Nature of Problem Solving

UNIT 1 NATURE OF PROBLEM SOLVING

Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Types of Problems
1.3 Characteristics of Difficult Problems
1.4 Nature of Problem Solving
1.4.1 The Stages of Problem Solving
1.5 Types of Thinking Involved in Problem Solving
1.5.1 The Kinds of Thinking Processes
1.6 Concept of Insight Problems
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Unit End Questions
1.9 Suggested Readings
Problem Solving
“Solving a problem means finding a way out of a difficulty, a way around
an obstacle, attaining an aim that was not immediately understandable.
Solving problem is the specific achievement of intelligence and intelligence
is the specific gift of mankind. Solving problems can be regarded as the
most characteristically human activity.”
George Polya (1962)

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In our day to day life we usually solve problems be it the classroom, family, or
workplace. It is nearly inescapable in everyday life. We use problem solving
when we want to reach a certain goal, and that goal is not readily available. It
involves situations in which something is blocking our successful completion of
a task. To study problem solving satisfactorily, a good way will be to start the
chapter by solving some problems. Give these ones a try:
Problem1: What one mathematical symbol can you place between 2 and 3 that
result in a number greater than 2 and less than 3?
Problem2: Rearrange the letters NEWDOOR to make one word.
Problem3: How many pets do you have if all of them are birds except two , all of
them are cats except two, all of them are dogs except two.
There are many different kinds of problems, including many kinds of recreational
problems, career and school oriented problems (such as the problem of how to
get promoted or the problem of how to study for a test), personal problems (such
as the problem of who to marry or whether to have a child), and scientific problems
(such as how to find a cure for cancer or how to prove a particular theorem) etc.

We all solve many problems like these or others every day. Problem solving can
be as commonplace as finding out how to prepare a meal or as significant as
developing a psychological test.
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Problem Solving
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to :
• Define the basic nature of problem solving;
• Enlist the different kinds of problems;
• Describe types of thinking involved in problem solving; and
• Analyse and explain the Insight Problem Solving.

1.2 TYPES OF PROBLEMS

Problems vary from ill defined to well defined. In a well defined problem such
as a mathematical equation or a jigsaw puzzle both the nature of the problem
and the information needed to solve it are available and clear. Thus, one can
make straightforward judgments about whether a potential solution is appropriate.
With an ill defined problem, such as how to bring peace, not only may the specific
nature of the problem be unclear, the information required to solve the problem
may be even less obvious.

Greeno (1978) suggested one method of classifying well defined problems based
on the general kinds of psychological skills and knowledge needed to solve
different problems. Typically, well defined problems falls into one of the three
categories viz., (i) Arrangement (ii) Inducing Structure and (iii) Transformation.

Solving each of these types of problems requires somewhat different type of

psychological skills and knowledge.
i) Arrangement of problems requires that the problem solver must rearrange
or recombine elements in a way that will satisfy a certain criteria. Usually,
several different arrangements can be made but only one or few arrangements
will produce a solution. For example, one can say that Anagram problems
and jigsaw puzzles are examples of arrangement problems.
ii) In Problems of inducing Structure, a person must identify the existing
relationships among the elements presented. He then should construct a
new relationship among them, so that the problem could be solved. In such
a problem, the problem solver must determine not only the relationships
among the structures but also the structure and sise of elements involved.
iii) In Transformation Problems, one takes into consideration. An attempt is
made to change the initial state to a goal state. The Tower of Hanoi is an
example of this kind of problem where the initial state is the original
configuration, the goal state is to have the three disks on the third peg, and
the method is the rules for moving the disks. According to Greeno 1978
solving transformation problems primarily requires skills in planning based
on a method called means end analysis. Means end analysis requires
identifying differences that exist between the current state and the goal state
and selecting operations that will reduce these differences.

