALVADOR TYPE
It is tall, tree-like, and fast-growing, having maximum annual biomass

production; and possesses large leaves, pods, and seeds than Hawaiian
types; responds to high fertilization. Variety K-8 is useful for fodder
which has variable length up to 35 cm, with a large gland (up to 5 mm)
at the base of the petiole. The tree bears numerous flowers in globose
heads. The pods are 14–26 cm × 1.5–2 cm and brown at maturity. Each
pod bears 18–22 seeds.
21.6.3 PERU
Tall and extensively branching type and is ideal for fodder purpose.
21.6.4 CUNNINGHAM
It is a cross between salvador and peru types.
It cannot withstand water logging. It requires deep well drained neutral

soil and can tolerate saline and acid soil. It can also be grown in steep
slopes, hilly terrains, gravelly areas and sandy loams. It can grow under
a wide range of conditions as a range plant, roadside plant, in pastures,
etc. The land should, however, be cleared of bushes, plowed and leveled
before sowing for better performance. The tree grows very well under
alkaline soils and also performs under dry clayey soils. The growth is
average under sandy, acidic and dry gravel soils. The performance is poor
under marshy, usar lands and in high altitudes. Due to its long and strong
taproot, subabul can penetrate deep in compacted soils. The species has
foliage which fertilizes the soil, as the fallen leaves decompose fast and
form good humus to add soil nutrients. The species is an excellent nitrogen
fixer thereby helps to augment the soil fertility.
Subabul is best suited for warm regions and grows well between 25°C and
30°C (Brewbaker et al., 1985) in regions of 500–2000 mm annual rainfall.
Because of its strong and deep root system, the tree is highly drought resistant
and tolerates dry season extending 8–10 months, but the productivity is
reduced. It is restricted to elevations below 500 m but withstands variations
in rainfall, sunlight, windstorm, slight frost, and drought. Heavy frost kills
the plant, whereas light only defoliates the tree. It is a light demander and
grows slowly under the shade, though tolerates partial shade.
21.9 SEED COLLECTION
Seeds come out of pods which grow in clusters, from mostly self pollinated
flowers, which look like fluffy white ball. The seed has a waxy white coat,
and needs to be treated. In a kg, giant types have about 20,000 seeds.
In general there are 30,000 seeds in a kg of 100% purity with about 6%
moisture. Ripe pods should be collected before they split and dried in the
sun for 3–4 days. The pods then split, when seeds can be gathered by
sieving. Seeds are viable for 3–4 years.
21.10 PRETREATMENT
As the seed coat is hard, they need pretreatment before sowing: This can
be done with any of the following ways:
• Soaking the seed in hot water (80°C) for 2–3 min or in cold water
for 3–4 days.
• Seeds can also be dipped in concentrated sulfuric acid for 4 min and
then washed.
• The seeds should be sundried for about 1 h before sowing.
• Germination occurs in 7 days with 70–80% germinating.
21.11 PLANTING
Direct sowing of seed during monsoons gives good result, but the plants
grow slower than nursery-raised seedlings and if there is prolonged
drought, the germinated seed may dry up. A seed rate of 3–4 kg/ha is
recommended. Sowing is preferably done during February–March in a
nursery or in polythene bags or in situ at 2–3-cm depth. Seedlings (1.5–3
months old with six to eight leaves) are planted in the main field. A spacing
of 1 m × 0.1 m is recommended for a pure crop of fodder, 1.5 m × 0.2 m
for planting in boundaries and borders of coconut gardens, and 2 m × 0.2
m when raised along boundaries. Planting of seedlings can be done with
the onset of rains in May–June or September–October.
21.12 SPACING
The most common spacing adopted are 1.27 m × 1.27 m (50″ × 50″) (i.e.,
6200 plants/ha); 2 m × 2 m (2500 plants/ha); 3 m × 1.5 m (2222 plants/ha).
However, the recommended spacing is 1.5 m × 1.5 m (4445 plants/ha).
21.13 AFTER CARE
Weeds are a major cause of failure or slow establishment. Regular

weeding, till plants are 1–2 m tall, gives best results. Weeding with soil
working round the plants to a radius of 0.5 m should be done at least
thrice in the first year, and as many times as needed in the subsequent
years.
21.14 PESTS AND DISEASES
Subabul generally has been free of serious insect and diseases, but is
susceptible to jumping plant lice (psyllids) which have caused serious
defoliation and mortality in some areas. Some varieties are susceptible
to gummosis, which is most likely caused by Fusarium or Phytoph-
thora species. Leaf spot fungus also can cause defoliation under wet
conditions.
21.15 YIELD AND ROTATION
Dry matter productivity of Leucaena varies with soil fertility and rainfall.
Edible forage yields range from 30 to 300 q dry matter/ha/year. Deep
fertile soils receiving greater than 1500 mm of well-distributed rainfall
produce the largest quantities of quality fodder. Yields in the subtropics,
where temperature limitations reduce growth rates, may be only 15–100 q
of edible fodder/ha/year (Brewbaker et al., 1985).
Subabul is one the highest quality and most palatable fodder trees. It
comprises digestibility of 55–70%, crude protein 20–25%, nitrogen
(N) 3–4.5%, ether extract 6%, ash 6–10%, N-free extract 30–50%, Ca
0.8–1.9%, and P 0.23–0.27%.
The foliage is highly palatable to most grazing animals, especially
compared to other forage tree. In addition, it is very persistent over several
decades of cutting or grazing, is highly productive, recovers quickly from
defoliation, combines well with companion grasses, and can be grazed
with minimal losses from trampling or grazing.
Mimosine is metabolized by ruminants to goitrogenic 3-hydroxy-
4(1H) pyridone (DHP) in the rumen but in some geographical areas, rumi-
nants lack the organisms (such as Synergistes jonesii) that can degrade
DHP. In such cases, toxicity problems from ingestion of Leucaena have
sometimes been overcome by infusing susceptible animals with rumen
fluid from ruminants that possess such organisms, and more recently by
inoculating cattle rumina with such organisms cultured in vitro. Such
measures have facilitated Leucaena use for fodder in Australia and
elsewhere.
21.17 VARIETIES
Fodder quality improves with decreasing seed numbers and breeders have
developed some low seed producing varieties of subabul.
21.17.1 SUBABUL CO-1 (P)
This is a selection of variety Giant pill K-28 of subabul by Tamil Nadu

Agricultural University (TNAU), Coimbatore and released in 1984 for
Tamil Nadu state. The selection is high yielding (green leaf fodder 85 t/ha)
with high protein and drought tolerance.
21.17.2 FD 1423
This is an introduction of subabul (Leucaena diversifolia) by TNAU,

Coimbatore and released for the state of Tamil Nadu in 1999. The intro-
duction is highly psyllid tolerant and is suitable for rainfed conditions. The
green leaf yield is 55 t/ha.
21.18 SUBABUL BISCUITS
Forage, packed in pellets and cubes, is internationally marketed as

animal feed. Subabul biscuits are produced from leaves to reduce
wastage and transport cost. Production of subabul biscuits was initiated
on a small scale in a few districts in Tamil Nadu. A factory has been
setup in Sengipatti village in Thanjavur district to produce these biscuits.
Subabul leaves are collected and grinded and mixed with molasses and
bone meal to produce biscuits. Prosopis pods and rice bran are also
added to enhance the nutritive value of the feed. The biscuits are more
digestible than other feeds and animals tend to consume as much as 20%
more of subabul biscuits.
Subabul biscuits are also preferred to subabul leaves. Trials with milch
cattle and buffaloes show the biscuits enhance milk production. Both the
milking period and the milk yield increased. The yield was higher in rural
areas than in urban centers. In some urban centers, the milk yield increased
by 8–10% and in rural areas the improvement ranged from 10% to 20%.
21.19 TOXICITIES
Subabul is one the highest quality and most palatable fodder trees of the
tropics, often being described as the “alfalfa of the tropics.” The leaf
quality compares favorably with alfalfa or lucerne in feed value except

for its higher tannin content and mimosine toxicity to nonruminants
(Hammond, 1995). Concentrations in young leaf can be as high as 12%
and the edible fraction commonly contains 4–6% mimosine. Livestock
feed should not contain more than 20% of subabul, as the mimosine
can cause hair loss and stomach problems. Leaves have a high nutritive
value (high palatability, digestibility, intake, and crude protein content),
resulting in 70–100% increase in animal live weight gain compared
with feeding on pure grass pasture. Toxicity problems from ingestion
of Leucaena have sometimes been overcome by infusing susceptible
animals with rumen fluid from ruminants that possess such organisms
(Allison et al., 1992).
FIGURE 21.1 (See color insert.) Subabul.

KEYWORDS
•• subabul
•• fodder yield
•• subabul biscuits
•• toxicities
REFERENCES
Allison, M. J.; Mayberry, W. R.; Mcsweeney, C. S.; Stahl, D. A. Synergistes jonesii,

gen. nov., sp. nov.: A Rumen Bacterium that Degrades Toxic Pyridinediols. Syst. Appl.
Microbiol. 1992, 15, 522–529.
Brewbaker, J. L.; Hegde, N.; Hutton, E. M.; Jones, R. J.; Lowry, J. B.; Moog, F.; Van den
Beldt, R. Leucaena—Forage Production and Use; NFTA: Hawaii, 1985; p 39.
Hammond, A. C. Leucaena Toxicosis and Its Control in Ruminants. J. Anim. Sci. 1995, 73,
1487–1492.
CHAPTER 22
GLIRICIDIA (QUICKSTICK)
GOLAM MOINUDDIN*
Assistant Professor, Regional Research Station, Bidhan Chandra
Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Jhargram, West Bengal, India
*
ABSTRACT
Gliricidia is a highly palatable crop for the ruminants like cattle, goat etc. It
is also found as a fence crop and used as supporting tree for black pepper,
as well as shade tree for tea, coffee, cocoa plantations. It forms a broad
canopy when full grown. This tree is an important source of green manure,
fodder, fuel, etc. In many areas it is considered to be the second most
important multipurpose legume tree. Annual leaf dry matter production
of Gliricidia varies from 20 to 200 q/ha/year. The plant can yield up to 22
kg of seed per hectare. Leaf contains crude protein 20–40%, crude fiber
15%, ether extract 4.25%, nitrogen-free extract 51.65%, total acid 11.40%,
digestable crude protein 14.90%, and total digestable nitrogen 69.20%.
Dry matter digestibility varies from 60% to 65%. However, digestibility of
low quality feed can be enhanced by adding with this legume.
Kingdom: Plantae
Orders: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Subfamily: Papilionoideae
Genus: Gliricidia
Species: sepium
22.2 BOTANICAL NAME
Gliricidia sp.: Gliricidia sepium, Gliricidia maculata, Gliricidia brenningii.
22.3 COMMON NAME
Madre de cacao (South America), kakawate (Philippines).
22.4 INTRODUCTION
Gliricidia is a deep-rooted, fast-growing, medium-sized, and thornless

legume tree. It is highly palatable crop for the ruminants such as cattle,
goat, etc. It is also found as a fence crop and used as supporting tree
for black pepper, as well as shade tree for tea, coffee, and cocoa planta-
tions. It forms a broad canopy when full grown. This tree is an important
source of green manure, fodder, fuel, etc. In many areas it is considered
to be the second most important multipurpose legume tree (Daizy, 2007).
Gliricidia is used as good forage crop in cut and carry system specifi-
cally for cattle and goat. Crushed fresh leaves can be used as poultice.
Gliricidia leaves when used as feed, it can increase both weight and milk
production of both large and small ruminants. Sometime boiled leaves
are used as vegetables.
22.5 DESCRIPTION AND PLANT CHARACTERISTICS
Gliricidia is a medium-sized thornless trees. It can attain a height of 10–15

m with basal diameter of 50–70 cm. The stem surface is generally smooth
but varies in color. Leaves are of 30-cm long and alternately opposite or
sub-opposite in nature. Leaflets are 20 cm in length with 1–3 cm in width.
Inflorescence is of compound raceme in nature. Flower’s color varies from
pink to tinged white with yellow spot of the base of the petals. Tender
fruits are green in color and become light yellow-brown at matured stage.
Fruits are of 10–18-cm long and 2-cm wide with 4–10 seeds. Seeds are
light to dark brown in color with shiny in appearance. They take generally
1–5 years for flowering and fruiting.
Gliricidia (Quickstick) 253
This fodder tree has been supposed to be native to Mexico, Central

America, and Northern South America and then introduced to various
parts of Africa and Asia. In addition to its native range it is cultivated in
many tropical and subtropical regions, including the Caribbean, India, and
Southeast Asia (Hughes, 1987).
Gliricidia is generally grown in seasonally dry climate up to an altitude

of 1200 m. For this reason it is deciduous in nature; however, under
secured rainfall it may become evergreen. The mean temperature for
growth is 20–30°C. Gliricidia can be grown in low rainfall areas of
tropics having annual rainfall 800–1700 mm. It can tolerate seasonal
drought with mean annual rainfall of less than 600 mm. This tree can
also tolerate high wind velocity.
22.8 SOIL
It can be cultivated in a wide range of soil from sand to heavy clay. It

can also thrive well in acid soil (pH 4.5–5), slightly alkaline soil, and
calcareous soil. For good crop stand it likes well-drained soil. It is also
suitable for cultivation in atoll environment. Gliricidia is not generally
grown in areas of cool, wet, poor or compacted soil, very acidic soil
(pH < 4.5), or alkaline soil (pH > 9).
22.9 SOWING TIME
Gliricidia when propagated through cuttings, cuttings are planted on bunds

at 50-cm spacing during rainy season. Planting is done immediately after
cuttings are separated from stem. When cultivation is done in steep slope
the spacing is maintained at less than 20 cm. To obtain highest forage
production, planting density of 4 trees/m2 is maintained. Plants raised from
cuttings grow better from those grown from seeds.
22.10 SEED TREATMENT
It should be treated with fungicide like carbendazim, Thiram, zairam, and

captan or by Trichoderma viride.
As Gliricidia is generally cut frequently for forage purpose, plants do not

get chance to form seeds, then this crop is propagated through vegeta-
tive cuttings. For selecting cuttings, branch should be more than 7 cm in
diameter and 30–100 cm in length and brownish-green in color. At first
“V” shaped cut is made at both ends and then it is inserted into soil up to a
depth of 20–50 cm depending upon the length of the cutting. When sowing
is done through seeds, seeds are soaked in water overnight, then soaked
seeds are sown in small plastic sachets filled with mixture of soil, sand,
and FYM at 1:1:1 ratio. Watering is done regularly. Seedlings come out
generally in 8–12 weeks. After 8 weeks, seedlings are double-spaced for
more light penetration and aeration. Then seedlings are planted at desired
spacing, the whole process generally takes 3–4 months.
22.12 INTERCROPPING
Gliricidia has a great potential to be used in intercropping as it fix atmo-

spheric N2 into soil. So when this crop is intercropped with other crops, it
can boost up crop yields significantly without the needs of chemical fertil-
izers. This crop is generally intercropped with tea, coffee, vanilla, yam, etc.
Irrigation is not generally done except in very dry climate when annual rain
falls below 600 mm. However, waterlogging situation should be avoided.
For herbicidal treatments, simazine @ 1 kg a.i./ha can be used as preemer-

gence herbicide for control of grasses and broad leaf.
It is mostly insect-free as it has insect repellent property. However infesta-

tion of aphid (Aphis craccivora) during onset of rains causes blackening of
leaf surface. Disease like little leaf cause by mycoplasma-like organism,
chocolate brown leaf spot, etc. are found to happen. Colletotrichum sp.
causes small, dark brown leaf spot. Cladosporium sp. can cause leaf defo-
liation and brown scab-like lesions on petioles and stems. Leaf scorch/
scald and powdery black leaf spot are reported to occur.
22.16 HARVESTING
Gliricidia is a cross-pollinated crop. Flowering begins at the start of dry

season (November–March). Ripening of pods depend upon the climatic
condition and usually take 45–60 days. Harvesting should be done in proper
time as pods are dehiscence in nature. Therefore, ripen pods are collected
before they dehisce. If pods become over matured, seeds come out due to
burst out of pods and seeds can disperse up to a distance of 40 m.
22.17 YIELD
Annual leaf dry matter production of Gliricidia varies from 20 to 200 q/ha/
year. The plant can yield up to 22 kg of seed per hectare.
Leaf contains crude protein 20–40%, crude fiber 15%, ether extract 4.25%,
nitrogen-free extract 51.65%, total acid 11.40%, digestable crude protein
14.90%, and total digestable nitrogen 69.20%. Dry matter digestibility
varies from 60% to 65%. However, digestibility of low-quality feed can
be enhanced by adding with this legume.
22.19 UTILIZATION
Gliricidia is used as good forage crop in cut and carry system specifically
for cattle and goat. Crushed fresh leaves can be used as poultice. Gliricidia
leaves when used as feed, it can increase both weight and milk production
of both large and small ruminants. Sometime boiled leaves are used as
vegetables.
22.20 SPECIAL FEATURES
Due to some smell of leaves, sometimes animals seem to refuse to take it

as feed, but its palatability can be enhanced by adding molasses or salt or
by wilting for 12–24 h before feeding. The cultivation of Gliricidia is also
confined in tropical areas. Sometime problem in pollination occurs during
cultivation due to absence of sufficient pollinators.
22.21 COMPATIBILITY
New plants are susceptible to competition from grasses during the first
year, it is a good competitor.
FIGURE 22.1 (See color insert.) Gliricidia.

KEYWORDS
•• Gliricidia
•• fodder yield
REFERENCES
Daizy, R. B. Ecological Basis of Agroforestry; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, 2007; p 44.
Hughes, C. E. Biological Considerations in Designing a Seed Collection Strategy for
Gliricidia sepium. Commonw. For. Rev. 1987, 66, 31–48.
CHAPTER 23
KHEJRI (PROSOPIS)
RAJ KUMAR*, B. S. KHADDA, A. K. RAI, J. K. JADAV, and
SHAKTI KHAJURIA
SMS, Krishi Vigyan Kendra Panchmahal (ICAR-Central Institute
for Arid Horticulture), Godhra-Vadodara Highway, Vejalpur,
Panchmahal 389340, Gujarat, India
*
ABSTRACT
Khejri is the state tree of Rajasthan, linked with the socioeconomic

development of Indian Thar Desert. This tree is termed as “kalptaru” or
the “king of desert” owing to its food, feed, and medicinal values. It is
believed that the local name khejri has been derived from the name of
a village Khejrali in Jodhpur district of Rajasthan. The species is very
common in arid and semiarid zones of the country and it is a multipurpose
tree because almost every part of the tree is utilized. The tender pods are
eaten green or dried after boiling, locally called as sangri used in prepara-
tion of curries and pickles and ripe pods are called as khokha, sweet which
contain 9–14% crude protein, 6–16% sugar, 1.0–3.4% reducing sugars,
and 45–55% carbohydrate. The pods and leaves are favorite feed for
animals especially goats, ship, camel, etc. Its wood (stem and branches) is
favored for cooking and domestic heating, hard and reasonably durable;
the wood has a variety of uses for house building, posts, tool handles, and
boat frames. The Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce is an important tree for the
Thar Desert with hard climatic adaptation, represents one of the lifeline
in desert habitat. This is a species represents all five-F, namely, Forest,
Fiber, Fuel, Fodder and Food. This tree is also mythological important
in local communities. High value of this species recognized as a State
symbol (state tree of Rajasthan). Sangri is light green in color, straight,
roundish flat, soft, sweet in taste, length range from 13.1 to 20.2 cm, and
weight between 0.97 and 1.75 g. The ripe pods are 13.5–22.5 cm in length,
0.49–0.65 cm in width, and 1.65–2.15 g in weight with 11.15–16.85 seeds
per pod. The weight of 100 seeds is 0.66 g. A 5-year-grafted plant yields a
harvest of about 4.25 kg tender pods (sangri) and 6.25 kg fodder (loong)
per year.
Kingdom: Plantae
Orders: Fabales
Family: Fabaceae
Genus: Prosopis
Species: cineraria (L.) Druce
Binomial name: Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce
23.2 BOTANICAL NAME
Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce; Synonyms: Prosopis spicigera L.; Prosopis

spicata Burm
23.3 COMMON NAME
It is also known as Jand Jhind, Jhand (Punjab); Janti, Chonksa (Delhi);

Banni, Perumbaj (Karnataka); Sani Sumri (Gujarat); Kandi (Sindh);
Jambu, Perumbaj (Tamil Nadu); and Jamichettu (Andhra Pradesh).
23.4 INTRODUCTION
Khejri Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce is the state tree of Rajasthan,

linked with the socioeconomic development of Indian Thar Desert.
This tree is termed as “kalptaru” or the “king of desert” owing to its
food, feed, and medicinal values. It is also known as Jand Jhind, Jhand
(Punjab); Janti, Chonksa (Delhi); Banni, Perumbaj (Karnataka); Sani
Sumri (Gujarat); Kandi (Sindh); Jambu, Perumbaj (Tamil Nadu); and
Khejri (Prosopis) 261
Jamichettu (Andhra Pradesh). It is believed that the local name khejri

has been derived from the name of a village Khejrali in Jodhpur district
of Rajasthan. The species is very common in arid and semiarid zones of
the country and it is a multipurpose tree because of almost every parts
of the tree is utilized, (Srivastava and Hetterington, 1991; Saroj et al.,
2002). The tender pods are eaten green or dried after boiling; locally
called as sangri used in preparation of curries and pickles (Khasgiwal et
al., 1969) and ripe pods are called as khokha, sweet which contain 9–14%
crude protein, 6–16% sugar (Bhiyama et al., 1964; Bhandari et al., 1978),
1.0–3.4% reducing sugars (Gupta et al., 1984) and 45–55% carbohydrate
(Jatarsa and Paroda, 1981). The pods and leaves are favorite feed for
animals especially goats, ship, camel, etc. Its wood (stem and branches)
is favored for cooking and domestic heating (Mahoney, 1990), hard and
reasonably durable; the wood has a variety of uses for house building,
posts, tool handles, and boat frames. The Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce
is an important tree for the Thar Desert with hard climatic adaptation,
represents one of the lifeline in desert habitat. This is a species represents
all five-F, namely, Forest, Fiber, Fuel, Fodder, and Food. This tree is also
mythological important in local communities. High value of this species
recognized as a State symbol (state tree of Rajasthan).
23.5 BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
P. cineraria is a small to medium size tree, ranging in height from 3 to 5 m.

Leaves are bipinnate, with 7–14 leaflets on each of 1–3 pinne. Branches
are thorned along the internodes. Flowers are small and creamy-yellow,
and followed by seeds in pods. The tree is found in extremely arid condi-
tions, with rainfall as low as 15 cm (5.9 in.) annually; but is indicative
of the presence of a deep water table. As with some other Prosopis spp.,
P. cineraria have demonstrated a tolerance of highly alkaline and saline
environments (Gupta, 2003). Sangri is light green in color, straight,
roundish flat, soft, sweet in taste, length range from 13.1 to 20.2 cm and
weight between 0.97 and 1.75 g. The ripe pods are 13.5–22.5 cm in length,
0.49–0.65 cm in width, and 1.65–2.15 g in weight with 11.15–16.85 seeds
per pod. The weight of 100 seeds is 0.66 g. A 5-year-grafted plant yields a
harvest of about 4.25 kg tender pods (sangri) and 6.25 kg fodder (loong)
per year (Rani et al., 2013).
Khejri is a multipurpose small to medium size tree. This is a species repre-

sents all five-F, namely, Forest, Fiber, Fuel, Fodder and Food. There are no
definite records about origin of khejri but Indian Thar Desert is considered
as home of khejri. In the Vedic times, khejri wood was primarily employed
to kindle the sacred fire for yagna. For this purpose, two pieces of the
hardwood, that is, one of the khejri and other of the Peepal (Ficus species)
were rubbed together to produce fire, during the Mahabharata period,
Arjun along with Pandava hid his Gandiva in the hallow stem of khejri.
In Valmiki Ramayana, khejri has been described along with other trees
occurring on the hills at Panchvati. Lakshman used the branches of khejri
trees as beams for the thatch at Panchwati, wherein he along with Lord
Rama and his concert Sita, stayed during the 14 years of exile.
It is distributed in arid portions of Western Asia and the Indian Subcon-
tinent, including Afghanistan, Iran, Arabia, India, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi
Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. It is an established intro-
duced species in parts of Southeast Asia, including Indonesia. In India,
it is found in Rajasthan, Haryana, Delhi, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, and North Karnataka. Khejri is a prominent constituent of
desert thorn forest; pollen stratigraphic studies of Singh (1970) revealed
abundance of khejri in western Rajasthan during the last 10,000 years
when it also enjoyed a higher ecological status. The Prosopis trees are
growing extensively under natural conditions in arid and semiarid regions
of the country and distributed in all arid land forms, except the hills and
saline depressions receiving 150–700 mm rainfall but plant density is
better in areas receiving 350–500 mm annual rainfall. The densities of
plant ranges from 5 trees/ha in western parts to 250 trees/ha in eastern
parts. The highest densities occur in areas having 300–400 mm rainfall
(Shankar, 1980).
Khejri is a deep-rooted small to moderate to large sized tree, grows up

to 10 m in height after 10–15 years and forms an open crown with thick,
rough and gray bark, evergreen or nearby so, strong stem, rather slender
branches armed with conical thorns with light bluish-green foliage. It
does not ordinarily exceed a height of 12 m and a girth of 1.2 m, the
maximum recorded being 18 m and 5.4 m, respectively. The leaves are

2.5–8.0-cm long, alternate, bipinnately compound with rachis 3–5-cm
long, and glabrous; leaves are pinnate, mostly two pairs, and opposite;
and 7–14 pairs of 4–15-mm long leaflets, and 8–23 pairs of 2–4-mm
broad leaflets, sessile, oblique rounded, and mucronate at apex. Flowers
are small, yellowish, auxiliary, and in slender spikes 7–11 cm in length,
rachis 3–5-cm long, glabrous; pinnate mostly two pairs, opposite. Pods are
cylindrical, straight, torulose and seeds are embedded in brown pulp, seeds
10–18, longitudinal ovate and dull brown. Flowering takes place during
February–March and seeds mature during April–June. The seeds mature
earlier in southern states than northern states: mid-April in Karnataka and
Maharashtra, May in most parts of Gujarat and Rajasthan, and June in
northern Rajasthan and southern Haryana. They are dispersed by wind and
animals (Arya et al., 1992c).
Its flowers are entomophilous and depend on insects for seed setting.
Pods are usually 10–20-cm long, rigid, cylindrical, glabrous, having thin
exocarp, pulpy mesocarp, and papery endocarp containing 10–15 seeds.
Phenology (Flowering time: February–March; Fruiting time: April–
May; Leaf shedding: June–August; Leaf initiation: January–February;
Pod maturity: June–July).The tree prefers a dry climate, and the most
important areas of its distribution are characterized by extremes in
temperature and found in dry and arid regions of India. Hence, it became
an integral part of the traditional agriculture and the lifeline of the desert
inhabitants.
23.8 SOIL
It can be grown in all types of soils except hills and saline depressions but
mainly found in alluvial, coarse, and sandy, often alkaline soils where the
pH may reach 9.8 (Arya et al., 1991, 1992a). It is a light demander and the
older plants are drought resistant.
It grows luxuriantly under desert climatic conditions and makes excellent

new foliar growth, flowering, and fruiting, where other desert plants are
leafless and dormant during extremes of summer months (March–June).
It is very tough plant and tolerates both extremes of −4°C during winter
and 50°C during summer (Arya et al., 1992c). It is commonly found under
75–500 mm annual rainfall.
23.10 GERMPLASM CONSERVATION
The wide range of genetic variability exists in arid and semiarid regions
of country. Samadia et al. (2002) reported the same work carried by
Central Institute for Arid Horticulture (CIAH), Bikaner, Central Arid Zone
Research Institute, and AFRI, Jodhpur, Rajasthan and developed some
technologies. So far, very little work has been undertaken for conservation
either in situ or ex situ. The khejri tree has been traditionally protected by
the Bishnoi community of Rajasthan, a remarkable phenomenon in the
field of conservation of vegetation and soil.
23.11 VARIETAL WEALTH
The limited research work has been done for development of khejri variety
and at present only one documented variety is released.
Samadia et al. (2002) reported 18 khejri genotypes bearing sweet
(not acrid) pods were identified from a natural population of 600 trees in
the vicinity of Bikaner area. The observations were made on pod char-
acters such as length (5.34–27.43 cm), diameter (0.33–0.62 cm), weight
(0.52–5.36 g), seeds per pod (6.81–27.40), yield (0.12–1.62 kg/m3 tree
canopy), and quality rating on 5-point scale. The significant differences in
these characters showed the presence of sufficient variability in test trees.
On the basis of overall performance, seven trees, that is, K1, K2, K4, K9,
K11, K16, and K17 were found to be promising.
Thar Shobha: This variety released by CIAH in 2007. This is high-
yielding and better quality variety. It has been recommended for uniform
tender pod harvesting for vegetable use. A budded/grafted 5-year-old tree
yields about 4.25 kg tender pods (sangri) and 6 kg dry fodder per year.
With improved production technology biomass production is increasing
with plant age. The tender pods at marketable stage are 13.1–20.2 cm
in length, 0.17–0.42 cm in width, 0.97–1.75 g in weight, and seeds not
separable in the stage of vegetable use. The tender pods are light in color,
straight, roundish-flat, soft, and sweet. The ripen pods are 13.5–22.5 cm
in length, 0.49–0.65 cm in width, 1.56–2.15 g in weight with 11.15–16.85

seeds/pod. The weight of 100 seeds is 6.66 g.
Recently, the research work was carried out at the CAZRI in Jodhpur,
showing the potential that exists for the selection of fast-growing lines.
This research would benefit greatly from the use of tissue culture tech-
nique in order to obtain large populations of uniform, high-yielding and
fast-growing trees.
23.12 PROPAGATION
23.12.1 SEED PROPAGATION
Natural regeneration in khejri is difficult due to hard seed coat; hence it

regenerates from root suckers (Arya, 1992a). The plants propagated by
seed have extreme variability within population due to self-incompatibility
(Felker et al., 1981). In Prosopis species, seed germination is a problem
due to seed coat dormancy and the degree varies among species (Clements
et al., 1977). The germination percent can be increased soaking seeds in
water at room temperature for 48–72 h (Puri et al., 1992) and treating
of seed with concentrate H2SO4 and HNO3 for 5 min enhanced the seed
germination. Seeds (25,000/kg) remain viable for decades in dry storage
and establish well with 80–90% germination (Mahoney, 1990).
23.12.2 VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
23.12.2.1 ROOT SUCKERS
Khejri is naturally regenerated by root suckers. However, the root suckers can
be used for planting after separation from the mother plant but this is not an
efficient technique for propagation of khejri because of availability of large
number of suckers; and removal of suckers and planting has lot of mortality.
23.12.2.2 CUTTING
It can be propagated from stem cutting of juvenile. The plants developed

through cutting are true to type or clone material (Arya et al., 1993).
Stem cutting of 15–20-cm long and 3–6 mm diameter, from 6-month-old

seedlings were treated with auxins, applied singly or in combinations.
The rooting frequencies were higher in February to May than August or
November. The maximum 60% rooting was obtained with naphthalene
acetic acid (NAA) +IBA +Thiamine 4+4+4 g/L during February. The IAA,
IBA 2, 4-D and NAA, IBA, thiamine in concentration of 2000 and 4000
mg/L, respectively stimulated rooting up to 60% in stem cutting taken
from 6-month-old plants, while the same combination of auxins with
concentration of 1000 and 4000 mg/L, respectively induced rooting up to
35% in cutting from 8-year-old trees. Other treatments with auxin supplied
singly (IAA, 2000 and 8000 mg/L; IBA, 2000 and 4000 mg/L; NAA, 1000
and 8000 mg/L) induced rooting in 10–50% of cuttings from 6-month-old
plants. None of the treatments induced rooting from 8-year-old trees (Arya
et al., 1994a).
23.12.2.3 AIR LAYERING
Khejri can be propagated by air layering. The 100% success in air layering
reported on 40-year-old trees by application of Seradix B3, Rootone and
IAA 1000 ppm during July and August (Solanki et al. 1984, 1986). Under
extreme hot arid conditions, air layering was not found as effective tech-
nique, but under good monsoon year some success was obtained.
23.12.2.4 BUDDING
Pareek and Purohit (2002) suggested that khejri could be successfully

propagated by patch budding in the month of March with 76% success.
The budded plants have very tiny and soft spines. Thus, in situ budding is
suggested for block plantation of khejri in rainfed conditions.
23.12.2.5 MICROPROPAGATION
Recently, emphasis has also been given to propagate this species through
micropropagation; but it appears that in vitro propagation is rather difficult
with P. cineraria than with many other Prosopis species. The Prosopis species
show a certain degree of recalcitrance to in vitro culture (Harris, 1992). Some
work related to regeneration of Prosopis species through micropropagation

has been done in India. In Prosopis, however, kinetin with IAA induced
higher rate of shoot multiplication than BAP (Goyal and Arya, 1979, 1984).
Shoot tips 1.5–2.0-cm long were excised from seedlings of each species
17–43 days after sowing (depending on growth rate) and placed on MS
medium with added glucose, agar, glutamine, and IBA (1 mg/L). They
were transferred to fresh medium after third and sixth week, and at eighth
week to fresh medium containing 3 mg/L IBA and 0.01 mg/L kinetin. Very
poor rooting was observed (Walton et al., 1990). A method for rapid in vitro
propagation of P. cineraria through auxiliary branching is reported. Single
node segments from actively growing branches of elite tree (4–5 years old)
cultured on MS basal medium containing 3.0 mg/L each of 2-naphthoxy-
acetic acid (NOA) and NAA produced auxiliary shoots. After 7–10 days,
2-cm-long shoots were transferred to modified MS medium containing 3
mg NOA/L. Within 25–30 days, 80% of shoots showed rooting as each
shoot grew to a length of about 8 cm. The shoots were then cut into 5–7
segments and planted individually on MS + NOA. Each segment produced
a plantlet. Following this procedure, 5–7-fold multiplication of plants could
be achieved within a month; 30% of the plants survived after transplanta-
tion (Kackar et al., 1991).
23.12.2.6 ROOTSTOCK
There are some other important species in genus Prosopis, namely, Prosopis
juliflora, Prosopis alba, Prosopis Nigra, etc, which can be utilized as root-
stocks after ascertaining the graft compatibility and subsequent growth
and fruiting. So far, P. cineraria is propagated on its own rootstock.
23.13 ORCHARD ESTABLISHMENT
Khejri is a tree and hence be planted at 8–10 m spacing. The budded plants
being dwarf in stature can be planted at closer spacing (4 m × 4 m, 6 m × 6
m, 6 m × 4 m, 8 m × 6 m, and 8 m × 4 m) and accommodate 625, 277, 208,
416, 208, and 312 plants per hectare, respectively. The plants were planted
in square and rectangular system of planting because of easy layout and
intercropping during initial stage of orchard establishment. Mahoney
(1990) suggested that it can be planted in close lines as a hedge with 1 m
spacing between trees but tree densities of 50–100/ha are recommended

for both agroforestry and silvi–pastoral systems. The field must be layout
as per the spacing adopted. The pits of size 60 cm × 60 cm × 60 cm are dug
during April–May and kept open for 15–20 days for soil solarization. The
pits are filled with the well-rattan farmyard manure (FYM) and top pit soil
in equal proportion. The 1-year-old plants are planted in the center of pit
during monsoon; and irrigate the plants if there is no rain. Planting may be
done during February with ensured irrigation available. The 9–12-month-
old khejri plants are transplanted in pits of for better survival (Muthana
et al., 1976). For successful establishment these are planted with onset of
monsoon at 30–50 cm depth by removing polyethylene bag but without
disturbing the block of soil and exposing the root; and irrigate the plant
for the establishment of roots. Planting in pits or bored holes was found
better, than planting by digging with a spade as in the latter case there
was more loss of moisture. Gupta and Muthana (1985) reported higher
survivability and better growth and establishment of seedlings of Acacia
tortilis planted in the sandy plains. The previously made pits were used
by placing pond sediments as subsurface moisture barrier at 60 cm depth
in 5 mm thickness and refilled by mixing manure at the rate of 5 kg/pit.
The higher seedling survivability and better growth and establishment are
attributed to reduction in percolation loss and more availability of water
to the young seedlings. In the absence of adequate rainfall post-planting
irrigation helps in the establishment of seedlings. About 10 L of water
per seedling per irrigation has generally been found adequate for the first
2 years. Soil mulching after irrigation helps in conserving moisture by
reducing evaporation loss. The young saplings are sensitive to frost and
drought but mature plants are tough and can resist drought. However,
better option for establishment of khejri plantation especially in rainfed
conditions is in situ where polybags raised 6–12-month-old seedlings are
transplanted during the rainy season at desired spacing in already filled
pits with proper filling mixture and budding should be done on these
stocks in next season (March) by the scion buds taken from variety or
promising types. Purohit et al. (2003) reported the growth vigor of khejri
seedlings as affected by environment (in open and under shade net), irri-
gation method (rose can and minisprinkler), growth regulator treatment
50 ppm gibberellic acid (GA), 50 ppm GA + 2% urea, 1000 ppm maleic
hydrazide (MH) and on the growth of the in situ budded plants as affected
by black polyethylene mulch and application of 1 L urea (2%) per plant
under irrigated and rainfed conditions. Seedling height after 6 months was
34.33 cm in plants treated with 50 ppm GA when planted under open with
rose can irrigation compared to 29.6 cm in the control. Linear growth of
budded plants was 123.31 cm under rainfed conditions when mulched
with black polyethylene compared to 76.98 cm in the control.
So far, the farmers do not have much attention adding nutrient in natural
grown plants. The very meager efforts have been made by researchers about
nutrition management in khejri. Recently due to knowing the importance
of this multipurpose tree the farmers are growing orchard systematically.
The application of optimum dose of NPK at the seedlings stage has been
done at Hissar and observed that N and K are critical for the better growth
of this species at the seedling stage (Arya et al., 1991a). P. cineraria plants
were grown first in sand (to height 10–12 cm), and then in pot culture
in soil/farmyard manure (3:1) for 2–3 months and found that the species
formed nodules which exhibited nitrogen-fixing activity (Pokhriyal et al.,
1990). In contrast, the nodulation of 1–6-month-old progenies of 70 trees
(10 from each of 7 districts of western Rajasthan), raised in the nursery
were observed up to 5 months old, and only 0.7% of plants of all progenies
were modulated at 6 months age, with no nodules occurring at all in 56 of
the progenies. Nodules plant varied from 1 to 19 and nodule diameter from
0.01 to 0.4 cm (Kackar et al., 1990). Being a leguminous tree, it promotes
the fertility of the soil under its canopy, supports denser, richer, and more
productive ground vegetation (both annual and perennial species) than
other dry land tree species (Srivastava and Hetherington, 1991). The
improvement in soil organic matter content (Aggarwal et al., 1976; Lahiri,
1980) and contribution of higher soil moisture content (Gupta and Saxena,
1978); P. cineraria is well recognized. Puri et al. (1992) have also reported
that nutrient levels (N, P, and K), moisture content, and organic carbon
content of soil were higher under P. cineraria canopies than in the open.
The khejri trees grow naturally on sand dunes, wasteland, saline, alkaline,
common land, forestland, and farmlands; but nowhere trees are irrigated.
However, the tree responds well to irrigation and it has been observed
that the plants of khejri growing in farmland areas, where cropping is
practiced, the growth of khejri plants are better than those plants growing
on wastelands or community lands due to better moisture and nutrients
availability, intercultural operations, protection from wild animals, etc.,
which is primarily done for crops. Moreover, plants are so tough that they
can flourish well even under rainfed conditions but for initial establish-
ment, little watering is required. In India, so far no work has been done
on the water requirement of this valuable crop to improve is productivity.
Under hot arid ecosystem, the plants are surviving because of its inherent
morphological features like deep root system, spines, smaller leaves,
corky bark, etc. In Oman, studies have been conducted for its ability to
withstand high-air temperatures combined with low water availability.
Plants were also sprayed with antitranspirant to reduce water loss. This
limited the potential for evaporative leaf cooling and resulted in high
leaf temperatures in khejri. Diurnal measurements were made of leaf and
air temperature and of rates of photosynthesis and transpiration. Tran-
spiration continued through the hottest periods of the day and appeared
to be essential for leaf cooling. The species appeared to be impaired
photosynthesis after exceeding threshold leaf temperature (Laurie et al.,
1994). In a runoff harvesting and water conservation technique Gupta et
al. (1995) observed, the overall best treatment was the 1.5 cm diameter
saucer with weed removal and soil working; this improved soil moisture
storage considerably, caused an increase in total biomass compared with
the control (from 4.49 to 37.16 q/ha), doubled the root mass (from 4.33
to 9.66 q/ha), increased tree height by 20% and water use efficiency from
4.78 (in the control) to 39.6 kg/cm/ha. The interrow slopes technique was
also effective. Gains in tree growth and water use efficiency in the other
water harvesting treatments were relatively lower, although significant as
compared to the control. Gupta (1984) reported construction of compacted
circular catchment of 1.5 m radius with 5–10% slope around the trans-
planted plants. The result of field trials show that even during low rainfall
years from 1986 to 1988, circular catchment technique increased the
mean soil profile moisture storage by 10–30 mm/m profile and improved
the growth and fruit yield of ber plants. Also, tree seedlings of Acacia
nilotica (babul) and P. cineraria (khejri) were successfully established
with this technique.
Under natural conditions, no marked adverse effect of vegetation growing

in association with khejri on sand dunes has been observed. Sometimes,
the Laptadenia pyrotechnica, Calligonum polygonoides, A. nilotica, and
Zizyphus jujube growing with the khejri plants protect the young plants
from wild animals. However, one or two weeding is necessary during the
first year owing to slow initial growth rate.
23.17 INTERCROPPING
In arid areas the farmer has been traditionally protecting “Khejri,” “Bordi,”
and “Babul” trees in their farmlands. He has a fine conviction that these
trees besides conserving, add to the fertility and overall productivity of
soil. These species are drought hardy and well-adapted to the climatic
conditions of the desert. Satyanarayan (1964) and Saxena (1977) reported
that “Khejri” forms climatic climax of western Rajasthan and dominate
the alluvial flats while “Bordi” is one of the main codominant on the arid
and semiarid zones. Gupta and Sharma (1992) reported 30–40 trees/ha in
areas around Jodhpur and as high number as 104 trees/ha in Sikar region
without any adverse effect on crop production. Mann and Saxena (1980)
reported the effect of different densities of “Khejri” on the major crops
grown in different habitats. They reported tree densities do not show much
variation in crop yields. Even as high a tree density as 80 tree/ha showed
an improvement in crop production in sandy plains. The increase in yield
beside other factors could be due to buildup of soil fertility (Aggarwal and
Lahiri, 1977). Khejri and “Bordi” trees, besides improving productivity,
supply 20–30 kg and 2–3 kg air-dried leaves “Loong” and “Pala” as
fodder, respectively (Saxena, 1984).
The crops like pearl millet, cowpea, cluster bean, toria mustard, and
taramira can be raised successfully in the interspaces of well-grown khejri
trees of 20 years age, as the fodder (green and dry) and grain yield of all
the crops was more in association with trees as compared to sole crop-
ping. The fodder as well as grain crops grown in khejri-based agri–silvi-
cultural system earned more profit than sole roping. Higher profitability
in agri–silvicultural system may be attributed to increased productivity
of crops in this system and additional value of fuel and fodder from the
associated khejri trees. In khejri-based agri–silvicultural system, the crop
grown between the interspaces of trees showed more yields than sole
cropping. Ahuja (1981) also observed better growth of annual crops under
the trees than in open field. This may be due to less competition between
trees and crops for moisture and light, as khejri is deep-rooted tree species
with its monolayered tree canopy (Bisht and Toky, 1993). It may also be
ascribed to improved soil fertility (Young, 1989) and ameliorative influ-
ence of shade in a hot–dry environment (Bunderson et al., 1990). Thus,
in dry areas like Indian arid region, associated trees can reduce soil and
water loss by alleviating understorey temperature and evapotranspiration
(Belsky and Amundson, 1992) and may influence the productivity of
ground vegetation.
In rabi, the crops were sown in the interspaces of khejri after lopping
which removed hindrance for light. The higher yield of rabi crops in asso-
ciation with trees may be due to improved soil fertility (Young, 1989) and
moisture retention, as a result of increased organic matter content of soil
(Aggarwal et al., 1993). Kumar et al. (1992) also recorded higher yields
from pearl millet, cluster bean and cowpea in association with khejri.
The fodder as well as grain crops grown in khejri-based agri–silvicul-
ture system earned more profit than sole cropping. Higher profitability
in agri–silviculture system may be attributed to increased productivity
of crops in this system and additional value of fuel and fodder from the
associated khejri trees. Conservation of rainwater in kharif and subsequent
rising of mustard in rabi season was found to be most economical practice.
Similar results have been reported by Kaushik et al. (2000) in agri–silvi–
horti system. More economic gain in khejri based agri–silviculture system,
in comparison to sole cropping, has also been reported by Jaimini and
Tikka (1998). The increased returns from tree–crop combination over the
sole crops are supported by the studies of Reddy and Sudha (1989).
23.18 TRAINING AND PRUNING
Training and pruning are essential practices for providing strong struc-
ture, canopy management, and harvest of crop produce in khejri. After
successful intake of scion bud on the rootstock, the upper portion of the
scion should be removed so the growth of sprouted scion bud may faster.
The wild sprouts bellow the graft should be removed time to time through
pruning operations the grafts should be removed regularly through pruning
operations using sharp cutter. To provide better framework of grafted tree,
training operations should be done twice in a year like as November and