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 Nature of Problem Solving
1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFICULT
PROBLEMS
Some of the typical characteristics of difficult problems are as given below:
• Intransparency (lack of clarity of the situation)
• Commencement opacity. (confusion regarding how to start stating the
problem)
• Continuation opacity (Continuing confusion in regard to the problem as
there is no clarity)
• Polytely (The problem has multiple goals and so reaching and selecting a
particular goal is difficult)
• Inexpressiveness (inability to express the problem clearly)
• Opposition
• Transience (the problem keeps changing)
• Complexity (The problem is in large numbers of items, too many
interrelationships and decisions)
• Enumerability (It is not possible to list it or quantify it)
• Connectivity (There are hierarchy of problems in relation to relationship,
communication and allocation )
• Heterogeneity (The problem is not homogeneous and so difficult to handle)
• Dynamics (time considerations)
• Temporal constraints (There is limitation to time factor as it has to be got
done within a time period)
• Temporal sensitivity (The problem is influenced and affected by time factor)
• Phase effects ( There are changes in different phases of the problem and
these affect the problem from being solved)
• Dynamic unpredictability (The problem is complex and consists of high
degree of unpredictability)
The resolution of difficult problems requires a direct attack on each of the above
mentioned characteristics encountered.

In reform mathematics, greater emphasis is placed on problem solving relative

to basic skills, where basic operations can be done with calculators. However
some “problems” may actually have standard solutions taught in higher grades,
like for instance multiplying rather than adding. For example, kindergarteners
could be asked how many fingers are there on all the gloves of 3 children.
Normally they will add the fingers in each glove of the three children and say 15.
But at a higher level 5 × 3 = 15, which is done quickly and solved by applying
multiplication.

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Problem Solving
Self Assessment Questions
1) Define problems
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2) Define problem solving
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3) What are the different types of problems?
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4) What is meant by difficult problems?
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5) What are the characteristics of difficult problems.?
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 Nature of Problem Solving
1.4 NATURE OF PROBLEM SOLVING
The nature of human problem solving methods has been studied by psychologists
over the past hundred years. There are several methods of studying problem
solving, including introspection, behaviourism, simulation, computer modeling
and experiment.

Beginning with the early experimental work of the Gestaltists in Germany and
continuing through the 1960s and early 1970s, research on problem solving was
typically conducted in relatively simple, laboratory tasks that appeared novel to
participants (e.g. Mayer, 1992). In these tasks, they had clearly defined optimal
solutions which were solvable within a relatively short time frame, and
researchers could trace participants’ problem-solving steps, and so on.

The researchers made the underlying assumption that simple tasks such as the
Tower of Hanoi captured the main properties of “real world” problems, and that
the cognitive processes underlying participants’ attempts to solve simple problems
were representative of the processes engaged in when solving “real world”
problems. Thus researchers used simple problems for reasons of convenience.

Simple laboratory based tasks can be useful in explicating the steps of logic and
reasoning that underlie problem solving. However, they omit the complexity
and emotional valence of “real-world” problems. In clinical psychology, researchers
have focused on the role of emotions in problem solving, demonstrating that poor
emotional control can disrupt focus on the target task and impede problem
resolution (Rath, Langenbahn, Simon, Sherr, & Diller, 2004).

Human problem solving consists of two related processes, viz.,(i) problem

orientation, and (ii) problem-solving skills which, if While problem orientation
deals with the motivational/attitudinal/affective approach to problematic
situations, the problem solving skills deal with the actual cognitive behavioural
steps. If cognitive skills are successfully implemented, it will lead to effective
problem resolution.

Problem solving is a mental process and is part of the larger problem process
that includes problem finding and problem shaping. Considered the most complex
of all intellectual functions, problem solving has been defined as higher-order
cognitive process that requires the modulation and control of more routine or
fundamental skills.

Problem solving occurs when an organism or an artificial intelligence system

needs to move from a given state to a desired goal state. Problem solving is one
of the many forms that thinking or cognition may take.

By cognition one refers to the mental representation of information which can

be manipulated and used to solve problems. Problem solving is a major cognitive
behaviour.

Problem solving becomes necessary when an individual wants to reach a goal

but that goal is not easily available. It is a state in which there are some obstacles
to reach the goal. Various psychologists have defined problem solving.

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Problem Solving According to Baron (2001) problem solving involves efforts to develop or choose
among various responses in order to attain desired goals.

Witting and Williams III (1984) defined problem solving as the use of thought
processes to overcome obstacles and work towards goals.

1.4.1 The Stages of Problem Solving

The situation that prevails at the beginning of the problem solving task is the
initial state. The system then moves through a series of different, intermediate
states, designed to lead to the goal. When the goal is achieved, the system is said
to have attained the goal state. Thus there are four molar components of any
problem solving activity and these are given below:
• The initial state: How the starting conditions are defined
• The Operators: Moves or operations to move from one state to another
• Intermediate Problem States: Any states that are generated by applying an
operator to a state on the way to final goal.
• The goal state: How the final state or goal conditions are described.
The internal representation (or mental model) of these four states of a problem is
called “Problem Space”. This problem space varies from one individual to another.
It must be kept in mind that each individual’s problem space is unique and depends
also on the nature of the problem. The initial state of a problem is critical to
problem solving and some problem’s initial state may lead to efficient problem
solving while another may end up in high complexity.
Problem solving strategies Creative problem solving
Group problem solving Problem solving approach
Management problems solving Elementary problem solving
Problem solving activities Problem solving worksheets
Teaching problem solving Problem solving lesson plans
Problem solving skills
Art Problem solving

Self Assessment Questions

1) Describe the nature of problem solving.
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2) What are real world problems? Give suitable examples.
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 Nature of Problem Solving
3) What are the two processes in human problem solving.
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4) Describe the stages of problem solving.
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5) What are the four molar components of any problem solving activities?
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6) What is meant by “Problem Space”?

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1.5 TYPES OF THINKING INVOLVED IN

PROBLEM SOLVING
According to Wertheimier (1959) effective problem solving requires:
i) Productive thinking
ii) Being sensitive and open to structural requirements
iii) Going beyond the knowledge learnt from previous problem solving tasks
For productive thinking there is a need to have a grasp of the general principles
that apply in the particular problem situation. Since individuals do have a tendency
to reproduce thinking appropriate for other situations, they need to think beyond
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Problem Solving that solution and look for unique solutions. It is important to keep in mind the
structure of the problem without which solutions may not come about.

1.5.1 The Kinds of Thinking Processes

The kinds of thinking processes involved in problem solving are:
1) Analytical Thinking
2) Synthetic Thinking.
In analytic thinking, there is nothing more in solution than in the premise. For
example if the problem is a simple question like “how many doors are there in
your house”, then the answer is simple counting of the doors and adding it up.
There can be no other answer and there can also be no other solution.
In contrast, Synthetic Thinking does not contain the conclusion in the premise
itself because the solution is not needed in the construction of the mental object.
For example, we know that 2 is a divisor of 4, 4 is a divisor of 8, and 2 is also a
divisor of 8. In general, it is true that a divisor of a divisor of a number is a
divisor of that number.
Such solutions are best reached by constructing mental model like images like
number lines.
The importance of synthetic thinking is that you can get out more than you put
into it.
After you construct a mental model, you can see relationships that were not
evident before you constructed it. Seeing these new relationships is what
comprises problem solving through synthetic thinking.
In other words, one is synthesizing the available information and facts to derive
new solution. This is also termed as developing insight.
Newell is one of the most influential cognitive psychologists who made computer
stimulation approach to the study of problem solving.
Newell stated that the goal is to construct a mental model. From this model one
will find answers to a problem by inspecting that model itself. To do this, one
writes parts of the problem mentally on the model. Once the model has been
constructed one can read the results of what has been written. It is important to
note that in order to read these results one needs the “mind’s eye”.