June month and should be continued up to 5 year from budding. The regular
training and pruning operations should be started after age of 5 years for
better canopy management and yield potential of plantation keeping the
objectives of crop production.
23.19 CROP REGULATION
So far, khejri is considered as forest trees and known primarily for its fodder
value. Regarding sangri production and crop regulation very little efforts
have been made. Villagers, however, collect sangri during the summer
(April) at tender stage from the natural population. However, picking
varies from place to place depending upon flowering and fruit maturity
(early, mid, and late). The fruiting is also influenced by the management
practices like time of lopping, agroecological conditions, influence of pest
and diseases, etc. There are some plants where bearing twice in a year has
also been observed. Since khejri is well prone to canopy management,
therefore there is good possibility of crop regulation. In fact the trees which
are lopped during the winter for loong production do not come in bearing
during summer. This clearly indicates that the shoots require some time for
physiological maturity for further bearing. Based on field observations,
it is suggested that this valuable aspect should be given high priority for
improving productivity of sangri.
Generally, the khejri trees are lopped (pruned) during November–
December to harvest the leaf fodder (loong). These pruned trees do not
flower as the new shoot sprouting after pruning are still immature during
the flowering time of khejri in February–March and this do not produce
sangria. When sangri is desired to be harvested from a particular tree, it
is not lopped during November–December, but then the tree would not
yield any loong; with technological recommendations systematic planta-
tion would be developed for sangria production and these will have to
be left unlopped. Consequently, these trees would not yield long. The
studies on growth and fruiting regulation conducted at CIAH revealed that
the plantation developed primarily for sangria production, the traditional
practice of lopping during November–December could not be adopted,
The pruning of plants at this time synchronize with the start of the second
growth flush get sufficient time (6–7 months) to mature and differentiate
floral buds which develop into flower and produce good crop of pods.
Thus, June pruning is recommended to harvest loong and sangria annually

as a technique of crop regulation.
23.20 KHEJRI-BASED CROPPING SYSTEMS
Khejri is considered as a major component in various agri–silvi and silvi–

pastoral systems in hot, arid region of northwestern India. The trees are
also retained near the habitation as shade tree for providing shelter to man
and animals. The villagers also organize various functions under the khejri
trees. The crops such as wheat, maize, millet, sorghum, and mustard are
generally grown with Prosopis (Arya et al., 1992a).The Prosopis and neem
have close relationship and there is little competition for soil moisture and
nutrients due to different root system (Arya et al., 1992b). The tree has a
deep root system and can fix nitrogen (Arya et al., 1992a). Because of a
deep taproot, trees do not compete for moisture or nutrients with crops
growing close to the trunk. During the growing season it casts only light
shade and is therefore suitable as an agroforestry species. Farmers in arid
and semiarid regions of India and Pakistan have long believed it to increase
soil fertility in crop fields. Yields of sorghum or millet increased when
grown under P. cineraria as a result of higher organic matter content, total
nitrogen, available phosphorus, soluble calcium, and lower pH (Mann and
Shankarnarayan, 1980). Improvement in mechanical composition of soil
(Singh and Lal, 1969), soil moisture content (Gupta and Saxena, 1978),
physicochemical properties (Sharma and Gupta, 1989) and increase in dry
matter yield (Aggrawal and Kumar, 1990) have also been reported under
khejri tree.
In arid region of Haryana, chickpeas cv. C-235 was grown in a field
without trees or in fields with scattered P. cineraria trees. The influence
on crop growth of selected 15–18-year-old trees was determined. As the
distance from the tree base increased, crop growth and yield initially
increased (up to about 3.5 m) and then decreased. Beyond 14 m distance
there was no effect on crop growth. Pod yield was highest on the north
side of the trees. Soil contents of N, P, and K, soil moisture and organic
carbon were higher under tree canopies than away from the influence of
trees. P. cineraria had a positive effect on the growth of chickpeas (Cicer
arietinum), with yields varying with direction and distance from trees
(Puri et al., 1992). It was concluded that P. cineraria benefits chickpea
growth and yield due to improvement of soil fertility and conservation

of moisture (Puri et al., 1994). Sometimes it produces lateral roots in
loosened soil, which compete for nutrient and water with the understory
crops. Removal of lateral roots; however, does not affect the growth of
the khejri adversely but enhances crop production under it (Yadav and
Khanna, 1992). Vashishtha and Saroj (2000) reported that the vegetative
vigor of ber, aonla, guava, bael, and pomegranate was better during initial
years when they were grown with khejri as compared to sole plantation of
these fruit crops. The multiple uses, prone to pruning, sparse foliage, deep
root system, nitrogen-fixing capacity, high efficiency of recharging the soil
with organic matter, etc. has made khejri trees a compatible component
with different agroforestry systems.
Growth of natural pastures under P. cineraria is significantly higher
(1.1–1.5 t/ha) than under Acacia senegal (0.6–0.7 t/ha). Maximum
production of 2.6 t/ha has been obtained during 1973 with 27 rainy days
and 641 mm of rainfall, clearly showing the advantage of a tree canopy in
the semiarid conditions found in Rajasthan (Ahuja, 1980). P. cineraria are
lopped for firewood and its productivity is greatly reduced when lopping
is carried out every year; ideally, a rest of 4 years will result in 200% more
leaf production (Saxena, 1980).
23.21 INSECT-PEST MANAGEMENT
23.21.1 BEETLES
The chaffer beetles (Holotarchia species, Schizonycha fericollin F., etc.)

are the nocturnal feeders and main cause of defoliation of the trees. This
can be controlled by spraying of carbaryl 50 WP at 0.15% at weekly
intervals.
23.21.2 LOCUST
The damage of khejri plants by locust has also been reported by Bhanotor
(1975). P. cineraria acted as a less suitable host for aphids and remained
uninfested due to greater amount of sugar, lower amount of lipids, and the
influence exerted by VAM fungi in imparting resistance (Murugesan et
al., 1995).
23.21.3 SHOOT GALL MAKER
The stem and rachis galls of P. cineraria caused by Lobopteromyia

prosopidis [Contarinia prosopidis] has been observed frequently. The
phenolic contents (total phenols and O-dihydroxy phenols) of L. prosopidis
[C. prosopidis]-induced gall tissue and healthy tissue of P. cineraria were
studied in vivo and in vitro (Ramani and Kant, 1989). Removal of affected
portion and spraying of insecticides like chloropyriphos (0.05%) at new
flush stage are suggested for its control.
23.21.4 TERMITE
The termite is a major problem, which affect both old and new plants.
Though, the damage due to termites was common in old trees. The colo-
nies of termites originate at the base of trunk of older trees; later penetrate
into trunk followed by extensive hollowing out of the heart wood. Soil
drenching by chlorpyrifos and removal of termites colonies can minimize
the problem.
23.22 DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Drying of khejri plants can be observed in many areas mostly in the canal
irrigated areas, though the reason is yet to be investigated. Sharma et al.
(1997) has reported root rot of P. cineraria caused by Fusarium solanias
a new host in Haryana. The fungus Ravenelia spiergerae is a pathogen
recorded in nursery. It can be managed by drenching with application of
copper oxy chloride and Ridomil M Z.
23.23 MATURITY INDICES, HARVESTING, AND YIELD
The seedling plants of khejri come in bearing after eight years, while in
situ budded plants starts bearing next year. Usually, khejri plants flowers
during spring season, that is, February–March and tender pods are ready
for harvesting in the month of April–May. Though the flowering and
fruiting are influenced by the agroecological situations and management
practices but in general pods are ready for harvest within 20 days of fruit
setting. The green tender pods at papery soft seed stage can be harvested
for sangri purposes, while the ripe pods can be harvested for prepara-
tion of cookies. The dried ripe pods are called khokha. The colored pod
types khejri are also green in color at tender stage. Immature green pods
with low tannin and fiber content and soft seeded are considered good
for dehydration purpose (Nagaraja et al., 2003). Naturally the khejri tree
are spiny, therefore it is very difficult to harvest the sangria. The normal
method adopted in harvesting the pods are by climbing on the tree and
the sangria plucked manually along with the some twigs and branches.
The sangri sorted and inert materials are removed. The khokha can be
collected from dropped out ripe pods also. The yield from tree depends
upon bearing behavior, age of tree, and management practice. A good
fruiting 15-year-old tree produces 10–15 kg sangri and 25–30 kg loong.
Muthana (1980) has reported that the full grown tree (30–50 years) and
unlopped tree produces about 5 kg of air-dried pods and about 2 kg seeds.
Besides sangria, a 15-year-old tree produced 35–40 kg leaf fodder/trees in
350 mm rainfall area (Muthana, 1980). It produces 17.60 kg/tree biomass
in at Hissar (350–400 mm rainfall) after 6 year (Toky and Bisht, 1992).
23.24 UTILIZATION
Khejri is a multipurpose tree whose all parts are used in various manners
given below.
23.24.1 GREEN PODS
Green pods locally called “sangar” used to make dhal, the classic Indian
dish. “Ker Sangri” is one of the most mouth-watering delicacies of Jais-
almer. Ker Sangri is a popular vegetarian dish of Jaisalmer. It is cooked on
low heat. The ingredients that go into this dish are desert beans and capers.
This vegetarian delicacy can be best enjoyed with “Bajara roti.” The kandi
or sagri pachadi is easy to prepare and makes for a tasty chutney recipe
also. Kandi pachadi or tour dhal chutney is served with rice, dosa, or idly.
Liu et al. (2012) reported dried pods of khejri are consumed as a vege-
table, boiled with water to afford the aqueous extract. Extraction of the
residue gave methanolic extract. Panwar et al. (2014) reported the unripe
pods are also used as vegetable; boiled and dried pods are the important
constituents of this region’s famous dishes “Panchkutta” (ker, kumat,

lasoda, amchur, and sangri). Meena et al. (2014) reported that several
kind of traditional vegetables are consumed by the farming communities
grown by the farmers in study area (Bikaner and Nagaur district) of the
hot arid region of western Rajasthan. The majority of the farmers/local
people of the study areas use the vegetables as fresh or after dehydration or
value addition in their daily diet throughout the year. They convert them in
form of value addition in different forms and use them as preserved fruits/
vegetables as their daily dietary food stub.
23.24.2 RIPE PODS
Ripe pods locally called “khokha” are used fresh as well as preparation of
bakery items such as biscuits and cookies. It contains protein (23.20%),
carbohydrate (56.0%), fat (2.0), fiber (20.0), vitamin C (523.0/100 g),
calcium (114.0 mg), phosphorus (400 mg), iron (19.0), and energy (334.8
kcal/100 g). The ripen pods with seeds are rich in protein and good source
of animal feed (Rathore, 2009).
23.24.3 LEAVES FODDER
Leaves are most important top feed species providing nutritious and
highly palatable green as well as dry fodder, which is readily eaten by
camels, cattle, sheep, and goats, constituting a major feed requirement of
desert livestock. Khejri trees are ready to provide animal feed from the
10th year onwards and, if properly managed, may be kept in production
for 2 centuries. An average tree yields 25–30 kg of dry leaf forage per year.
Dry matter intakes of 685 and 1306 g/day are quoted for sheep and goats,
respectively.
P. cineraria have an important place in the economy of the Indian
desert. In the arid zone of Rajasthan, camels, goats, donkeys, and mules,
which make up about 40% of the 19 million head of livestock in the
region, depend on browsing to meet their nutrient requirements. Khejri is
well adapted to the very dry conditions in India and is found in zones with
annual rainfall ranging from 150 to 500 mm the optimum density is seen
between 350 and 400 mm. This plant produces its leaves, flowers, and
fruit during the extreme dry months (March–June) when all other species
adapted to arid zones are leafless and dormant. It is this characteristic

which deserves greatest attention as the tree offers a new forage resource
for extreme arid zones.
The importance of P. cineraria is well recognized by farmers as it
provides an extra source of revenue, acts as an insurance against drought,
and increases the sustainability of production systems in this drought-
prone fragile ecosystem. Unripe pods (sangri)/ripe pods indicate that they
can offer a good source of livestock feed compared to other native avail-
able feeds. Arid foods had are great nutritional values (Rani et al., 2013).
23.24.4 BARK
Bark is used as a local medicine to cure bronchitis, asthma, piles, lecu-

coderma, rheumatism, scorpion bites (Bhandari, 1974), and snake bite
(Kirtikar and Basu, 1935). In order to avoid the abortion, the traditional
healers of Chhattisgarh use the Herbal Mala prepared from Shami roots,
though Shami trees are not common in Chhattisgarh. The traditional healers
purchase the roots from local herb shops and use it. In general, the white-
colored string is used to prepare herbal mala. The traditional healers advise
their patients to use this herbal mala to wear it either around the neck or to
tie it around their waist, in order to avoid abortion. Ground flower are used
as a tonic, blood purifier, and curer of skin disease. Women use powdered
flowers mixed with sugar during pregnancy to safeguard them against
miscarriage. Prosopis gum also has the properties to those of Acacia gum
(Arya et al., 1992a). Liu et al. (2012) reported leaves as traditional medicine
to cure a wide range of diseases in the state of Rajasthan, India.
23.24.5 WOOD
Wood is reported to contain high calorific value and provide high-quality

fuelwood. The lopped branches are good as fencing material.
23.24.6 GUM
Gum produces a brown shining gum just like Arabic Gum which is
obtained during the months of April–June.
23.24.7 FLOWER
Flower is pounded, mixed with sugar, and used during pregnancy as safe-
guard against miscarriage.
23.24.8 WORSHIP OF KHEJRI
Worship of khejri during Vedic times, khejri wood was used to kindle the
sacred fire for performing a yagna. In Hindu epics, the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata, mention the usefulness and significance of this tree.
23.25 NUTRITIVE VALUE OF KHEJRI FRUITS (SANGRI)
Khejri fruits or pods are locally called sangri. The dried pods locally called
khokha are eaten. Dried pods also form rich animal feed, which is liked
by all livestock. Green pods also form rich animal feed, which is liked by
drying the young boiled pods. The dried green sangri is used as a delicious
dried vegetable which is very costly (Nearly Rs.800 per kg in market in
the year 2015). Many Rajasthani families use the green and unripe pods
(sangri) in preparation of curries and pickles. The nutritive value of sangria
is protein (23.20 g), fiber (20.0 g), calcium (414 mg), phosphorus (400
mg), iron (19 mg), and vitamin C (523 mg).
23.26 NUTRITIVE VALUE OF LEAVES
The leaves are of high nutritive value; locally it is called “loong.” Feeding
of the leaves during winter when no other green fodder is generally avail-
able in rainfed areas is thus profitable. The pods are a sweetish pulp and
are also used as fodder for livestock. The leaves of khejri are considered
as excellent fodder in desert. The green leaves contain 14–18% crude
protein, 13–22% crude fiber, about 6% ash, 44–59% nitrogen-free extract,
0.28–0.9% phosphorus, and 1.5–2.7% calcium. The leaves also contain
11.6% tannin on a dry matter basis on an average leaves contain 72 mg of
sodium, 1.23 mg of potassium, 1.12 mg of iron 1.16 mg of zinc, 5.75 mg
of manganese, and 1.87 mg of copper per 100 g of dry matter (Bohra and
Gosh, 1980).
KEYWORDS
•• khejri
•• fodder yield
•• utilization
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CHAPTER 24
NONCONVENTIONAL LEGUMES
FORAGE CROPS
DHIMAN MUKHERJEE1* and MD. HEDAYETULLAH2
AICRP on Wheat and Barley, Directorate of Research, Bidhan
1
Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Kalyani 741235, West Bengal, India

2
Assistant Professor & Scientist (Agronomy), AICRP on Chickpea,
Directorate of Research, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Kalyani 741235, West Bengal, India
*
ABSTRACT
Since ancient times, cattle breeding and milk production have been the impor-
tant professions in India, and this directly relate with the availability of various
forage and fodder crops. Free grazing was practiced and it became a way of
life for healthy growth of cattle. Presently, livestock production is primarily
based on rangeland grazing. The grazing activity is mainly dependent on the
availability of the grazing resources from pastures and other pasture lands,
namely, forests, miscellaneous tree crops and groves, cultivable wastelands,
and fallow land. Various underutilized leguminous crops such as Centrosema
pubescens, Clitoria ternatea, Pueraria phaseoloides, Macroptilium atropur-
pureum, Mucuna pruriens, lablab bean, Desmodium, etc.
24.1 INTRODUCTION
Agriculture and animal husbandry in India are interwoven with the

intricate fabric of the society in cultural, religious, and economical ways
as mixed farming and livestock rearing forms an integral part of rural
living. Efficient utilization of limited land resources and other agricultural

inputs for obtaining the best from the harvest in the form of herbage per
unit area and time is the primary objective of intensive forage production
system (Mukherjee, 2015). Since ancient times, cattle breeding and milk
production have been the important professions in India, and this directly
relate with the availability of various forage and fodder crops. Free
grazing was practiced and it became a way of life for healthy growth of
cattle, etc. Presently, livestock production is primarily based on rangeland
grazing. The grazing activity is mainly dependent on the availability of the
grazing resources from pastures and other pasture lands, namely, forests,
miscellaneous tree crops and groves, cultivable wastelands, and fallow land.
Various underutilized leguminous crops such as Centrosema pubescens,
Clitoria ternatea, Pueraria phaseoloides, Macroptilium atropurpureum,
Mucuna pruriens, lablab bean, and Desmodium are nutritious fodder. In
integrated dairy, animals are dependent on underutilized fodder crops
(Mukherjee, 2012). However, farmers may require fodder at different
times during the season. But, subjecting to different cutting regimes could
have an impact on crop yields through effects on N fixation, transfer, and
mineralization, as well as changes in competition for light, nutrients, etc.
Legume species are important supplements for livestock and at times
can completely replace purchased feeds if used properly. There are many
legumes species commonly used for pasture or fodder in India and world
too. In this chapter, few important nonconventional leguminous forage
crops are discussed which are suitable under various land topography and
convenient to use as feed for cattle, poultry feed, etc.
24.2 CENTROSEMA PUBESCENS
Family: Fabaceae
Common name: Centro or butterfly pea.
C. pubescens is native to Central and South America; grows well along
roadsides, in waste places, on river banks, and on coconut plantations.
This is a perennial herb that can reach a height of 45 cm with deep taproot
up to 30 cm; this character helps this plant to treat as drought-tolerant
crop. Approximately 120–270 kg/ha nitrogen is fixed by this crop from
atmosphere annually. Stems grow and branch rapidly, producing a dense
mass of branches and leaves on the soil. Stems do not become woody
Nonconventional Legumes Forage Crops 289
until about 18 months after planting. Leaves are trifoliate, with elliptical
leaflets approximately 4 cm × 3.5 cm, dark green and glabrous above.
Flowers are generally pale violet with darker violet veins, born in axillary
racemes. Fruit is a flat, long, dark brown pod 7.5–15-cm long, containing
up to 20 seeds. Seeds are spherical and dark brown when ripe. This is a
short-day plant.
24.2.1 UTILIZATION
C. pubescens is widely used as forage, and a good source of protein to

grazing cattle. This is grown as a cover crop because it naturally suppresses
weeds and is very tolerant to drought. For human consumption, it is not
suitable but provides benefits through soil fertility and animal health. The
leaves can also be used as a cheap source of protein for broiler chickens. It is
a good source of calcium and potassium for animals. C. pubescens is a good
source of protein (23.24% of crude protein in leaf), calcium (1.24% in leaf),
and potassium for cattle as forage (Nworgu and Egbunike, 2013). It can be
used to feed broiler chickens and broiler finishers as leaf meal in a quantity
up to 20 g per day. More than that causes reduction in growth performance.
This is a very cheap alternative to other sources of protein that are usually
more expensive, such as, soybean (Nworgu and Egbunike, 2013).
24.2.2 CULTIVATION PRACTICES
This acts as a promising forage and as an alternative to enhance the protein

content of livestock feed. This plant is well adapted to tropical conditions
and altitudes below 600 m from sea level. Annual rainfall 1000–1800 mm
is assumed good for its optimum production. Centro is unable to tolerate
cold temperatures, but has very low water and rainfall requirements. It is
easy to manage and improves soil nitrogen levels. This is propagated by
seed, planted directly into the ground or broadcast over a field typically
before the rainy season. Centro grows well in soils without fertilizer, since
it is very adaptable to its environment. For optimal yields, it is best to
grow in wet and humid sandy to clay soils with pH 4.9–5.5. Nodulation
and nitrogen fixation are highly correlated with soil nature. It performs
better on acidic soils than alkaline soils. Due to deep root system, it can
take up water from a significant depth. It grows well in nutrient-poor soils.
However, fertile soils containing calcium, phosphorus, molybdenum,

potassium, and copper increase yield to significant levels. This plant is
also able to endure soils with a high level of manganese, and very capable
of enduring waterlogging, flooding, and shade. For good yield, seed rate
is 4–6 kg per hectare drilled in prior to the rainy season. Apply 1–2 kg of
seed/ha when intercropped with grasses. For green manure, it can be sown
up to 8 kg/ha. For broadcasting, increase the seeding rate. Seeds of C.
pubescens have a mechanical dormancy that has to be broken by soaking
the seeds for 3–5 min in water at 85°C. Other methods include chipping
a small part of the seed case near the embryo, being very careful not to
damage the seed, or, on a commercial scale, a short immersion in sulfuric
acid. After the seeds have passed the dormancy-breaking treatment, they
can be inoculated with Rhizobium and planted with a no-till planter. A
typical seed planting depth is 2.5–5 cm. The shallower depth is used when
the soil moisture is appropriate, but when the soil is dry the seed should be
planted deeper to reach moisture. The plant has fairly high calcium content
in the leaves, so addition of calcium can be important. Liming is good for
this plant. Liming helps to enhance soil pH and supply calcium to the plant
that will increase the calcium content in the leaves. C. pubescens does not
need nitrogen fertilizer because it is supplied through the nodules. This is
a tropical forage, so it requires very low phosphorus, but it responds to P
fertilization. Leaves should be a minimum of 0.16% phosphorus at flower
formation. The ideal available P in the soil for a good yield is between 2
and 5 mg of phosphorus per kilogram of soil and 12.4 mg per kilogram of
soil of potash. C. pubescens can produce yield within range of 3.5–4.5 t per
hectare of dry matter (DM). C. pubescens can be intercropped with various
grasses. It grows well with Panicum maximum, Hyparrhenia rufa, Melinis
minutiflora, Chloris gayana, Pennisetum purpureum, and Paspalum
dilatatum; less successfully with Brachiaria mutica, and Digitaria
decumbens. Sometimes it is planted with Calopogonium mucunoides
and P. phaseoloides to give a quick cover. Since this plant is vigorously
twining, it naturally suppresses weeds by creating a dense ground cover
and is fairly good at spreading naturally to cover a large surface area. The
combination of grass and centro is more suppressive of weeds than any
other grass and legume combination. Insects are the biggest problem for
this plant. Pests include meloidae beetles, thrips, red spiders, bean flies,
and caterpillars. Centro is mostly unaffected by diseases, and tends not to
have any major attacks.
24.2.3 HARVEST AND STORAGE
Seed harvest is usually performed by hand. Mechanical harvesting is

difficult due to the plant architecture. When the plants are ripening,
they are collected and spread to dry in the sun until they are ready to be
threshed. After the seeds are removed from their pods, they are typically
cleaned in hot water or with a chemical to eliminate any pathogens that
may be present. Storage of this seed should be dry and free from humidity
because wet environments give rise to pests and pathogens and promote
their growth.
24.3 Pueraria phaseoloides
Family: Fabaceae
It is known as puero in Australia and tropical kudzu in most tropical
regions. This crop is indigenous to east or Southeast Asia. Preferentially
it is grown in plantation of cocoa or banana, at low altitudes (often under
600 masl) in wet evergreen or monsoon forests. P. phaseoloides is a
deep-rooting perennial herb, building a subtuber, which allows to resist
waterlogged soils and short periods of drought. The aboveground structure
can grow up to 30 cm at day and often the stems can reach 20 m of elon-
gation and climb over other plants or anthropogenic objects. The leaves
are large trifoliate typical for Leguminosae. The growing season go from
early spring to late fall in the subtropics and the year round in the tropics.
Flowers color range from mauve to purple and the dimensions are small
and disposed in scattered pairs on a raceme. Mature pods show a black
color and hair coat. Each pod contains 10–20 seeds. This has high protein
content in the seeds (12–20%).
24.3.1 UTILIZATION
P. phaseoloides is a promising forage and cover crop used in the tropics.

The nutrient, protein (3.8%), and sugar (7.3%) content of the whole fresh
plant (green part) is very high. Due to its rich nutrient content it has a good
feeding value. About 100 g of P. phaseoloides contain 1880 kJ of energy,
of which a big share is available as metabolic energy,
P. phaseoloides is capable to grow in a large soil spectrum. Acid soils are

not a problem, and the pH tolerance is between 4.3 and 8. This is used as
cover crop or as part of a mixture in pastures, its production methods differ
for both uses. This forage crop is propagated by drill sowing mainly, where
the distance between the drill rows is set to 1 m. Furthermore, it can be hand
planted or propagated by cutting. For increased germination and sanitary
protection, a hot water treatment (50–70°C) can be applied. For soil cover
or green manure use, normally sown with a sowing density of 4.0 kg seed
per hectare, which is similar to 32–35 seeds per m2, depending of the seed
weight. When sowing pastures with a high weed pressure, the number of
seed can reach up to 70 seeds per m2, when there is a high weed pressure.
When used in mixture, this crop is sown with a density of 1.5–2.0 kg per
hectare, which is equal to 12–18 seeds per m2. Well root development is
attained under presence of P, Mg, and Ca. Furthermore, they found the
highest yield reduction under low-phosphate conditions followed by low
Ca and Mg conditions, whereas at low K, N, and Na conditions yield
was 50% lower. As a legume, P. phaseoloides can compensate for low N
conditions by increasing symbiotic nitrogen fixation. This also explains
its well response to added P. On poor soils, 100 kg of P2O5 showed to
bring beneficial effect on the yield. The inoculation of the seeds before
sowing with Bradyrhizobium is advised for primary cultivated areas. The
management of P. phaseoloides grown in mixtures is challenging. This
crop often shows a high palatability compared to tropical grasses and
hence under high grazing pressure it can disappear. If the grazing pressure
is too low, it can become dominating due to its fast growth and its climbing
ability. Its growth is also affected by the other species in the mixture. It
grows well with guinea and Napier grass. However, it cannot persist when
grown with Brachiaria decumbens or pangola grass.
24.3.3 HARVEST AND STORAGE
When used as a forage crop, P. phaseoloides is mainly grazed. Cutting

for hay, silage, and barn betting is possible as well. When used as a green
manure, kudzu is directly incorporated into the soil. Harvesting of the
seeds can be done by hand or with harvesting machines. When grown as
monoculture, the yield can reach up to 10 t DM per hectare, whereas the

biggest proportion of the yield is produced during wet season. The yield
of mixtures can reach up to 23 t per hectare when grown under optimal
conditions. The optimum seed yield can only be attained when harvested
by hand. If the seeds are harvested with a machine, the harvested yield is
noticeably lower.
24.4 Clitoria ternatea
Family: Leguminosae
Common names: Blue pea, cordofan pea, honte (French), and cunha (Brazil).
C. ternatea is widespread throughout humid and subhumid lowlands
of Asia, the Caribbean, and Central and South America. This is forage of
a consistently high nutritional value. This crop is moderately tolerant of
salinity and sodicity. It may have wider application to smallholder farm
systems in Southeast Asia. Its drought tolerance and adaptation to heavy
clay soils, and the palatability and quality of its forage, suggest it could
be used to improve natural grassland in extensive farm systems in the
subhumid to semiarid tropics, given appropriate grazing management. Its
susceptibility to close grazing or cutting is a major limitation to general
use. This is a vigorous, strongly persistent, herbaceous perennial legume;
stems are fine twining, sparsely pubescent, suberect at base, 0.5–3-m
long. Leaves pinnate with 5 or 7 leaflets, petioles 1.5–3-cm long, stip-
ules persistent, narrowly triangular, 1–6-mm long, sibilate, prominently
three-nerved, rachis 1–7-cm long, stipels filiform. Flowers are axillary,
single or paired, color ranges from white, mauve, light blue to dark blue.
Chemical compounds isolated from C. ternatea include various triter-
penoids, flavonol glycosides, anthocyanins, and steroids (Staples, 1-).
It is propagated by seed and readily self-propagates and spreads under
favorable conditions by seed thrown vigorously from the dehiscing dry
pods. Seed is also spread in cattle dung. In traditional Ayurvedic medicine,
it is ascribed various qualities including memory enhancing, nootropic,
antistress, anxiolytic, antidepressant, anticonvulsant, tranquilizing, and
sedative properties. In traditional Chinese medicine, and consistent with
the Western concept of the doctrine of signatures, the plant has been
ascribed properties affecting female libido due to its similar appearance to
the female reproductive organ (Staples, 1992).
24.4.1 UTILIZATION
Originally used as a cover crop. Used for short and medium-term pastures
and as green manure, cover crop, and protein bank. Increases soil fertility
to improve yields of subsequent crops (maize, sorghum, and wheat), when
grown as green manure or ley pasture. Also used for cut-and-carry and
conserved as hay. This has excellent nutritive value with high protein
and digestibility (up to 80%) with nitrogen concentrations of 3.0% N for
leaf and 1.5% N for whole plant (Jones et al., 2000). Its crude protein
content is comparable to that of alfalfa with values for the fresh forage
typically higher than 18%DM. Forage quality persists even when maturity
is advanced, without affecting digestibility or feed intake. For instance,
protein content in C. ternatea hay varied from 23% DM in the vegetative
state (42 days regrowth) to 19% DM at seeding (82 days). Unlike other
legumes, this seems to be relatively free of toxic compounds and can be
fed to ruminants and monogastric species, though its relatively high fiber
content may be limiting for pigs and poultry. Very palatable, thus requires
grazing management to persist (Cook et al., 2005).
Best results are achieved by planting in narrow rows (15–50 cm apart) at

about 2–4 kg/ha seed rate for long-term pastures and about 6 kg/ha for
short-term pastures to achieve plant densities of 5–10 plants/m². Excellent
results can be achieved when sown as a crop using conventional planters
and press wheels to achieve good soil/seed contact. For optimum yield as
a green manure crop, use a seeding rate of 12 kg/ha. As a component of
grass–legume pastures, can also be planted behind a blade plow. C. ternatea
can be sown in pure stands (generally as a short-term rotation with crops)
or in association with tall and tussock grasses for permanent pasture. When
sown for pasture, it does well with elephant grass (P. purpureum), forage
sorghums (Sorghum bicolor), millet species, Guinea grass (Megathyrsus
maximus), pangola grass (Digitaria eriantha), gamba grass (Andropogon
gayanus), or Dichanthium aristatum. When it is oversown in permanent
pasture or sown in mixture with fast growing grasses, its establishment
may be more difficult (Cook et al., 2005; Staples, 1992). In places where
it is intended for revegetation, it can be sown with buffel grass (Cenchrus
ciliaris) and Rhodes grass (C. gayana) (Cook et al., 2005).
Once established, this crop quickly covers the soil and can be directly
harvested by grazing or as cut-and-carry forage. It should not be cut too
low and too often. It is sensitive to trampling that may hamper regrowth
from the tips, and cattle should not enter the stand more than 2–3 h/day.
Only light grazing should be allowed during the establishment year so that
the plants can set seed for stand regeneration and develop a strong frame
that can withstand grazing. Heavy grazing is then possible, provided it is
done rotationally (Cook et al., 2005). Fertilizer requirement is low, when
sown on suitable soils, but P and S may be required on infertile soils.
Weed competition will delay establishment but, once established, Clitoria
can smother most weeds. Seed should be inoculated with Rhizobium.
Mechanically scarify seed with a high hard seed content (>30%) when
soil conditions favor immediate germination. Butterfly pea establishment
is considered a much lower risk on heavy textured soils because of the
large seed size and greater weed tolerance than alternatives such as
leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala). Use of preemergent herbicide such as
imazethapyr, 2–8 weeks prior to sowing is desirable to achieve successful
control of weeds during establishment in old cropping areas.
24.4.3 HARVESTING AND YIELD
Hand harvest where economical, but can achieve 700 kg/ha by mechanical
harvesting methods (direct heading). Irregular pod maturity affects best
time of harvest as some pods will have shattered while flowers and green
pods are still present. Forage DM may range from 0.2 to 16 t/ha/year
depending on growing conditions. In dry Australian conditions, the cultivar
Milgarra yielded 2–6 t DM/ha/year. Under irrigation, yields up to 30 t DM/
ha could be achieved (Cook et al., 2005; Staples, 1992). Live weight gains
of 0.7–1.3 kg/ha/day recorded for steers grazing pure Clitoria pastures in
central Queensland, Australia.
24.5 Desmodium
Family: Fabaceae
Desmodium is a trailing or climbing perennial legume with small leaves
and deep roots. In favorable conditions it forms dense ground cover. Most
common of numerous varieties are greenleaf and silver leaf. Greenleaf

desmodium [Desmodium intortum (Mill.) Urb.] is leafier, with reddish
brown to purplish spots on the upper surface of the leaves and reddish
brown stems. Silver leaf desmodium [Desmodium uncinatum (Mill.) Urb]
has stems and leaves covered in dense hairs, which make them stick to
hands and clothing. It has green and white leaves, light green underneath.
The climatic range is similar for both species, but silver leaf desmodium
is more frost tolerant than greenleaf desmodium because it flowers about
a month earlier. Silver leaf is more tolerant to acid soils but less tolerant
to drought than greenleaf. Desmodium is popular in cut-and-carry feeding
systems. It can be intercropped with fodder crops such as maize or Napier
grass and can help control weeds. Greenleaf desmodium is a large peren-
nial tropical forage legume. It is a branched decumbent plant with long
trailing and climbing pubescent stems that root at the nodes. Being an
N-fixing legume, greenleaf desmodium can improve soil fertility. It can
be used as ground cover as it needs only 4 months to cover the soil, and to
prevent weeds from developing It has been used as ground cover on coffee
plantations. The stems are green or sometimes red, 1.5–7.5-m long and
about 7 mm in diameter. Greenleaf desmodium has many trifoliate leaves.
The leaflets are ovate, 2–7-cm long × 1.5–5.5-cm broad, reddish-brown to
purple in color. The flowers are borne on terminal compact racemes, deep
lilac to deep pink in color. The pods are narrow, segmented, 5-cm long, and
contain 8–12 kidney-shaped seeds that adhere strongly to hair or clothing.
The seeds are about 3-mm long × 1.5-mm wide. Greenleaf desmodium is
mainly used as a fodder legume. It can be grazed as a long-term pasture, cut
and offered fresh in cut-and-carry systems, or cut from irrigated pastures
for conservation as hay or silage. It is a valuable ground cover providing
abundant leaf material that decomposes slowly in the soil (Cook et al.,
2005). Greenleaf desmodium originated from Central and northwestern
South America and is now widespread throughout the tropics. It became
naturalized in small areas of the higher rainfall subtropics and elevated
tropics. Greenleaf desmodium is a summer growing perennial.
24.5.1 UTILIZATION
The legume is very nutritious with high protein content and very palatable.
It is resistant to grazing but special management is needed to regenerate
before animals are brought back after grazing. If this is not done, the crop
can easily disappear. Desmodium fodder contains 27% DM and 20.9%

crude protein, it is as good as alfalfa as a protein supplement in poultry
feedings.
Desmodium does well in warm, wet regions at altitudes of 800–2500 m

that receive at least 875 mm of rainfall per year. It can be grown in areas
where annual rainfall is above 900 mm and up to 3000 mm. Optimal
temperature ranges between 25°C and 30°C. It grows well on slopes.
During the growing season, it is more susceptible to drought and has better
tolerance of flooding and waterlogging. Desmodium is a shade-tolerant
forage legume, coming well under the shade of trees such as tamarind,
coconut, and eucalyptus. Greenleaf desmodium can grow on a wide range
of soils, provided they are not too acidic (pH above 4.5–5) and not saline.
It is not tolerant of heavy frosts or fire (Kifuko-Koech et al., 2012). It is
tolerant of shade and can be grown in coffee plantations. It is adapted to
a wide range of soils from sands to clay loams and tolerates slight acidity
but not salinity. Acidic soils can be improved by applying manure at the
rate of 8 t/ha before sowing or planting. Desmodium can be grown as a
pure stand or as a mixture with Napier grass in cut-and-carry plots. It can
be grown under a maize crop or even as a cover crop under banana or
coffee. It can be established by either seeds or cuttings. Desmodium seed
is relatively expensive and very small. The seedlings can be swamped by
weeds, so it is best sown in a weed-free, well-prepared nursery seedbed
with fine-textured soil. A seedbed 3 m × 3 m, raised 15 cm, requires about
100 g of seeds. Greenleaf desmodium has very small seeds and requires
a well prepared seedbed for establishment. It can be sown from spring
to midsummer or later in frost-free areas. The best time to plant is at the
start of rains. It is possible to propagate greenleaf desmodium by rooted
cuttings. Once established, it grows vigorously and spreads rapidly into
ungrazed areas because of its stolons. It grows well with a wide range
of tussock grasses such as Setaria spp., Megathyrsus maximus, P. purpu-
reum, M. minutiflora, Pennisetum clandestinum, or Digitaria eriantha.
Greenleaf desmodium is a N-fixing legume that has been reported to fix
213–300 kg N/ha/year in the soil, but it transfers only 5% of this nitrogen
to its companion grasses (Skerman et al., 1990). Greenleaf desmodium
combines well with other legumes such as siratro (M. atropurpureum)
or perennial soybean (Neonotonia wightii) (Cook et al., 2005). For areas

with two rainy seasons, sow seeds during the short rains but plant cuttings
during the long rains. Sow the seed immediately after adding the inoculant,
either by drilling or by broadcasting. Desmodium can be grown between
rows of Napier grass. When this crop is grown with Napier, the nitrogen
it adds to the soil benefits the Napier and reduces the amount of nitrogen
fertilizer required for topdressing. Greenleaf desmodium is very palatable
and tends to be heavily grazed, but it cannot stand constant heavy grazing
or frequent defoliation that removes the bud-promoting sites (cutting
heights under 7–15 cm are recommended). After grazing, there should
be enough vines and leaves left to allow good regrowth. Under careful
grazing management, greenleaf desmodium pastures rarely persist for
more than 6 years (Cook et al., 2005). Being a late flowering species,
this provides good stand over feed during autumn and winter in frost-free
areas (Cook et al., 2005). It can be cut for hay and makes good quality
silage when mixed with molasses (8% fresh matter basis) (Skerman et al.,
1990). Greenleaf desmodium has a relatively poor nutritive value for a
legume. Its protein content is in the 12–21% DM range, with an average of
15.5% DM, and very high levels of fiber, including lignin (about 9% DM).
Greenleaf desmodium has moderate needs for added fertilizers, only P, S,
K, and Mo being required (Cook et al., 2005). Apply 500 g of phosphate
fertilizer to the 3 m2 × 3 m2 plot before sowing and mix thoroughly with
soil. Alternatively, add 15 kg dry farmyard manure to the seedbed before
planting. When growing desmodium with Napier grass, add one handful
of farmyard manure per hole at planting and mix. Keep the plot weed
free, especially during the early stages of establishment. Once Desmodium
is fully established, it forms a complete groundcover that smothers the
weeds, thus reducing the labor and cost of weeding the Napier plot.
The crop must be harvested as soon as it starts flowering. If it is allowed

for some more days after flowering; the stem gets hard and turns woody.
Moreover, the leaves start falling. Desmodium pure stand starts harvesting
after at least 4 months. The best harvesting schedule is to cut at 12-week
intervals, cutting 10 cm or higher above soil level. DM yields of greenleaf
desmodium range from 12 to 19 t/ha/year, which is higher than silver leaf
desmodium (7–9 t DM/ha/year). Better yields are obtained with longer

cutting intervals of 30–85 days (Ecocrop, 2014).
24.6 Macroptilium atropurpureum
Family: Fabaceae (alt. Leguminosae)