The mind’s eye has traditionally been a controversial issue in cognitive

psychology. Another word for it is “homunculus” meaning “little man in the
head”. Most cognitive psychologists disapprove of this concept of Mind’s eye
on the premise that it reflects nonscientific theories of behaviour that were largely
based on soul.

Self Assessment Questions

1) What types of thinking are involved in problem solving?
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 Nature of Problem Solving
2) What are the kinds of thinking processes?
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3) Describe Newell’s Mental Model.
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1.6 CONCEPT OF INSIGHT PROBLEMS

There are two types of solutions to problems and these are (i) Insightful solutions
and (ii) solutions without involving insight.

The essential characteristics of an insight solution to a problem is that the solution

appears suddenly, without warning.

By contrast, problems solved without insight are solved gradually rather than
suddenly. The solution process here involves a stepwise progression towards the
solution.

For example, arithmetic and algebraic problems fall into the category of problems
solved without insight. In this, the subjects themselves must be able to distinguish
between these two types of solutions.

As the subjects solve a non insight problem, they should be able to tell that they
are getting closer to the solution. For non-insight problems subjects generally
have a greater feeling of warmth as they get closer and closer to the solution.
This is because non-insightful problems are solved step by step and with each
step the subject gets closer to the solution and thus warmer in each step.

As for insight problems there is no gradual approach to the solution and so

subjects do not feel warmer until the solution actually appears.

Feeling of knowing and feeling of warmth reflect judgments that subjects make
about their own knowledge. Such judgments are examples of metacognition.
Metacognition refers to what one knows about the technique of how accurately
one can assess one’s own cognitive processes.

It has been shown that people’s metacognitive assessments of their performance

on noninsight problems are quite accurate. However, their metacognitive
assessments of their performance on insight problems are not accurate, because
an insight is not something that can be planned.
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Problem Solving An insight is something that happens to the person, not something that a person
decides to have. In insight solution, the problem is solved by the sudden
illumination characteristic of insight.

Insight is preceded by a gradual process whereby relevant parts of the problem

are identified. However, solvers may not be aware that this process is leading
toward an insight.

Another aspect of insight problems is that the source of difficulty in some insight
problems is the inability to see that something you already know is needed for
the solution. Hints given within the context of the problem are fairly effective
in facilitating subsequent insight As the Gestalt psychologists often observe,
people are generally not efficient at realising that a new problem can be solved
with information already at their disposal.

People differ in their ability to select information that is relevant to the problem
at hand. This ability to discover what is essential about situation is important as
well as the ability to remember information that is relevant to the problem. This
ability is called sagacity. Sagacity differs from learning in that it involves a
sensitivity to detail, a discernment of what is important in a situation. Sagacity is
the ability to see into the situation and to discriminate the important aspects of it.

The format in which the information is presented makes a difference in insightful

problem solving. That is, one can give the information in a puzzle format or in
a declarative format. The information given in the puzzle format leads the subject
to discriminate the relevant information better than when the information is in
declarative format. This is so because, the puzzle format leads the subject to
process the relevant information in a way that makes it accessible for later use.
On the other hand the declarative format leads to the acquisition of the relevant
information, but in a way that makes it possible for the person to see its relevance
for subsequent problem solving.

Select a word that can be interpreted in different ways. For example, the word
lake can refer to a frozen or unfrozen body of water. Most people interpret the
word to refer to an unfrozen body of water. A riddle can be constructed by requiring
the problem solver to come up with the less accessible meaning in order to make
sense of what is being described. If the subject is presented with a clue that the
stone rested on the surface of the lake for 3 months, after which it sank to the
bottom some 10 meters below., this would provide the solution that lake here
refers to frozen one for 3 months and then running water lake afterwards.

1.7 LET US SUM UP

Problem solving is an important part of thinking processes. In general a problem
is any kind of conflict or difference between one situation and another that one
wishes to to produce, that which is the goal.