This has different names in different parts of world, such as atro,
siratro, purple bean, purple bush bean (English), purpur bohne (German),
and conchito (Spanish). Widely cultivated and naturalized throughout
tropics and subtropics. Siratro is native to North America (USA, Texas)
and Mexico. This is perennial herb with deep, swollen taproot and trailing,
climbing, and twining stems. Stems at the base of older plants fibrous
(>5 mm diameter), younger stems mostly 1–2 mm diameter, pubescent to
densely pilose with white hairs, occasionally forming nodal roots under
ideal conditions. Leaves are trifoliolate, leaflet blades 2–7 cm × 1.5–5 cm,
darker green, and finely hairy on the upper surface. Inflorescence is a raceme
comprising 6–12 often paired flowers on a short rachis, peduncle 10–30-cm
long. Flower is 15–17-mm long, deep purple with reddish tinge near base.
Pods are 5–10-cm long with 3–5-mm diameter, containing up to 12–15
seeds. Pods dehisce violently (shatter) when ripe. Seeds are speckled, light
brown to black, and flattened ovoid (4 mm × 2.5 mm × 2 mm).
A rotational grazing system of 2 weeks on, 4 weeks rest has given
good results in the humid subtropics. Stands deteriorate within a year
or two under regular heavy grazing due to loss of bud sites, shorter
plant life, reduced seed set, and declining soil seed reserves. Even with
judicious management, they tend to become less productive over 4–6
years. While individual plants may persist for 4 years or more, pastures
benefit from periodic spelling during seed set to bolster soil seed reserves
and reinvigorate plants. This plant, well associate with erect or tussock
grasses, and legumes require similar grazing management. It is less
compatible with aggressive creeping grasses such as Paspalum notatum
and Digitaria eriantha. Its companion species are, grasses such as Chloris
gayana, Cenchrus ciliaris, Panicum maximum, Setaria sphacelata,
with legumes mainly Chamaecrista rotundifolia, Desmodium intortum,
Macrotyloma axillare, Neonotonia wightii, Stylosanthes guianensis, S.
hamata, Stylosanthes scabra, and Stylosanthes seabrana. This crop is
readily accepted, although cattle prefer fresh young grass early in the
growing season. Siratro is heavily browsed by deer, and quail are attracted
to the seed crop. Positive point with this crop is to be wide range of
soil adaptation, drought resistant, high nutritive value, and palatability
with good N fixation capability. However, it needs moderate fertility or
added fertilizer. Intolerant of poor drainage, declines under grazing, and
susceptible to leaf disease.
24.6.1 UTILIZATION
Mainly used for permanent and short-term pastures. While best suited to
grazing, it can also be used for cut-and-carry or conserved as hay, is also
used for soil conservation and as a cover crop, fallow crop (including after
lowland rice), or as a forage crop sown with upland rice.
Occurs on a wide range of soils ranging from dark cracking clays, to

yellow and red clays, to littoral dunes, red sands, and gravels with soil
pH 5.2–8.5. It thrives in friable soils, but declines fairly rapidly in hard-
setting soils. Tolerant of moderate levels of soil Al and Mn, and better
tolerance of salinity than most tropical forage legumes. It is well adapted
with rainfall between 700 and 1500 mm. Leaf disease can be a problem
in higher rainfall environments. It is well adapted to drought, possessing
a deep taproot and the ability to minimize evapotranspiration by virtue
of pubescent leaves, and reduction in leaf size and shedding of leaves
in response to the onset of dry conditions. It is intolerant of flooding
or waterlogging. This is temperature sensitive crop. Good crop yield
is obtained with day and night temperatures of 27–30°C and 24–25°C,
respectively. Plant growth is poor below 18°C day and 13°C night (Jones
and Jones, 2003). Leaves are burnt by light frost. More severe frosts kill
the plant back to the crowns, but plants recover with the onset of warm,
moist conditions. M. atropurpureum is fairly intolerant of shade and is
best grown in full sunlight. Siratro seedlings do not establish under the
dense shade of a closed canopy. Chemical composition and DM digest-
ibility are largely unaffected by shade down to 24% sunlight (Jones and
Jones, 2003). Seed scarification is most important for improvement of
seed germination. Mechanical scarification can increase germination from

10% to 80%, treatment with concentrated sulfuric acid for 25 min for
scarification. Seed is best sown at 1–2 kg/ha into a well-prepared seedbed.
Seedlings are vigorous and can also establish with minimal cultivation.
M. atropurpureum has a broad symbiont range for nodulation, and can
nodulate effectively on native Rhizobia in most soils.
As per nutrient management concern, it prefers to grow under low
nitrogen supply 10 kg/ha, phosphorus 20–30 kg/ha. Phosphorus plays an
important role during establishment of plant, and for maintenance of 10–20
kg/ha/year, P is sprayed on soils (Jones et al., 2000). The need for other
nutrients, particularly K and S, should be monitored by soil analysis or foliar
deficiency symptoms. Micronutrient supply enhance its yield, particularly
Mo 100–200 g/ha during establishment on deficient soils, and 100 g/ha
Mo every 4–5 years as maintenance. Crude protein, mineral content, and
digestibility can be increased by providing optimal P, S, and Mo.
Seed can be either hand or machine harvested. For hand harvesting, ripe
pods should be picked early in the day because as the day progresses,
ripe pods dry out and dehisce violently with little stimulation. For larger
scale commercial production, growth flushes are produced through irriga-
tion with flowering occurring as moisture declines. Crops are then fairly
synchronous, and can be direct headed when the majority of pods are
ready to shatter. Seed yields vary greatly from 100–300 kg/ha. DM yields
are mostly in the range of 5–10 t/ha/year, although yields are lower under
more regular defoliation or grazing.
24.7 Mucuna pruriens
Family: Fabaceae
Common names of this plant are velvet bean, Mauritius velvet bean,
and Bengal bean.
Velvet bean (Mucuna sp.) has become one of the key groups of species
promoted for use as a legume cover crop, weed control, and green manure
crop (Buckles, 1995). This is one of the most effective rotational crops
for reducing nematode problems in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.),
peanut (Arachis hypogea), and soybean (Glycine max L.). This grows as a
leguminous vine and annual or sometimes short-lived perennial. This has
vigorous, trailing or climbing, up to 6–18-m long. It has a taproot with
numerous, 7–10-m long, lateral roots. The stems are slender and slightly
pubescent. The leaves are generally slightly pubescent, alternate, trifolio-
late with rhomboid ovate, 5–15-cm long × 3–12-cm broad, leaflets. The
inflorescence is a drooping axillary raceme that bears many white to dark
purple flowers. After flower pollination, velvet bean produces clusters of
10–14 pods. The velvet bean seeds are variable in color, ranging from
glossy black to white or brownish with black mottling. Seeds are oblong
ellipsoid, 1.2–1.5-cm long, 1-cm broad, and 0.5-cm thick (US Forest
Service, 2011). This crop exhibits reasonable tolerance to a number of
abiotic stress factors, including drought, poor soil fertility, and more soil
acidity. Although this crop is sensitive to frost, growth occurs poorly in
cold andwet soils (Burle et al.., 1992).
24.7.1 UTILIZATION
Velvet beans have three main uses: food, feed (forage and seeds), and
environmental services. The plant can be a cover crop, and provides
fodder and green manure. Velvet bean is a valuable fodder and feed
legume. Vines and foliage can be used as pasture, hay, or silage for
ruminants while pods and seeds can be ground into a meal and fed to
both ruminants and monogastrics as a source of rich protein (Chikagwa-
Malunga et al., 2009).
24.7.2 COVER CROP AND SOIL IMPROVER
Velvet bean is mainly grown as a cover crop and green manure because
it can establish very quickly without requiring complete soil preparation
(Cook et al., 2005). The main attributes of velvet bean are its fast growth
and its long growing season in frost-free environments. It is thus possible
for velvet bean to protect the soil through the wet monsoon season (Cook
et al., 2005). Velvet bean is an N-fixing legume that has no specific Rhizo-
bium requirements, but N fixation is favored by warm temperatures. As
leguminous species, velvet bean is reported to improve soil fertility: it

provides more than 10 t DM aboveground biomass/ha, and below ground
it fixes some 331 kg N/ha equivalent to 1615 kg ammonium sulfate/ha
(Cook et al., 2005; Wulijarni-Soetjipto et al., 1997).
24.7.3 NUTRITIONAL ATTRIBUTES
Velvet been forage contains 15–20% protein (DM basis) (Sidibé-Anago

et al., 2009). Seeds are rich in protein (24–30%), starch (28%), and
gross energy (10–11 MJ/kg) (Pugalenthi et al., 2005). They also contain
desirable amino acids, fatty acids and have a good mineral composition.
This plant has certain antinutritional factors such as L-dopa (from this
dopamine, a potent anti-Parkinson disease agent), number of alkaloids
notably mucunain, prurienine, and serotonin, trypsin and chymotrypsin
(inhibiting activities, decrease protein digestibility, and induce
pancreatic hypertrophy and hyperplasia), etc. (Buckles, 1995). Many
treatments have been proposed to decrease the content in antinutritional
factors of the seeds, such as, boiling in water for 1 h, autoclaving for 20
min, water-soaking for 48 h and then boiling for 30 min, or soaking the
cracked seeds for 24 h in 4% Ca(OH)2 (Cook et al., 2005; Pugalenthi et
al., 2005).
Velvet bean originated from southern Asia and Malaysia and is now widely
distributed in the tropics. This is found from sea level up to an altitude
of 2100 m (Ecocrop, 2011). Velvet bean thrives best under warm, moist
conditions, and in areas with plentiful rainfall. In such environments, its
vines can grow up to 30 ft (Burle et al., 1992). However, specific growth
characteristics depend on the genotype. It requires a hot moist climate
with annual rainfall ranging from 650 to 2500 mm and a long frost-free
growing season during the wet months. It can grow on a wide range of
soils, from sands to clays but thrives on well-drained, light textured soils
of appreciable acidity. Due to its large seeds, the crop does not require
a lot of land preparation. Application of 500–700 kg/ha lime (preferably
dolomitic lime on sandy soils) is recommended to encourage nodulation
and efficient use of fertilizers. For soils with very low nitrogen level, a
single application of 24 kg N/ha will be necessary to boost plant growth,

3–4 weeks after germination. This will thrive on soils where available soil
phosphorus is low. Application of 200–250 kg/ha single superphosphate is
sufficient for optimum herbage and seed production. Farmers are advised
to keep the crop weed free by weeding as soon as weeds appear. This will
also reduce pest infestation.
24.7.5 PLANTING
Seed is sown at a rate of 35–24 kg/ha in single crops at the beginning of

the wet season, using interrow spacing of 0.9–1 m and within row spacing
of 30–24 cm. A lower seed rate (wider spacing) is advisable in semiarid
conditions, to reduce competition for moisture. Mucuna seeds are large
and should be planted at a depth of 3–7 cm.
Intercropping with maize or sorghum: the velvet bean is a very
vigorous climber. Therefore, it should be planted in-between cereals
3–4 weeks after they emerge (depending on predicted annual rainfall),
ideally after the first hand weeding, if farmers are not using herbicides.
If planted too early and densely, it can choke the cereal, thereby reducing
cereal yield. Planting the velvet bean within the same row as maize and
in-between the maize plants facilitates weeding and spraying. However,
delaying the planting of legume for more than 4 weeks after sowing
cereals may result in shading by the cereal crop and severe reduction in
legume yield.
24.7.6 HARVESTING AND YIELDS
Harvesting of velvet bean pods can start as soon as they start turning from
green to dark brown or black. When velvet bean is intended for forage, it
may be harvested when the pods are still young, usually between 90–120
days after sowing (Wulijarni-Soetjipto et al., 1997). Harvesting at about
120 days after planting resulted in the best combination of biomass yield
and nutritive value. Because of its dense-matted growth, velvet bean is
difficult to harvest and cure for hay. Yields of hay range between 2.8 and
3.6 t/ha (Ecocrop, 2011). This crop is suitable in intercropping systems
where it is grown with maize (Cook et al., 2005), pearl millet, sorghum, or
sugarcane for support (Göhl, 1982). The crop gives reliable yields in dry
farming and low soil fertility conditions that do not allow the profitable
cultivation of most other food legumes. Velvet bean yields range from 10
to 35 t green material/ha and from 250 to 3300 kg seeds/ha depending on
the cultivation conditions (Ecocrop, 2011).
24.8 LABLAB OR DOLICHOS BEAN (Lablab purpureus)
Family: Fabaceae
This is one of the most ancient crops among cultivated plants. This
is also known as hyacinth bean or field bean. It is a bushy, semierect,
perennial herb showing no tendency to climb. It is mainly cultivated either
as a pure crop or mixed with finger millet, groundnut, castor, corn, bajra,
or sorghum in Asia and Africa. It is a multipurpose crop grown for pulse,
vegetable, and forage. The crop is grown for its green pods, while dry
seeds are used in various vegetable food preparations. It is also grown in
home gardens as annual crop or on fences as perennial crop. It is one of
the major sources of protein in the diets in southern states of India. The
consumer preference varies with pod size, shape, color, and aroma (pod
fragrance). It is also grown as an ornamental plant, mostly in the United
States for its beautiful dark green, purple-veined foliage with large spikes
clustered with deep violet and white pea-like blossoms.
24.8.1 UTILIZATION
This crop is mainly used as fodder or green manure. As forage, it is very

palatable, either as green fodder or as silage. It improves the soil condi-
tion with good ground cover. Young immature pods are cooked and eaten
like green beans (older pods may need to be destringed). They have a
strong flavor and some people like to mix them with other beans or green
vegetables. Young leaves are eaten raw in salads and older leaves are
cooked like spinach. Flowers are eaten raw or steamed. The large starchy
root tubers can be boiled and baked. The immature seeds can be boiled and
eaten like any shelly bean. Dried seeds should be boiled in two changes of
water before eating since they contain toxins Cyanogenic glucosides. In
Asia, the mature seeds are made into tofu and fermented for tempeh. They
are also used as bean sprouts. Raw dry seeds are poisonous and can cause
vomiting and even convulsions and unconsciousness.
Lablab is remarkably adaptable to wide areas under diverse climatic

conditions such as arid, semiarid, subtropical, and humid regions where
temperatures vary between 24°C and 35°C, low lands and uplands and
many types of soils and the pH varying from 4.4 to 7.8. Loam, silty loam,
and clay loam soils are best suited for Indian bean. Being a legume, it
can fix atmospheric nitrogen to the extent of 170 kg/ha, besides leaving
enough crop residues to enrich the soils with organic matter. It is a drought-
tolerant crop and grows well in dry lands with limited rainfall. The crop
prefers relatively cool seasons (temperature ranging from 14°C to 28°C)
with the sowing done in July–August. It starts flowering in short days
(11–11.5 h day length) and continues indeterminately in spring. Hyacinth
bean flowers throughout the growing season.
Plow the land to a fine tilth with 5–6 plowing, form ridges and furrows
60 cm apart for bush types. Seed rate of 25 kg/ha for bush type and 5 kg/ha
for pandal type is required. Treat the seeds with suitable Rhizobial culture,
using rice gruel as binder. Dry the treated seeds in shade for 15–30 min
before sowing. The seeds may be sown in rows or on ridges by drilling or
by dibbling. Flat bed, ridges, and furrow layout is used with spacing of
90 cm × 90 cm. However in some places, in pandal system, dig pits of 30
cm × 30 cm × 30 cm at required spacing and fill them up with farmyard
manure (FYM). Dibble single seed 30 cm apart on one side of the ridge
formed at a spacing of 60 cm for bush type. For pandal type, sow 2–3
seeds/pit at 2 m × 3 m spacing. Hoeing and weeding can be done as and
when necessary. Provide stakes to reach pandal of 2 m height and train the
vines on pandal.
24.8.2.1 APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS
The manures and fertilizers requirement under irrigated and dry conditions
is given in Table 24.1.
24.8.2.1.1 Basal Dressing for Bush Type (Table 24.1)
TABLE 24.1 Basal Dressing for Bush Type.

Manures and fertilizers Irrigated Dry
FYM (t/ha) 12 10
N (kg/ha) 20 14
P2O5 (kg/ha) 24 30
K2O (kg/ha) 20 20
FYM, farmyard manure.
24.8.2.1.2 For Pandal Type
Apply 10 kg FYM per pit (20 t/ha), 100 g of NPK 6:12:12 mixture as
basal, and 10 g N per pit after 30 days. Apply 2 kg each of Azospirillum
and Phosphobacterium per hectare at the time of sowing.
The Indian bean becomes ready for harvesting after 2½–3 months of
sowing. Full grown bean is harvested according to the need. The average
yield is 100–120 q of green pods per hectare.
KEYWORDS
•• underutilized fodder crops

•• yield
•• utilization
REFERENCES
Buckles, D. Velvet Bean: A “New” Plant with a History. Econ. Bot. 1995, 49, 13–25.
Burle, M. L.; Suhet, J.; Pereira, D. V. S.; Resck, J. R. R.; Peres, M. S.; Cravo, W.; Bowen, D.
R.; Bouldin, A.; Lathwell, J. D. Legume Green Manures: Their Dry Season Survival and
the Effect on Succeeding Maize Crop. Soil Management Collaborative Research Support
Program: Raleigh, North Carolina, Soil Management CRSP Bulletin No. 92-04, 1992.
Chikagwa-Malunga, S. K.; Adesogan, A. T.; Sollenberger, L. E.; Badinga, L. K.; Szabo, N.
J.; Litell, R. C. Nutritional Characterization of Mucuna pruriens. In Vitro Ruminal Fluid
Fermentability of Mucuna pruriens, Mucuna L-dopa and Soybean Meal Incubated with
or Without L-dopa. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 2009, 148, 51–67.
Forages; CSIRO, DPI & F(Qld), CIAT and ILRI: Brisbane, Australia, 2005; pp 54–55.
Ecocrop. Ecocrop Database; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2014.
Jones, R. M.; Jones, R. J. Effect of Stocking Rates on Animal Gain, Pasture Yield and
Composition, and Soil Properties from Setaria-nitrogen and Setaria-legume Pastures in
Coastal South-east Queensland. Trop. Grassl. 2003, 37, 36–41.
Jones, R. M.; Bishop, H. G.; Clem, R. L.; Conway, M. J.; Cook, B. G.; Moore, K.; Pengelly,
B. C. Measurements of Nutritive Value of a Range of Tropical Legumes and Their use in
Legume Evaluation. Trop. Grassl. 2000, 34, 78–90.
Kifuko-Koech, M.; Pypers, P.; Okalebo, J. R.; Othieno, C. O.; Khan, Z. R.; Pickett, J. A.;
Kipkoech, A. K.; Vanlauwa, B. The Impact of Desmodium spp. and Cutting Regimes on
the Agronomic and Economic Performance of Desmodium–Maize Intercropping System
in Western Kenya. Field Crops Res. 2012, 137 (1), 97–107.
Mukherjee, D. Studies on Profitability of Efficient Farming System in Midhills Situation
of Eastern Himalaya. J. Farming Sys. Res. Dev. 2012, 18 (1), 16–21.
Mukherjee, D. Food Security: A World Wide Challenge. Res. Rev. J. Agric. Allied Sci.
(RRJAAS) 2015, 4 (1), 3–5.
Nworgu, F. C.; Egbunike, L. Nutritional Potential of Centrosema pubescens, Mimosa
invisa and Pueraria phaseoloides Leaf Meals on Growth Performance Responses of
Broiler Chickens. Am. J. Exp. Agric. 2013, 3 (3), 506–519.
Pugalenthi, M.; Vadivel, V.; Siddhuraju, P. Alternative Food/Feed Perspectives of an
Underutilized Legume Mucuna pruriens var. utilis: A Review. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr.
2005, 60, 201–218.
Sidibé-Anago, A. G.; Ouedraogo, G. A.; Kanwé, A. B.; Ledin, I. Foliage Yield, Chemical
Composition and Intake Characteristics of Three Mucuna Varieties. Trop. Subtrop.
Agroecosyst. 2009, 10, 75–84.
Skerman, P. J.; Riveros, F. Tropical Grasses; FAO Plant Production and Protection Series
No. 23; FAO: Rome, 1990.
Staples, I. P. Clitoria ternatea L. In Plant Resources of South-east Asia No. 4.Forages;
Mannetje, L., Jones, R. M., Eds.; Pudoc Scientific Publishers: Wageningen, the
Netherlands, 1992; pp 65–74. (pp 94–96.)
Wulijarni-Soetjipto, N.; Maligalig, R. F. Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. cv. Group Utilis.
Record from Prosea base; Faridah Hanum, I., van der Maesen, L. J. G., Eds.; PROSEA
(Plant Resources of South-east Asia) Foundation: Bogor, Indonesia, 1997.
CHAPTER 25
AZOLLA: AN UNCONVENTIONAL
FORAGE CROP
DULAL CHANDRA ROY1*, ABHIJIT SAHA2, and SONALI BISWAS3
Department of ILFC, WBUAFS, Mohanpur, Nadia 741252,
1
West Bengal, India

2
Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture,
Lembucherra 799210, Tripura, India
3
Mohanpur, Nadia 741252, West Bengal, India

*
ABSTRACT
Azolla is an aquatic fern which forms a symbiotic association with a

blue-green algae Anabaena azollae. It is rich in carbohydrate, protein,
minerals, vitamin, and essential amino acids. So it is also known as
“green gold mine” of the nature. Previously it was used as biofertilizer
in the paddy field as an alternative source of nitrogen and biomass. But
nowadays, it is used in as a feed supplement for variety of animals such
as cattle, goat, pigs, rabbits, chickens, ducks, and fish. It is also used
in soil and water reclamation, biogas production, medicine preparation,
and even as human food. In livestock sector a good amount of feed can
be replaced with Azolla either in fresh or in dried powder form without
hampering the production and quality of the product. Thus, it reduces
the production cost and thereby increases the net profit of the farmers.
Azolla can be collected from its natural habitat such as swamp, pond, and
ditches or can be cultivated in concrete or semi-concrete pit or container,
earthen pots, etc.
Division: Pteridophyta
Class: Polypodiopsida
Order: Salviniales
Family: Salviniaceae
Genus: Azolla
Subgenus: (1) Euazolla
(2) Rhizosperma
The subgenus Euazolla consists of four species, namely, Azolla filicu-

loides (Lain.), Azolla caroliniana (WiUd.), Azolla microphylla (Kaulf.),
and Azolla mexicana (Presl); while subgenus Rhizosperma has only two
species, Azolla pinnata (R. Br.) and Azolla nilotica (Decne).
25.2 COMMON NAME
Ferny-Azolla, mosquito fern, water velvet.
25.3 BOTANICAL NAME
Azolla pinnata (R. Br.), A. microphylla (Kaulf.), A. caroliniana (WiUd.).
25.4 INTRODUCTION
Azolla is an unconventional forage crop widely used as a feed supplement

either fresh or in dried powder forms for ruminants and nonruminants type
of livestock. The term Azolla was first coined by Lamarck in 1783. The
name Azolla is derived from the two Greek words, Azo (to dry) and Ollyo
(to kill) thus it means that the fern is killed by drought.
Azolla is commonly used as biofertilizer as an alternative source of
nitrogen and organic matter in the paddy field. Azolla is generally known
as mosquito fern, duckweed fern, fairy moss, and water fern. Azolla–
Anabaena is a symbiotic complex in which the endophytic blue-green
algae Anabaena zollae lives within the leaf cavities of the water fern
Azolla: An Unconventional Forage Crop 311
Azolla (Lain). Anabaena azollae can fix sufficient amount of atmospheric

nitrogen and supplies it to its host. The fern on the other hand provides
a protected environment for the algae and also supplies it with a fixed
carbon source.
25.5 ORIGIN AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
Place of origin of Azolla is in Vietnam and is believed to be domesticated

as early as 11th century. Azolla is a small free-floating aquatic fern native
to Asia, Africa, and the Americas. It is generally found in freshwater
habitats in tropical, subtropical, and warm-temperate regions throughout
the world. A. pinnata is found mostly in eastern and northeastern India but
does not thrive well in hilly areas. A. caroliniana is a cold tolerant species
and found in temperate regions of India. It can survive well even at very
low temperature of 5°C during winter. Azolla microphylla is generally
found in southern part of the country.
25.6 MORPHOLOGY
Leaves of most of the Indian species of Azolla are typically triangular

in shape. Azolla macrophyte, called a frond, ranges from 1 to 2.5 cm in
length in species such as A. pinnata and 15 cm or more in the largest
species, A. nilotica. It consists of a main rhizome and it branches into
secondary rhizomes, all of which bear small leaves alternately arranged.
Unbranched adventitious roots hang down into the water from nodes on
the ventral surfaces of the rhizomes. The roots absorb nutrients directly
from the water, though in very shallow water they may touch the soil,
deriving nutrients from it. Each leaf consists of two lobes: an aerial
dorsal lobe, which is chlorophyllous, and a partially submerged ventral
lobe, which is colorless and cup-shaped and provides buoyancy. Each
dorsal lobe contains a leaf cavity which houses the symbiotic blue-
green algae, the Anabaena–Azollae (Kannaiyan and Kumar, 2006).
Interior surface of leaf cavity is covered by mucilaginous layer and
is embedded with filaments of Azolla and permeated by multicellular
transfer hairs.
25.7 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
Azolla can be cultivated throughout year, though growing season and day
length greatly affect its biomass production. Growing seasons of Azolla,
however, are linked with other factors like pH, nutrient content, tempera-
ture, humidity, salinity, etc. Production of biomass during summer season
is higher than other season of the year. Azolla generally prefers neutral to
slightly acidic environment. Optimum pH level for growth of Azolla is
4.5–7.5, though it can survive in pH ranging from 3.5 to 10. Temperature
is one of the most important growth regulating factors in Azolla. It can
survive well in wide range of temperature variation. However, optimum
temperature for rapid growth of biomass is 20–30°C. Very high tempera-
ture (above 35°C) and very low temperature (below −4°C) can inhibit the
growth and production of biomass of Azolla.
Relative humidity is also an important factor for the growth of Azolla.
Optimum humidity for better growth of Azolla is 70–75%. Relative
humidity below 60% hampers the growth of Azolla and makes it dry and
fragile. Among the nutrients, phosphorus plays vital role regarding growth
of Azolla and production of green biomass. In various experiments, it has
been found that increasing phosphorus (in the form of phosphate) supply
and/or plant density resulted to increased sporulation. Azolla is sensitive
to salinity to some extent. Some experiments have shown negative effect
of salinity on growth of different species of Azolla. Masood et al. (2006)
reported that salinity significantly inhibits growth and biomass production
of A. pinnata and A. filiculoides. It also revealed that salt concentrations
above 10 mM NaCl inhibited growth of A. filiculoides, while that of A.
pinnata was stopped at 40 mM NaCl. Photosynthesis of Azolla is greatly
affected by light intensity. In high light intensity and temperature it
becomes red or brownish red. During hot summer months, a partial shade
is to be given over the Azolla pit to protect it from the direct sunlight. In
extreme cold, it also becomes red or brownish red in color and growth is
also retarded.
25.8 NATURAL HABITAT
Azolla generally grows well in swamp, ponds, roadside ditches, lakes, and
rivers where water is not turbulent.
25.9 CULTIVABLE SPECIES OF Azolla
In Indian agroclimatic situation, out of the six species of Azolla, only three
species of Azolla can be cultivated, namely, A. Pinnata, A. Microphylla,
and A. Caroliniana.
25.10 CULTIVATION OF Azolla
Azolla can be cultivated in a concrete or semi-concrete pit, plastic/

fiber container even in earthed pot. A low-cost pit using bricks/soil,
polythene, etc can also be made. Generally, a rectangular pit of size 2 m
× 1 m with 25-cm depth is made. A polythene sheet is used to cover the
pit and put weight on it using bricks or soil. Then 25 kg of well-sieved
fertile soil is uniformly spread over it and 5 kg of 3–4 days old cow
dung with 30 g of single superphosphate (SSP) fertilizer are added to
the soil. Pour water into the pit and raise the water level about 10 cm
from the soil level. Afterwards, fresh and pure Azolla is placed in the
pit at the rate of 500 g/m2. Azolla grows rapidly and covers the water
surface within 8–10 days
25.11 INTERCULTURAL OPERATION
One-third of water of the pit is to be replaced with fresh water once in

every 2 weeks. Also, 1 kg cow dung and 15 g SSP are to be added in the
pit in every 2 weeks, after replacing the water. One-third of soil is to be
replaced with fresh fertile soil once in every 2 months to maintain the
nitrogen built up which enhances the growth of Azolla.
25.12 HARVESTING AND YIELD
Under ideal condition of growth, Azolla can be collected daily at the rate
of 0.5–1.0 kg fresh biomass per m2. After collection it should be washed
with clean water twice or thrice to remove the off smell of cow dung and
the washed water is poured back to the pit.
25.13 NUTRITIONAL QUALITIES
Azolla contains good amount of carbohydrate, protein, crude fiber, vitamin

(vitamin A, vitamin B12, beta-carotene), minerals such as Ca, K, Fe, Mg,
Zn, and almost 18 types of essential amino acids in sufficient quantity.
Azolla is known as “green gold mine” of the nature for its high nutritive
values. Nutrient content of Azolla is as follows (Tables 25.1–25.3).
TABLE 25.1 Proximate Analysis of Azolla (Azolla spp.), as Fresh.

Main analysis Unit Average value
Dry matter % as fed 6.7
Crude protein % DM 25.6
Crude fiber % DM 15.0
NDF % DM 43.8
ADF % DM 31.8
Lignin % DM 11.4
Ether extract % DM 3.8
Ash % DM 15.9
Starch (polarimetry) % DM 4.1
Gross energy MJ/kg DM 17.0
ADF, acid detergent fiber; DM, dry matter; NDF, neutral detergent fiber.
TABLE 25.2 Mineral Content of Azolla.

Minerals Unit Average value
Calcium g/kg DM 11.0
Phosphorus g/kg DM 6.1
Potassium g/kg DM 17.4
Sodium g/kg DM 9.0
Magnesium g/kg DM 5.0
Manganese mg/kg DM 762
Zinc mg/kg DM 38
Copper mg/kg DM 16
Iron mg/kg DM 2500
DM: dry matter.
TABLE 25.3 Amino Acid Content of Azolla (Azolla sp.).
Amino acids Unit Average value

Alanine % protein 6.4
Arginine % protein 5.9
Aspartic acid % protein 9.3
Cystine % protein 1.6
Glutamic acid % protein 12.6
Glycine % protein 5.6
Histidine % protein 2.1
Isoleucine % protein 4.5
Leucine % protein 8.4
Lysine % protein 4.7
Methionine % protein 1.4
Phenylalanine % protein 5.4
Proline % protein 4.9
Serine % protein 4.5
Threonine % protein 4.7
Tryptophan % protein 1.8
Tyrosine % protein 3.6
Valine % protein 5.5
25.14 UTILIZATION
25.14.1 Azolla AS BIOFERTILIZER IN RICE CULTIVATION
Azolla is cultivated in the paddy field either as monocrop or as intercrop and

incorporated into the mud/soil for increasing humus and nutrient content
of the soil. This practice of Azolla cultivation is widely popular in the
countries of Southeast Asia such as India, China, Philippines, Indonesia,
etc. When Azolla used as a biofertilizer in paddy field it produces around
300 t of green bio-hectare per year under normal subtropical climate which
is comparable to 800 kg of nitrogen (1800 kg of urea).
Azolla has quick decomposition rate in soil and thus it speedup

the efficient availability of its nitrogen to rice plant. The quick multi-
plication rate and rapid decomposing capacity of Azolla has become
paramount important factor to use as green manure cum biofertilizer in
rice field. Basal application of Azolla at the rate of 10–12 t per hectare
in the rice field increases soil nitrogen by 50–60 kg per hectare and
reduces 30–35 kg of nitrogenous fertilizer requirement. Release of
green Azolla twice as dual cropping in rice crop at the rate of 500 kg
per hectare enriches soil nitrogen by 50 kg per hectare and reduces
nitrogen requirement by 20–30 kg per hectare. Use of Azolla increases
rice yield by 20–30%.
25.14.2 Azolla AS NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENT FOR

LIVESTOCK
Azolla is used as feed supplement for variety of animals such as cattle,

goat, pigs, rabbits, chickens, ducks, and fish. Seulthrope (1967) for the
first time conducted an experiment and reported that Azolla can be utilized
as fodder for cattle and pigs. From various experiments it was also found
that broilers feeds supplemented with Azolla resulted better growth and
body weight than the conventional feed (FAO, 2016). Murthy et al. (2013)
fed milching with 2 kg fresh Azolla per day replacing 50% of concentrate
during 3 months and reported the decrease in feed + labor costs by 16.5%
and milk production costs by 18.5%, without hampering the milk produc-
tion. Tamang et al. (1993) conducted an experiment on black Bengal goat
by replacing its concentrate feed up to 50% with sun-dried Azolla and
found that replacement with dried Azolla up to 20% maintained good
health without any adverse effect. In case of cattle feed replacement to the
tune of 30–40% with fresh or dried Azolla can give better milk yield and
net profit.
Parthasarathy et al. (2002) reported that 5% feed replacement with
dried Azolla gave better meat yield in Indian broiler chicken. Rai et al.
(2012) conducted an experiment by grazing layer chicken with fresh A.
pinnata and obtained higher body weight at 8 weeks or higher egg produc-
tion at 40 and 72 days than control. In case of poultry feed replacement
to the tune of 20–25% with fresh or dried Azolla can give better meat and
egg production. In rabbit and pig, up to 50% level feed replacement with
fresh or dried Azolla can give better profit without hampering the normal
health of the animal.
Fresh Azolla is also a good nutrient source of freshwater fish cultiva-
tion. Digested Azolla slurry remaining after biogas production was suitable
as fish pond fertilizer.
25.14.3 OTHER USES OF Azolla
Azolla can also be used in the control of mosquitoes. Thick Azolla mat
on the water surface can prevent breeding and adult emergence from the
stagnant water sources such as pools, ponds, wells, rice fields, and drains.
Anaerobic fermentation of Azolla (or a mixture of Azolla and rice straw)
produces methane gas which can be utilized as fuel and remaining effluent
or slurry can be used as a fertilizer. Azolla has remarkable ability to
remove heavy metals like Cu, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, etc. directly from pollutants
or sewage water and thus it can be used to treat water polluted with heavy
metals (Wagner, 1997).
Although, Azolla is relatively sensitive to salt, cultivation in saline
environment for a period of two consecutive years decreased salt content
from 0.35 to 0.15 and desalinate rate (71.4%) was 1.8 times faster than
through water leaching and 2.1 times faster than Sesbania and also
reduced the electrical conductivity, pH of acidic soil and increased
calcium content of soil (Anjuli et al., 2004). Azolla has some medicinal
uses also. In some African countries like Tanzenia, Azolla is used for
preparing cough medicine. Azolla is also used for preparing various
human foods such as Azolla soup, Azolla hardtack, Azolla ball, Azolla
bread, etc. Azolla protein (20–30%) is close to that of soybean and is
easily digestible.
Research by Katayama et al. (2008) in collaboration with Space
Agriculture Task Force suggested Azolla as a component of the space diet
during habitation on Mars and found that Azolla was found to meet human
nutritional requirements on Mars.
FIGURE 25.1 (See color insert.) Various types of pits for Azolla cultivation.
KEYWORDS
•• Azolla
•• forage
•• nutritional quality
•• utilization
•• biofertilizer
REFERENCES
Anjuli, P.; Prasanna R.; Singh P. K. Biological Significance of Azolla and Its Utilization in
Agriculture. Proc. Indian Natl. Sci. Acad. 2004, 70, 299–333.
FAO. Feedipedia: An Online Encyclopedia of Animal Feed. www.feedipedia.org (accessed
Aug 27, 2016).
Kannaiyan, S.; Kumar, K. Biodiversity of Azolla and Its Algal Symbiont, Anabaena
azollae. In NBA Scientific Bulletin Number-2; National Biodiversity Authority: Chennai,
Tamil Nadu, 2006; pp 1–31.
Katayama, N.; Masamichi Y.; Yoshiro K.; Chung C. L.; Watanabe I; Hidenori, W. Space
Agriculture Task Force: Azolla as a Component of the Space Diet During Habitation on
Mars. Acta Astronaut. 2008, 63, 1093–1099.
Masood, A.; Shah, N. A.; Zeeshan, M.; Abraham, G. Differential Response of Antioxidant
Enzymes to Salinity Stress in Two Varieties of Azolla (A. pinnata and A. filiculoides).
Environ. Exp. Bot. 2006, 58, 216–222.
Murthy, T. N. K.; Ashok, M.; Thirumalesh, T.; Umesh, B. U.; Nataraju, O. R. Effect of
Partial Replacement of Azolla for Concentrate Supplement on Lactating Crossbred
Cows. Environ. Ecol. 2013, 31 (2), 415–417.
Parthasarathy, R.; Kadirvel, R.; Kathaperumal, V. Azolla as a Partial Replacement for Fish
Meal in Broiler Rations. Indian Vet. J. 2002, 79 (2), 144–146.
Rai, R. B.; Dhama, K.; Damodaran, T.; Ali H.; Rai S.; Singh B.; Bhatt, P. Evaluation of
Azolla (Azolla pinnata) as a Poultry Feed and Its Role in Poverty Alleviation Among
Landless People in Northern Plains of India. Vet. Pract. 2012, 13 (2), 250–254.
Seulthrope, C. D. The Biology of Aquatic Vascular Plants; Edward Arnold Publisher Ltd.:
London, 1967; pp 610–615.
Tamang, Y.; Samanta, G. Feeding Value of Azolla (Azolla pinnata) an Aquatic Fern in
Black Bengal Goats. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 1993, 63 (2), 188–191
Wagner, G. M. Azolla: A Review of Its Biology and Utilization. Bot. Rev. 1997, 63 (1),
1–26.
CHAPTER 26
DISEASE MANAGEMENT OF
NONLEGUMINOUS AND
NONGRAMINACEOUS FORAGES
DIGANGGANA TALUKDAR1 and UTPAL DEY2*
1
Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, College of
Horticulture, Central Agricultural University, Ranipool 737135,
Sikkim, India
2
Division of Crop Production, ICAR Research Complex for NEH
Region, Umiam 793103, Meghalaya, India
*
ABSTRACT
Forage crops are primarily used as livestock feed, but it has the capacity
to conserve and reclaim the soil thus benefitting in both conventional and
applied agriculture. Nearly 200 plant species have been known as forage
out of which some nonleguminous and nongraminaceous forage crops
which include sunflower, Brassica spp., carrot, turnip, and Amaranthus
are potential crops having tremendous scope as forage. However, these
crops are prone to various biotic stressors, and among biotic stressors,
several diseases caused by numerous fungus, bacteria, and virus are
posing major threat in the growth and production of the crops. So, the
utmost requirement for the proper management practices need to be
enacted which includes integrated disease management principles such
as use of plant extracts, biological agents, induced systemic resistance,
seed treatment, cultural management, and chemical treatment such as
fungicides and bactericides.
26.1 INTRODUCTION
Nonleguminous and nongraminaceous forage crops include sunflower,

Brassica spp., carrot, turnip, and Amaranthus. Nonleguminous crops are
those field crops that do not produce fruits as pods and do not have any
nodules to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Nongraminaceous crops mean those
crops which do not have woody hollow jointed stems and long narrow
leaves. The term forage crops means those plant species which are grown
for livestock feed and fodder as well as land conservation and reclamation
of the soil. The vegetative portions of the plant, mainly leaves and stems,
are consumed by the livestock. Thus, out of these four groups of crops,
in this chapter, we have discussed about five very important crops that
is sunflower, Brassica spp. (rapeseed and mustard), turnip, carrot, and
Amaranthus which have lots of potential for being forage crop according
to our purpose of utilization.
26.2 SUNFLOWER DISEASES
This crop is used for its edible oil and edible fruits (sunflower seeds).
Apart from these uses, this sunflower species is also used as bird’s feed,
as livestock forage (as a meal or a silage plant), and in some industrial
applications. It is the state flower of Kansas, US state, and one of the city
flowers of Japan (Putnam et al., 2017).
The major diseases include Alternaria blight, rust, downy mildew,
verticillium wilt, sclerotinia stalk and head rot, Phoma black stem, and
leaf spot.
26.2.1 ALTERNARIA BLIGHT AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Patil et al. (1992) tested eight fungicides by the paper disc method
against Alternaria helianthi and found ziram as the most effective at all
the concentrations tested (0.1%, 0.2%, and 0.3%) followed by mancozeb
and copper oxychloride. Wadiphasme et al. (1994) tested six nonsystemic
and three systemic fungicides in vitro against A. helianthi by poison food
technique. They found that Dithane M-45 was the most effective followed
by Dithane Z-78. Kolte et al. (2000) reported that mancozeb at 0.3%,
Disease Management of Nonleguminous 323
when sprayed four times at an interval of 7–10 days on sunflower, gave

a good control of A. helianthi. The fungicides ziram and mancozeb were
found highly effective in controlling A. helianthi in glass house and field
trial (Bhaskaran and Kandaswamy, 1979). Rao (2006) reported a combi
product iprodione + carbendazim @ 0.2% as effective fungicide for the
management of Alternaria blight of sunflower.
Rao (2006) found neem leaf extract, neem kernel extract, and Allium
sativum bulb extract as effective botanicals against A. helianthi.
The applications of Pseudomonas strains 679-2 to tomato and lucerne
reduced the severity of leaf spot disease caused by Alternaria solani
(Casida and Lokezic, 1992). Rao (2006) found Pseudomonas fluorescens
and Trichoderma harzianum as effective bioagents in reducing the myce-
lial growth of A. helianthi.
Use of induced systemic resistance is a modern concept of plant disease
management. Certain chemicals such as salicylic acid and jasmonic acid
and organics such as cow urine and bioagents such as Pseudomonas sp.
are known to induce systemic resistance when applied exogenously in
small quantities (Mesta, 2006).
Mesta (2006) found that among the seed-dressing fungicides, iprodione
+ carbendazim along with Captan (both at concentration of 0.3 and 0.2)
were found superior as they recorded lower percent infection and higher
germination percentage and vigor index.
26.2.2 VERTICILLIUM WILT AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Rotation with nonsusceptible crops reduces the population of sclerotia in

the soils. Good farm hygiene is preferred
26.2.3 DOWNY MILDEW AND ITS MANAGEMENT
It includes deep summer plowing, clean cultivation, and field sanitation.

Avoid excessive irrigation, and remove infected plants
Use metalaxyl at 6 g/kg seed as seed treatment. Spray Ridomil MZ 72
WP @ 3 g/L at 20, 40, and 60 days after sowing.
26.2.4 POWDERY MILDEW AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Field sanitation, early varieties should be preferred. Spray with difenocon-

azole 25 EC @ 1 mL/L at initial stage and 15 days of first spray.
26.2.5 RUST AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Crop sanitation is done by spraying zineb 80 WP—2 g/L and mancozeb 75

WP—2 g/L. Spray these two fungicides at 15 days interval for two to three
times (Shantamma and Patil, 2014).
26.3 RAPESEED AND MUSTARD DISEASES
Rapeseed and mustard are known as one of the most important oilseed
crops worldwide. They belong to group Brassica spp., that is, rapeseed as
Brassica rapa and mustard as Brassica juncea. In general, there are four
types of rapeseed and mustard, rai or Indian mustard (B. juncea); yellow
and brown sarson (Brassica campestris); toria or rapeseed (B. rapa); and
tara (B. napus).
Apart from producing oil, rapeseed and mustard are used as cover crops,
for rapid growth, great biomass production, and nutrient scavenging ability.
Most of the Brassica species release chemical compounds that may be toxic
to soil-borne pathogens and pest and weeds. Thus, this crop can be used for
erosion control, as pest, disease, and nematode and weed management.
One of the major concerns in enhancing the yield of rapeseed and
mustard is the incidence of diseases, which are causing damage to crop at
different stages and responsible for huge yield losses to an extent ranging
from 10% to 90%. In present article, important pests of mustard and their
integrated management has been described in detail.
26.3.1 ALTERNARIA BLIGHT (Alternaria brassicae) AND ITS

MANAGEMENT
Alternaria blight disease caused by Alternaria spp. has been reported from
all the continents of the world and is one among the important diseases of
the crop in India causing up to 47% yield losses (Kolte, 1985). Saharan
(1992) and Kolte (2002) reported that Alternaria blight sometimes causes
more severe losses (up to 70%) in rapeseed (B. campestris). The blight
also reduces seed size and impairs seed color and oil content (Kaushik et
al., 1984).
Three systemic fungicides: Topsin-M (thiophanate methyl, 70%
WP), Ridomil MZ (mancozeb, 64% + metalaxyl, 8% WP), and Bavistin
(carbendazim, 50% WP) alone and in combination with four nonsystemic
fungicides Captaf (Captan, 50% WP), Indofil M-45 (mancozeb, 75%
WP), Indofil Z-78 (zineb, 75% WP), and Thiram (Thiram, 75% WP)
were evaluated both in vitro and in vivo for their effectiveness to manage
Alternaria blight of rapeseed mustard caused by Alternaria brassicae
(Khan et al., 2007).
Meena et al. (2011) reported that mancozeb recorded the lowest mean
severity (leaf: 33.1%; pod: 26.3%) of Alternaria blight with efficacy of
garlic bulb extract alone (leaf = 34.4%; pod = 27.3%) or in combination
with cow urine (leaf = 34.2%; pod = 28.6%) being statistically at par with
the recommended chemical fungicide.
Meena et al. (2010) found that there are certain biological agents
responsible for controlling Alternaria blight of rapeseed and mustard.
Spray of soil isolates of Trichoderma viride at 45 and 75 days after sowing
could manage Alternaria blight of Indian mustard (B. juncea) as effec-
tively as mancozeb (Meena et al., 2004), which have been confirmed later
in multilocation trials.
Bulb extract of A. sativum has been reported to effectively manage
Alternaria blight of Indian mustard (Kolte, 2002).
Early sowing (Meena et al., 2002) of well-stored clean-certified seeds
after deep plowing, clean cultivation, timely weeding and maintenance of
optimum plant population, avoidance of irrigation at flowering, and pod
formation stages may help to manage the disease.
Soil application of K as basal has been found to check Alternaria
blight disease in mustard. Studies on variability at pathogenic and
genetic level in A. brassicae could enable easier development of disease-
resistant material.
Identification of signal molecules for induced resistance, development
of bioformulations and disease forecasting techniques based on epide-
miological findings will enable trigger newer strategies for environment-
friendly disease management for providing safer Alternaria blight-free
production of Indian mustard (Meena et al., 2002).
26.3.2 DOWNY MILDEW (Peronospora brassicae) AND ITS

MANAGEMENT
In the disease affected plants, yellow, irregular spots appear on the upper
surface of the leaves and white growth is visible on the under surface
opposite to spots. If the attack is severe, inflorescence is also affected. The
affected inflorescence is malformed, twisted, and covered with a white
powder. No pods are produced on such inflorescence.
Use healthy seeds for sowing. Spray the crop with 0.2% zineb or 0.1%
Karathane as soon as the symptoms are noticed and repeat the spray two
to three times at 10 days interval (Ahalwat, 2008).
26.3.3 WHITE BLISTER (Albugo candida) AND ITS

MANAGEMENT
This disease can be a serious menace if it occurs along with downy mildew.
The disease is characterized by white raised blisters on leaves, stem, petiole,
and floral parts. These blisters burst and liberate a white powder. There is
much deformity of the floral parts. Flowers get malformed and become sterile.
Use healthy seeds for sowing. Spray the crop with 0.2% zineb or Difo-
latan as soon as the symptoms are noticed and repeat the spray if needed at
10 days interval. Keep the field free from weeds.
26.4 TURNIP DISEASES
Turnip, (scientific name: Brassica rapa), is an herbaceous annual or bien-

nial plant in the family Brassicaceae which is grown for consumption of
edible roots and leaves. The plant possesses erect stems with 8–12 leaves
forming a crown. The leaves are light green in color, hairy, and thin. The
plant produces light yellow flowers which are clustered at the top of a
raceme and are often extended above the terminal buds. The leaves can
reach 30.5–35.5 cm in length, while the branching flower stems can reach
30.5–91.5 cm. The taproot of the plant is a bulbous tuber, almost faultlessly
round, which is usually a mixture of purple, white, and yellow. Turnip is
usually grown as an annual and harvested after one growing season. Turnip
may also be referred to as annual turnip and originated from Europe.
Turnips are eaten as a vegetable after cooking. The shoots and leaves can be
eaten fresh in salads or the entire plant can be used as forage for livestock.
But despite of its numerous uses, it is susceptible to many diseases. There
is proper need for the management of the disease. Turnip is beneficial as it
can suppress weeds, grow at quick pace, scavenge soil nitrogen below root
zone, and most importantly can be used as animal feed.
26.4.1 ALTERNARIA LEAF SPOT AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is a fungi Alternaria spp. Small dark spots on leaves

which turn brown to gray; lesions may be round or angular and may possess
a purple–black margin; lesions may form concentric rings, become brittle
and crack in center; dark brown elongated lesions may develop on stems
and petioles. Plant only pathogen-free seeds; rotate crops; applications of
appropriate fungicides control disease when present.
26.4.2 ANTHRACNOSE AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is a fungi Colletotrichum higginsianum. Small circular or

irregularly shaped dry spots which are gray to straw in color develop on
leaves; a high number of spots may cause the leaf to die; lesions may coalesce
to form large necrotic patches causing leaves to turn yellow and wilt; lesions
may split or crack in dry centers; dry sunken spots on roots which enlarge
and turn gray or brown. Fungus overwinters on leaf debris and on related
weeds; disease emergence is favored by moist, warm conditions.
Control of disease depends on sanitary practices; treat seeds with
hot water prior to planting, rotate crops, plant in an area with good soil
drainage, and remove all cruciferous weeds which may act as a reservoir
for the fungus. Fungicide application must begin with first appearance
of the symptoms and continue at 7–10 days intervals as long as weather
conditions favor disease development.
26.4.3 BLACK ROOT AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is a fungi Aphanomyces raphani. Small black–blue areas

appear on roots which expand and girdle taproot; roots become constricted
at site of lesions; black discoloration extends into root. Fungus can survive
in soil for prolonged periods of time. Control depends on crop rotation

with non-brassica species.
26.4.4 BLACK ROT AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is a bacteria Xanthomonas campestris. Seedlings develop

wilted yellow to brown leaves and collapse; yellow, V-shaped lesions
develop on mature leaf margins; dark rings can be found in the cross
section of the stem. Disease emergence favors warm, wet conditions.
Primary control methods based on good sanitation; plant disease-free
seeds, rotate crops every 2 years or less to non-brassica, and avoid sprin-
kler irrigation. A bactericide called Kocide DF @ 1–2 lb at 7–10 days
interval can be applied at initiation of the symptoms.
26.4.5 CERCOSPORA LEAF SPOT (FROGEYE LEAF SPOT)

AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is a fungi Cercospora brassicicola. Angular or circular

green to gray spots with brown borders appear on leaves; plant defoliation
may occur in the case of a severe infestation. Disease emergence favors
cool temperatures and wet weather.
Plant only certified disease-free seeds; avoid overhead irrigation; rotate
crops to non-brassica species for 2–3 years; apply appropriate fungicide
if disease emerges. Thiolux (sulfur) @ 3–10 lb applied at 10–14 days
interval proved to be effective in reducing the disease incidence.
26.4.6 CLUBROOT AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is fungi Plasmodiophora brassicae. Slow growing,

stunted plants; yellowish leaves which wilt during day and rejuvenate in
part at night; swollen, distorted roots; extensive gall formation. Can be
difficult to distinguish from nematode damage; fungus can survive in soil
for periods in excess of 10 years; can be spread by movement of contami-
nated soil and irrigation water to uninfected areas.
Once the pathogen is present in the soil it can survive for many years,
elimination of the pathogen is economically unfeasible; rotating crops
generally does not provide effective control; plant only certified seeds
and avoid field grown transplants unless produced in a fumigated bed;
applying lime to the soil can reduce fungus sporulation.
Causal organism is a fungi Peronospora parasitica. Irregular yellow

patches on leaves which turn light brown; fluffy gray growth on the under-
sides of the leaves. Disease emergence favors cool temperatures; disease
spreads quickly in wet conditions.
Remove all crop debris after harvest; rotate with non-brassicas; appli-
cation of appropriate fungicides may be required if symptoms of disease
are present. Fungicides such as Aliette @ 2–5 lb at 7–21 days or Koicide
DF @ 1–2 lb at 7–10 days’ interval must be applied.
Crop rotation is done every 1–3 years with noncruciferous crops.
Destroy and burn the weeds. Destroy the diseased plants by shredding
and disking or tilling as soon as harvest is completed. Control the aphids
that act as vector for many diseases. Avoid the application of high levels
of nitrogen fertilizer; it should be done on the soil requirement. Maintain
well drained soil. Plant must be sown in raised bed. Planting must be done
in such a way that it receives the early morning sun.
26.5 CARROT DISEASES
Carrot, Daucus carota, is an edible, biennial herb in the family Apiaceae

grown for its edible root. The carrot plant produces a rosette of 8–12 leaves
aboveground and a fleshy conical taproot below ground. The plant produces
small (2 mm) flowers which are white, red, or purple in color. The root can
grow to between 5 and 50-cm-long (2.0–20 in.) and reach 5 cm (2.0 in.) in
diameter. The foliage of the plant can reach a height of 150 cm (59.1 in.)
when in flower. The carrot plant can be annual or biennial and may also be
referred to as wild carrot. The plant is believed to have originated in Europe
or the Western Mediterranean. Carrot roots are eaten as a vegetable and can
be consumed fresh or cooked. Carrot juice is consumed as a beverage. The
leaves of the plant can be used as feed for animals.
According to FAO (1994), carrot can be one of the components of
forage crop. Carrot can be nutritious feed for all types of livestock. The
leaves, stems, and roots are highly palatable to livestock (Fraser et al.,
1970). It contains beta-carotene that helps in winter feed for dairy cattle to
produce yellow coloring in butter and cream. Cattle can be fed 40–60 lb of
carrots per day; pigs and poultry can feed 8 lb of carrot per meal.
26.5.1 ALTERNARIA LEAF BLIGHT AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is fungi Alternaria dauci. It is characterized by green to

brown water-soaked lesions on leaves which enlarge and turn dark brown
or black. Later on these lesions may coalesce causing leaves to yellow and
ultimately die. Lesions may also spread on petioles. The emergence of this
disease is favored by wet foliage and warm weather, while rain and fog
enhance the development of the disease; fungus survives in soil on crop
debris but is killed when the debris decomposes (Davis and Raid, 2002).
It is may be seed-borne and may spread on carrot seeds. It also survives in
carrot debris and in the soil for several years.
Application of appropriate fungicides when first symptoms appear will
result in decrease in this disease infection to many folds. Crop rotation is
highly recommended to prevent buildup of the fungus in the soil. Deep
tillage may provide some control by burying the inoculums of the fungus
away from the carrot crown where most of the fungal spores harbor.
Treating seeds with fungicide or hot water prior to planting is very helpful.
Applications of gibberellic acid to carrot foliage promote upright growth
and air circulation through canopy. Dusting seed with Thiram or iprodione
can significantly reduce this seed-born disease (Maude and Bambridge,
1991; Stranberg, 1988).
26.5.2 BACTERIAL LEAF BLIGHT AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is a bacterium Xanthomonas campestris pv. carotae. It

is characterized by small, angular, yellow spots on leaves which enlarge
into irregularly shaped, brown, water-soaked lesions with a yellow halo
surrounding. Centers of lesions dry out and become brittle. Leaves may
become curled or distorted. Flower stalks may develop elongated lesions that
exude a bacterial ooze. Infected umbels may be blighted with the pace of
time amalgamated with favorable and congenial environment. Bacteria can
be spread by splashing irrigation water or rain or on contaminated equipment.
It can be achieved by using pathogen-free seed, avoiding sprinkler

irrigation, and applying appropriate bactericides if accessible. Sow or
plant Xanthomonas-indexed seed or treat the seeds in hot water (52°C for
25 min). Use furrow or drip irrigation rather than sprinklers as mentioned
above. Turn underneath carrot residue to accelerate decomposition. Avoid
continuous carrot monoculture by using a 2–3-year crop rotation scheme.
Cultural controls: hot water dips, and sprays of certain copper sulfate
formulations are acceptable for use on organically grown produce
26.5.3 BLACK ROT AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is a fungi Alternaria radicina. The most typical symptom

is damping-off of seedlings. Root and crown necrosis can be observed.
There is appearance of blighted foliage and lower portion of petioles
turned black and necrotic. Black ring around petiole and sunken lesions on
taproot were seen. Disease is spread through infected seed and can survive
in soil for up to 8 years.
Black rot is difficult to control and can survive in the soil for longer
periods of time. Therefore, it is recommended to practice long crop rota-
tions. Plowing crop residue into soil immediately after harvest is helpful in
reducing the infection. Use of plant-resistant varieties and pathogen-free
seeds and treating seeds with hot water prior to planting are effective in
managing the infection.
26.5.4 CAVITY SPOT AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is a fungi Pythium spp. It is identified by sunken,

elliptical, gray lesions across the root. Outer layer of root ruptures and
develops dark, elongated lesions. Small vertical cracks may form on the
cavities. Fungi can persist in soil for several years and disease outbreaks
are associated with wet soils. Flooded soil increases the number of cavities
formed in the skin of the vegetable.
Some cultural practices can control this disease. Avoid planting in fields
or areas which had record of carrot having carrot spot previously. Do not
overfertilize plants with nitrogen. Applications of appropriate fungicide
can provide adequate control.
26.5.5 CERCOSPORA LEAF BLIGHT AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is a fungi Cercospora carotae. It is characterized by

small, necrotic flecks on leaves which develop a chlorotic halo around
the diseased part and expand into tan brown necrotic spots. The lesions
coalesce and cause leaves to shrivel, curl, and die. Disease can be intro-
duced through infested seed and spread by wind or water splash. Symp-
toms usually occur first on the younger foliage.
It can be achieved by planting only pathogen-free seeds. Crop rota-
tion is must. Plow crop debris into soil after harvest. Apply appropriate
fungicidal sprays as and when required.
26.5.6 COTTONY ROT (SCLEROTINIA ROT) AND ITS

MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is a fungi Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Small, water-soaked,

soft lesions on crown and roots are observed. There is appearance of white
fluffy fungal growth all over affected tissues. Soft and decaying tissue
develops in the affected area. Fungus can survive in soil for up to 10 years.
Cultural practices play an important role in the control of cottony rot
as there are no resistant carrot varieties developed till date. In carrot fields,
the use of drip irrigation 5–8 cm below the soil surface can provide a
good control. Deep plowing of soil and trimming back carrot foliage to
promote air circulation can also be useful. Application of fungicides may
be dispensable in periods of extended cool and damp weather conditions.
26.5.7 DAMPING-OFF AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is a fungi Pythium spp. It leads to production of soft

and rotting seeds which fail to germinate. Rapid death of seedlings prior
to emergence from soil is the most common phenomenon. Collapsing of
seedlings after they have emerged from the soil is caused by water-soaked
reddish lesions girdling the stem at the soil line. Damping-off diseases
favor conditions which slow seed germination. Fungi can be spread in
water, contaminated soil, or on equipment.
Avoid planting carrots in poorly draining, cool, wet soil; planting
in raised beds will help with soil drainage; plant high quality seeds that
germinate quickly; treat seeds with fungicide prior to planting to eliminate

fungal pathogens.
Causal organism is a fungi Peronospora umbelliferum. Yellow spots on

upper surface of leaves are observed. White fluffy growth on underside of
leaves is found. Color of the lesions become darker as it matures. Disease
affects young and tender leaves. Emergence of the disease is favored by
prolonged leaf wetness.
Planting pathogen-free seeds is recommended. Overcrowded planting
is strictly avoided. Crop rotation with nonumbelliferous varieties reduces
the disease.
26.5.9 POWDERY MILDEW AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is a fungi Erysiphe heraclei. Powdery growth is spread

on leaves, petioles, flowers stalks, and bracts leaves become chlorotic;
severe infections can cause flowers to become distorted. Fungus can spread
long distances in air; disease emergence is favored by high humidity and
moderate temperatures. Plants are more susceptible when grown in shady
locations or stressed by drought. Susceptibility also increases with plant
age, most notably starting 7 weeks after seeding.
Monitoring of the plants from the early stage is necessary as powdery
mildew is very difficult to see on leaves in early stage. Plant tolerant vari-
eties if available. Avoid excess fertilization. Protective fungicide applica-
tions (e.g., chlorothalonil) provide adequate protection. Sulfur application
can be used in infection that occurs early in season.
26.5.10 ROOT KNOT NEMATODES (STUBBY ROOT

NEMATODES AND NEEDLE NEMATODES) AND THEIR
MANAGEMENT
Causal organisms are nematodes Meloidogyne spp.; Paratrichodorus

spp.; and Longidorus africanus. Forked, distorted, or stunted taproots are
observed. There is reduction in crop stand and yield. Root knot nematodes
are most damaging to carrot.
Leaving land to fallow when not planting can be effective at reducing
nematode numbers. Soil solarizing for 4–6 weeks period to a depth of 6
in. can temporarily reduce nematode populations. New carrot varieties are
currently being developed that are resistant to nematodes.
The root knot nematodes Meloidogyne incognita, Meloidogyne
javanica, and Meloidogyne arenaria do not penetrate roots at soil temper-
atures below 59–64°F. Therefore, planting should be done when soil
temperatures are below this level. Galls and egg masses of the nematodes
in secondary roots of the carrots could significantly reduce in broccoli-
amended soil with solarization and Trichoderma inoculation as reported
by Pedroche et al. (2009).
26.5.11 SOFT ROT AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is a mixture of several species of bacteria, namely,

Erwinia carotovora, Erwinia chrysanthemi, and Pseudomonas marginalis.
Sunken dull orange lesions are observed on taproot which causes tissue to
collapse and become soft. Bacteria thrive in oxygen-depleted plant tissue.
Disease emergence requires long periods of water-saturated soil. Bacteria
enter plants through natural openings and wounds.
Control relies on the avoidance of conditions conducive to bacterial
infection: plant carrots in well-draining soils; allow plants to dry before
irrigating again; avoid wounding plants during harvest to prevent posthar-
vest development of disease; disinfect all equipment regularly.
26.5.12 TURNIP MOSAIC AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is a virus Turnip mosaic virus. Yellow and green mosaic
patterns on leaves, necrotic areas on leaves, vein clearing and chlorosis
may occur in older leaves, black spots and brown necrotic streaks on
stem, stunted plant growth, and reduced yield. It is transmitted by many
species of aphids such as cabbage aphid and peach aphids. Use of reflec-
tive mulches may repel the aphid on feeding, application of appropriate
fungicides.
26.6 AMARANTHUS DISEASES
Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) is a dicotyledonous plant and the name is

given to a group of approximately 70 species of annual or short-lived peren-
nial plants in the genus Amaranthus including several species of aggressive
edible weeds native to the United States such as Amaranthus retroflexus
(redroot pigweed). Amaranths are branching broad-leaved plants with egg-
shaped or rhombic leaves which may be smooth or covered in tiny hairs.
The leaves have prominent veins, can be green or red in color, and have
long petioles. The plants produce single flowers on terminal spikes which
are typically red to purple in color. Amaranths can reach up to 2.5 m (6.6
ft) in height and are usually grown as annuals, harvested after one growing
season. Amaranths may also be referred to as Chinese spinach and their
origin is unclear due to their worldwide distribution. Amaranth leaves and
stems are commonly eaten after cooking in a manner similar to spinach.
There are four main species which are cultivated as vegetables; Amaran-
thus cruentus, A maranthus blitum, Amaranthus dubius, and A maranthus
tricolor. Several species, such as, Amaranthus caudentis, A. cruentus, and
A maranthus hypochondriacus are grown as a grain crop in places such as
Mexico, Nepal, and India and are used to produce cereals and snack.
This crop has a huge potential as forage crop (Leukebandara et al.,
2015). Therefore, introduction of this plant as a new forage crop for
livestock production is highly acceptable and beneficial, on the basis of
nutritional significance also making up an opportunity for diversification
of animal feeding systems. In Sri Lanka, experiment was conducted by
Leukebandara et al. (2015) to see animal performance trials, digestibility,
and palatability studies with feeding Amaranth, in different livestock
species, in different farming systems of Sri Lanka and found lots of poten-
tial qualities for this crop as forage. Amaranthus supplies a substantial part
of the protein, minerals, and vitamins in the diet, thus increased the scope
to cultivate more vehemently and domesticate.
26.6.1 ANTHRACNOSE AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is a fungi Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Necrotic lesions

develop on leaves; dieback of leaves and branches. Avoid damaging plants
that create wounds for pathogen to enter. Use plant-resistant varieties.
26.6.2 DAMPING-OFF AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Causal is involvement of two fungi together, that is, Rhizoctonia spp.

and Pythium spp. The most common disease is poor germination and
seedling collapse. Brown to black lesions girdling stem close to soil line
is observed. Seedlings fail to emerge from soil. Disease emergence favors
in wet soils.
Use of disease-free seeds, avoiding planting of seeds too deeply,
and avoiding dense planting so as to promote air circulation around
seedlings reduces the infection. Care should be taken not to overwater
the plants.
26.6.3 WET ROT (CHOANEPHORA ROT) AND ITS

MANAGEMENT
Causal organism is a fungus Choanephora cucurbitarum. Water-soaked

lesions are formed on the stems. The lesions have hairy appearance
(silk-like threads) due to presence of fungal spores. It may cause heavy
defoliation during rainy seasons. Fungus mainly attacks plants that have
been damaged by insects or by mechanical means; spread by air currents
and via infected seed; disease emergence favors warm, moist conditions
(Seymour, 2013).
Plant varieties resistant to disease must be used. Only use certified
seeds recommended. Avoid dense planting to allow sufficient aeration.
Treat disease with copper fungicides if it emerges and practice good field
sanitation.
KEYWORDS
•• nongraminaceous forage
•• nonleguminous forage
•• integrated diseases management
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INDEX
A disease management, 61
geographical distribution, 57–58
Amaranthus (pigweed)
green fodder yield, 61
botanical classification, 225–226
harvesting, 61
botanical name, 226
insect-pest, 61
climatic requirement, 228
interculture operation, 60
common name, 226
nutrient management (manures and
crop mixture, 231
fertilizers), 60
description, 227
nutritive value, 62
disease management, 233
plant characteristics, 57
harvesting, 233
seed
insect-pest management, 233
production, 62
nutrient management, 232
rate, 59
nutritive value, 234
sowing method, 59
plant characteristics, 227–228
soil and preparation, 58
seed
sowing/planting time, 59
inoculation, 231
spacing, 59–60
production, 234
special features (toxicities), 63
rate, 231
utilization, 62
sowing method, 231
varieties, 58–59
treatment, 231
water management, 60
soil and preparation, 228
weed management, 60
sowing time, 231
Azolla, unconventional forage crop, 309
special features (toxicities), 235–236
botanical classification, 310
utilization, 235
botanical name, 310
varieties, 229
common name, 310
cultivable species of, 313
weed management, 233
cultivation of, 313
yield, 234
environmental requirements, 312
Animal health issues, 203
geographical distribution, 311
goiter (enlarged thyroid), 204
harvesting and yield, 314
kale anemia, 204–205
intercultural operation, 313
nitrate poisoning, 204
morphology, 311
photosensitization, 204
natural habitat, 312
Anjan grass (African foxtail grass), 55
origin, 311
botanical classification, 56
utilization
botanical name, 56
biofertilizer in rice cultivation, 315–316
nutritional supplement for livestock,
common name, 56
316–317
cropping systems, 60
uses, 317
340 Index
B C
Brassicas, 187 Canary grass (Harding grass)
animal health issues, 203 botanical classification, 47–48
goiter (enlarged thyroid), 204 climatic requirements, 49
kale anemia, 204–205 common name, 48
nitrate poisoning, 204 crop mixtures, 50
photosensitization, 204 depth of sowing, 50
botanical classification, 188 green fodder yield, 52
botanical name, 188 harvesting, 52
climatic requirement, 193 intercultural operation, 51
soil requirement, 194 irrigation and drainage, 51
common name, 188 land preparation, 49–50
diseases management manures and fertilizers, 51
alternaria leaf spot, 201 nutritive value, 52
origin and geographical distribution, 49
black leg, 201
pest and diseases, 52
club root, 200
damping off, 201
scientific name, 48
white rust, 201
seed rate, 50
fertilizer requirement, 197
sowing, 50
field preparation, 194
spacing, 50
forage brassicas, types, 189 toxicities, 52
Chinese cabbage, 192 utilization, 45, 53
hybrids, 191 varieties, 51
kale, 191 weed management, 51
leafy turnips, 191
rape, 191 D
swedes, 192
Diseases management
turnip, 191–192
alternaria leaf spot, 201
grazing, 202–203
black leg, 201
harvesting and yield, 201–202
club root, 200
insect-pests management damping off, 201
APHID, 199–200 white rust, 201
cabbage butterfly, 200 Doob grass (Bermuda grass), 21
cruciferous leaf webber, 199 botanical classification, 22
diamond back moth, 199 botanical name, 22
tobacco caterpillar, 200 climatic requirements, 23–24
origin and distribution, 192–193 common name, 22
planting time, 196 cropping systems, 26
seed description, 23
treatments, 195 disease management, 27
sowing method, 194–195 green fodder yield, 28
varieties, 196 harvesting, 28
water management, 198 insect-pest, 27
weed management, 198 interculture operation, 27
Index 341
nutrient management (manures and toxicities, 127

fertilizers), 26–27 utilization, 128
nutritive value, 28 varieties, 124
origin and distribution, 23 water management, 126
plant characteristics, 23 weed management, 126
seed yield, 127
inoculation, 25–26 Forage brassicas, types, 189
production, 28 Chinese cabbage, 192
rate, 26 hybrids, 191
sowing method, 26 kale, 191
treatment, 25–26 leafy turnips, 191
soil and its preparation, 24 rape, 191
sowing/planting time, 25 swedes, 192
spacing, 26 turnip, 191–192
special features (toxicities), 29
utilizations, 29 G
varieties, 24–25 Gajar (carrot)
water management, 27 botanical classification, 215–216
weed management, 27 botanical name, 216
F common name, 216
Fenugreek (Greek clover) crop mixture, 219
botanical classification, 121–122 disease management, 221
botanical name, 122 harvesting, 221
climatic requirement, 123 insect-pest management, 221
common name, 122 nutrient management, 219
cropping systems, 125 nutritive value, 222
disease management, 126 origin and distribution, 216–217
harvesting, 127 plant characteristics, 217
insect-pest, 126 seed
interculture operation, 126 production, 221
nutrient management (manures and rate, 218
fertilizers), 125–126 sowing method, 218
nutritive value, 127 soil and preparation, 217–218
origin and distribution, 122–123 sowing time, 218
plant characteristics, 123 spacing, 218
production, 123 utilization, 222
seed varieties, 218
inoculation, 124 water management, 219–220
production, 127 weed management, 220
rate, 124 yield, 221
sowing method, 124 Gliricidia (quickstick)
treatment, 124 botanical classification, 251
soil and preparation, 123–124 botanical name, 252
sowing time, 124 climatic requirement, 253
spacing, 125 common name, 252
342 Index
compatibility, 256 I
description, 252
Insect-pest management
disease management, 255
beetles, 275
harvesting, 255
locust, 275
insect-pest management, 255
shoot gall maker, 276
intercropping, 254
termite, 276
nutritive value, 255
Insect-pests management
origin and distribution, 253
APHID, 199–200
cabbage butterfly, 200
seed
cruciferous leaf webber, 199
rate, 254
diamond back moth, 199
sowing method, 254
tobacco caterpillar, 200
treatment, 254
soil, 253
sowing time, 253
K
special features, 256 Khejri (prosopis), 259
utilization, 255–256 botanical classification, 260
water management, 254 botanical description, 261
weed management, 254 botanical name, 260
yield, 255 climatic requirement, 263–264
Grass pea (Indian vetch) common name, 260
botanical classification, 77–78 crop regulation, 273–274
botanical name, 78 cropping systems, 274–275
climatic requirement, 81 disease management, 276
common name, 78 germplasm conservation, 264
cropping systems, 83 harvesting, 276–277
disease, 84 insect-pest management
harvesting, 84–85 beetles, 275
insect-pest management, 84 locust, 275
lathyrus, 87–88 shoot gall maker, 276
nutrient management (manures and termite, 276
fertilizers), 83 intercropping, 271–272
nutritive value, 85–86 maturity indices, 276–277
origin and distribution, 80–81 nutrient management, 269
plant characteristics, 79–80 nutritive value
seed fruits, 280
rate, 82 leaves, 280
sowing method, 82 orchard establishment, 267–269
treatment and inoculation, 83 origin and distribution, 262
soil and preparation, 81 plant characteristics, 262–263
sowing time, 82 seed propagation, 265
toxicities, 86–87 soil, 263
utilization, 86 training and pruning, 272–273
varieties, 81–82 utilization
water management, 83–84 bark, 279
weed management, 84 flower, 280
yielding, 85 green pods, 277–278
Index 343
gum, 279 Moth bean (dew bean)

leaves fodder, 278–279 acreage and production, 94
ripe pods, 278 botanical classification, 91–92
wood, 279 botanical name, 92
worship of, 280 climatic requirement, 94
varietal wealth, 264–265 common name, 92
vegetative propagation cropping systems, 96
air layering, 266 description, 93
budding, 266 disease management, 97
cutting, 265–266 harvesting, 98
micropropagation, 266–267 insect-pest, 97
root suckers, 265 intercultural operation, 97
rootstock, 267 manures and fertilizers, 97
water management, 269–270 nutritive value, 99
weed management, 271 origin and distribution, 93
yield, 276–277 seed
inoculation, 96
M production, 98
rate, 96
Marvel grass (diaz blue stem) sowing method, 96
botanical classification, 31 treatment, 96
botanical name, 32 soil and preparation, 94
climatic requirements, 33 sowing time, 96
common name, 32 utilization, 99
compatibility, 36 varieties, 94–95
crop mixture, 34 water management, 97
harvesting, 35 weed management, 97
insect-pest and diseases, 35 yield, 98
intercropping, 34 Mung bean (green gram)
nutrient management, 34 botanical classification, 139–140
nutritive value, 35–36 botanical name, 140
origin and distribution, 32–33 climatic requirement, 143
plant characteristics, 33 common name, 140
seed cropping systems, 146
production, 35 diseases management, 148–149
rate, 34 harvesting, 149
sowing method, 34 insect-pests management, 147–148
treatment, 34 interculture operation, 147
soil and its preparation, 33 nutrient management (manures and
sowing time, 34 fertilizers), 146
synonyms, 32 nutritive value, 150–151
toxicity, 36 origin and distribution, 141–142
utilizations, 36 plant characteristics, 142–143
varieties, 33 production area, 142
water management, 35 seed
weed management, 35 inoculation, 145
yield, 35 production, 150
344 Index
rate, 145 soil improver, 302–303

sowing method, 145 utilization, 302
treatment, 145 yields, 304–305
soil and preparation, 143–144 pueraria phaseoloides
sowing time, 145 cultivation practices, 292
spacing, 145 harvest and storage, 292–293
toxicities (antinutritional factors), 151 utilization, 291
utilization, 151 Nongraminaceous forages, disease
varieties, 144–145 management
water management, 147 Amaranthus diseases
weed management, 147 anthracnose, 335
yield, 150 damping-off, 336
wet rot, 336
N carrot diseases, 329
alternaria leaf blight, 330
Nonconventional legumes forage crops,
bacterial leaf blight, 330–331
287
black rot, 331
centrosema pubescens, 288
cavity spot, 331
cultivation practices, 289–290
cercospora leaf blight, 332
harvest and storage, 291 cottony rot (sclerotinia rot), 332
utilization, 289 damping-off, 332–333
clitoria ternatea, 293 downy mildew, 333
cultivation practices, 294–295 powdery mildew, 333
harvesting, 295 root knot nematodes, 333–334
utilization, 294 soft rot, 334
yield, 295 Turnip mosaic virus, 334
Desmodium, 295 rapeseed and mustard diseases
cultivation practices, 297–298 alternaria blight (alternaria brassicae),
harvesting, 298–299 324–325
utilization, 296–297 downy mildew (peronospora
yield, 298–299 brassicae), 326
lablab or dolichos bean white blister (albugo candida), 326
cultivation practices, 306–307 sunflower diseases
harvesting, 307 alternaria blight and its management,
utilization, 305–306 322–323
yield, 307 downy mildew and management, 323
macroptilium atropurpureum, 299 powdery mildew and management, 324
cultivation practices, 300–301 rust and management, 324
harvesting, 301 verticillium wilt and management, 323
utilization, 300 turnip diseases, 326
yield, 301 alternaria leaf spot, 327
mucuna pruriens, 301 anthracnose, 327
cover crop, 302–303 black root, 327–328
cultivation practices, 303–304 black rot, 328
harvesting, 304–305 cercospora leaf spot (frogeye leaf
nutritional attributes, 303 spot), 328
planting, 304 Nonleguminous, disease management
Index 345
Amaranthus diseases crop mixtures, 43

anthracnose, 335 description, 41
damping-off, 336 drainage, 44
wet rot, 336 fertilizers application, 43–44
carrot diseases, 329 geographical distribution, 41
alternaria leaf blight, 330 green fodder yield, 44–45
bacterial leaf blight, 330–331 harvesting, 44
black rot, 331 intercultural operation, 44
cavity spot, 331 irrigation, 44
cercospora leaf blight, 332 land preparation, 42
cottony rot (sclerotinia rot), 332 manuring, 43–44
damping-off, 332–333 nutritive value, 45
downy mildew, 333 plant characteristics, 42
powdery mildew, 333 soil requirements, 41–42
root knot nematodes, 333–334 sowing, 42
soft rot, 334 spacing, 43
Turnip mosaic virus, 334 synonyms, 40
rapeseed and mustard diseases utilization, 45
alternaria blight (alternaria brassicae), weed management, 44
324–325 Para grass (buffalo grass)
downy mildew (peronospora botanical classification, 13
brassicae), 326 botanical name, 14
white blister (albugo candida), 326 climatic requirements, 15–16
sunflower diseases common name, 14
alternaria blight and its management, crop mixture, 17
322–323 green fodder yield, 19
downy mildew and management, 323 harvesting, 18–19
powdery mildew and management, 324 insect-pest and diseases, 18
rust and management, 324 land preparation, 16
verticillium wilt and management, 323 nutrient management, 17
turnip diseases, 326 nutritive value, 19
alternaria leaf spot, 327 origin and distribution, 15
anthracnose, 327 plant characteristics, 15
black root, 327–328 seed rate, 16–17
black rot, 328 soil requirements, 16
cercospora leaf spot (frogeye leaf sowing method, 16–17
spot), 328 synonymous, 14
clubroot, 328–329 use, 19
downy mildew, 329 varieties, 18
water management, 17–18
P weed management, 18
Pangola grass (digit/woolly finger grass)
binomial name, 39–40 R
botanical classification, 39–40 Rhodes grass (Abyssinian Rhodes grass)
climatic requirements, 41 botanical classification, 65–66
common name, 40 botanical name, 66
346 Index
climatic requirements, 67–68 insect-pest, 136–137

common name, 66 nutrient management (manures and
crop mixture, 71–72 fertilizers), 136
disease management, 72 interculture operation, 136
green fodder yield, 72 water management, 136
harvesting, 72 weed management, 136
insect-pest, 72 nutritive value, 137
nutrient management (manures and origin and distribution, 133
fertilizers), 71 plant characteristics, 133
nutritive value, 73 seed
origin and distribution, 67 inoculation, 135
plant characteristics, 67 production, 137
seed rate, 135
inoculation, 70 sowing method, 135
production, 72 treatment, 135
rate, 70 soil and its preparation, 133–134
sowing method, 70 sowing time, 134–135
spacing, 70 spacing, 135
treatment, 70 utilization, 137–138
soil and preparation, 68 varieties, 134
sowing/planting time, 69–70 yield, 137
utilization, 73 Setaria grass (African grass)
varieties botanical classification, 3–4
callide, 69 botanical name, 4
finecut, 69 botany of plant, 5
katambora, 69 climatic requirements, 5
pioneer, 68 common name, 4
crop mixtures, 6–7
topcut, 69
green fodder yield, 9
harvesting, 9
weed management, 71
intercultural operation, 8
land preparation, 6
S
limitations, 10
Seed manures and fertilizers application, 8
inoculation, 25–26, 124, 231 nutritive value, 10
production, 28, 62, 127, 234 origin and distribution, 4–5
rate, 26, 59, 124, 231 palatability, 10
sowing method, 26, 59, 124, 231 pest and diseases, 8–9
treatment, 25–26, 124, 231 seed
treatments, 195 production, 10
Senji (sweet clover), 131 seed rate, 6
botanical classification, 132 soil requirements, 5–6
botanical name, 132 sowing, 6
climatic requirement, 133 spacing, 6
cropping systems, 135–136 toxicities, 9–10
disease management, 136–137 utilizations, 10
harvesting, 137 varieties
Index 347
Kazungula, 7 rate, 109

Nandi mark 2, 7 sowing method, 109
Nandi setaria, 7 treatment, 109
Narok setaria, 7 soil and preparation, 106–107
water management, 8 sowing time, 108–109
weed management, 8 utilization, 117
Soybean (bhatman) varieties, 107
botanical classification, 101 water management, 110
botanical name, 102 weed management, 111
classification yield, 116
Hertz, 104 Subabul (river tamarind)
manchurian, 104 after care, 246
Martin’s, 104 botanical classification, 241–242
climatic requirement, 106 botanical description, 243
common name, 102 botanical name, 242
cropping systems climatic requirements, 245
crop mixture, 107–108 common name, 242
crop sequence, 107–108 nutritive value, 247
intercropping, 107–108 pests and diseases, 246
description, 103 planting, 246
disease management pretreatment, 245
aerial blight, 112 seed collection, 245
alternaria leaf spot, 112 soil requirements, 244–245
anthracnose, 112 spacing, 246
bacterial blight, 113 toxicities, 248–249
bacterial pustules, 113 types of, 243
charcoal rot, 111–112 cunningham, 244
rust, 112–113 Hawaiian type, 244
soybean mosaic, 113 PERU, 244
yellow mosaic, 113 salvador type, 244
harvesting, 116 varieties, 247
insect pest management biscuits, 248
gram pod borer, 115–116 FD 1423, 248
green semilooper, 115 subabul co-1 (P), 248
griddle beetle, 115 yield and rotation, 247
hairy caterpillar, 114 Sunflower (sujyomukhi), 171
leaf roller, 114–115 botanical classification, 172
stem fly feed, 114 botanical name, 172
tobacco caterpillar, 115 climatic requirement, 174
whitefly, 114 common name, 172
nutrient management, 110 compatibility, 183–184
nutritive value, 117–118 crop sequence, 177–178
origin and distribution, 105 cropping systems, 177
plant characteristics, 105–106 description, 173
seed distribution, 173–174
inoculation, 109 harvesting, 180–181
production, 116–117 intercropped, 177
348 Index
nutrients management, 178 varieties, 210

nutritive value, 182 water management, 212
origin, 173–174 weed management, 212
plant characteristics, 174 yield, 212
plant protection
pests and diseases, 179–180 U
seed Urd bean (black gram)
production, 181 botanical classification, 155–156
rate, 176–177 botanical name, 156
sowing method, 176–177 climatic requirement, 158–159
treatment, 176 common name, 156
soil and preparation, 175 cropping systems, 161
sowing time, 175–176 diseases management, 163–164
special features, 183 harvesting, 164
utilization, 182–183 insect-pests management, 162–163
varieties, 175 interculture operation, 162
water management, 178–179 nutrient management (manures and
weed management, 179 fertilizers), 162
yield, 181 nutritive value, 165–166
origin and distribution, 157
T plant characteristics, 158
Turnip (salgam) production area, 157–158
botanical classification, 207 seed
botanical name, 208 inoculation, 160
climatic requirement, 209 production, 165
common name, 208 rate, 160
crop mixture, 211 sowing method, 160
disease management, 212 treatment, 160
harvesting, 212 soil and preparation, 159
insect-pest management, 212 sowing time, 160
nutrient management, 211 spacing, 160–161
nutritive value, 213 toxicities (antinutritional factors), 166
origin and distribution, 208–209 utilization, 166
plant characteristics, 209 varieties, 159–160
seed water management, 162
bed, 211 weed management, 162
inoculation, 210 yield, 165
production, 213
rate, 210 V
sowing method, 210 Vegetative propagation
treatment, 210 air layering, 266
soil and preparation, 209–210 budding, 266
sowing time, 210 cutting, 265–266
spacing, 211 micropropagation, 266–267
toxicity, 213 root suckers, 265
utilization, 213 rootstock, 267

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What are the different types of subabul mentioned?

What are the different types of subabul mentioned?

What are some of the major pests and diseases affecting soybean?

What are some of the major pests and diseases affecting soybean?

FORAGE CROPS OF THE WORLD

Volume II: Minor Forage Crops

© 2019 by Apple Academic Press, Inc.

SB193.F67 2018 633.2 C2018-903719-9 C2018-903720-2

CIP data on file with US Library of C

Md. Hedayetullah, PhD

Parveen Zaman, PhD

PART I: Nonleguminous Perennial Forages.......................................... 1

2. Para Grass (Buffalo Grass)....................................................................... 13

3. Doob Grass (Bermuda Grass)................................................................... 21

4. Marvel Grass (Diaz Blue Stem).................................................................... 31

5. Pangola Grass (Digit or Woolly Finger Grass)........................................ 39

6. Canary Grass (Harding Grass)................................................................ 47

7. Anjan Grass (African Foxtail Grass)....................................................... 55

8. Rhodes Grass (Abyssinian Rhodes Grass)............................................... 65

PART II: Leguminous Forages............................................................. 75

10. Moth Bean (Dew Bean).............................................................................. 91

11. Soybean (Bhatman).................................................................................. 101

12. Fenugreek (Greek Clover)....................................................................... 121

13. Senji (Sweet Clover)................................................................................. 131

14. Mung Bean (Green Gram)...................................................................... 139

15. Urd Bean (Black Gram).......................................................................... 155

PART III: Nonleguminous and Nongraminaceous Forages............. 169

17. Brassicas................................................................................................... 187

18. Turnip (Salgam)....................................................................................... 207

19. Gajar (Carrot).......................................................................................... 215

20. Amaranthus (Pigweed)............................................................................ 225

PART IV: Leguminous Perennial Trees............................................. 239

22. Gliricidia (Quickstick)............................................................................. 251

23. Khejri (Prosopis)...................................................................................... 259

24. Nonconventional Legumes Forage Crops.............................................. 287

25. Azolla: An Unconventional Forage Crop............................................... 309

26. Disease Management of Nonleguminous and

Md. Riton Chowdhury

Dulal Chandra Roy

AAU Assam Agricultural University

Fodder production depends on soil type, land capability, cropping

SETARIA GRASS (AFRICAN GRASS)

Mohanpur, Kalyani 741235, Nadia, West Bengal, India

1.1 BOTANICAL NAME

Setaria anceps Staph. ex Massey.

1.2 COMMON NAME

1.4 ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The Setaria grass is native of tropical and subtropical Africa. It is widely

1.5 BOTANY OF PLANT

1.6 CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS

The Setaria grass occurs naturally in many countries such as Africa

1.7 SOIL REQUIREMENTS

1.8 LAND PREPARATION

The perennial grass requires thorough cultivation and land preparation

The recommended spacing is 50 cm × 30 cm, but the row-to-row distance

1.11 SEED RATE

1.12 CROP MIXTURES

Setaria belongs to the Poaceae family, since it is not suitable combina-

with Setaria anceps. It can be grown with lucerne, berseem, shftal,