Problem solving typically involves three major stages: preparation, production

of solutions and evaluation of solutions that have been generated.

Problem solving can be done either with or without insight and utilises analytical,
synthetic thinking along with metacognition.
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This it can be said that, like many other cognitive processes, problem solving is Nature of Problem Solving
a dynamic and complex process and involves many different types of thinking
processes depending on the nature of the problem.

1.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) What are the various categorisations of problems? Can you categorise your
day to day problems into these categories?
2) What is the role of various types of thinking involved in solving diferent
kinds of problems ?
3) Describe the four molar stages of problem solving.
4) Compare and contrast the role of productive thinking and structurally blind
thinking in problem solving.
5) Emotional states can affect many cognitive processes. What can be the affect
of these various emotional states on problem solving ?
6) Critically discuss the concept of insight problems and insightful solutions.
7) Solutions involving insight and solutions without involving insight –
Differentiate.

1.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Feldman, R . S. (2008). Essentials of Understanding Psychology. New Delhi:
Tata McGraw Hill.

Sternberg, R.J. (2009). Applied Cognitive Psychology: Perceiving, Learning,

and Remembering. London: Cengage

Galotti , K.M. (2008). Cognitive Psychology In and Out of the Laboratory.

Canada: Nelson Education.

References
Hunt, R. R., & Ellis, H.C. (2006). Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology. New
Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.

Reed, S.K. (2010). Cognition: Theories and Applications. London: Cengage.

Solso, R.L. (2006). Cognitive Psychology. New Delhi: Pearson Education.

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Problem Solving
UNIT 2 STAGES OF PROBLEM SOLVING

Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Nature of the Problem
2.3 Generating Solutions
2.3.1 Judging the Best Among the Likely Solutions
2.3.2 Strategies for Problem Solving
2.3.3 Some Specific Techniques of Problem Solving
2.3.3.1 Generate and Test Techniques
2.3.3.2 Means Ends Analysis
2.3.3.3 Backward Search
2.3.3.4 Planning Strategy
2.3.3.5 Thinking Aloud
2.3.3.6 Other Strategies
2.4 Creativity and Problem Solving
2.4.1 Stages Involved in Creative Discoveries
2.5 Artificial Intelligence in Problem Solving
2.5.1 Criticisms of the Computer Simulation Approach
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Unit End Questions
2.8 Suggested Readings

2.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will examine the basic steps and strategies involved in problem
solving – the ways to reach to solutions of the problems, and the various methods
to solve different kinds of problems. For this, in particular, the following topics
are discusses in detail. We will deal with Stages of Problem Solving, Techniques
of problem solving, Creativity and Problem solving and the role of Artificial
Intelligence in Problem Solving

2.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
• Define problem solving and problems;
• Describe the various stages in problem solving;
• Analyse the various solutions; and
• Explain the steps to reach the best solution.

2.2 NATURE OF THE PROBLEM

The first step to solve the problem is to understand its different aspects and
nature i.e. to figure out just what issues, obstacles and goals are involved.
According to Greeno (1977), Understanding involves constructing an internal
16 representation. For e.g. If you understand a sentence, you create an internal
representation or pattern in your head so that concepts are related to each other Stages of Problem Solving
in the same way that they are related to each other in the original sentence.

In order to create this pattern in your head you must use background knowledge,
such as the meaning of the various words in the sentence. In order to understand
a problem you must pay attention to the important information in a problem.
Furthermore, you must ignore the information that is irrelevant. As soon as the
problem solver has decided which information is essential and which can be
disregarded the next step is to find a good way to represent the problem. The
representation can be done by using symbols, lists, matrices, graphs and visual
images.

2.3 GENERATING SOLUTIONS

The next stage is finding variety of potential solutions for the problem. For this
one can use one’s past experiences and/or present resources and thinking critically
about the problem. Several strategies can be used to solve the problems. Some
methods are very time consuming but they will yield an answer. Other methods
are less wasteful of time, but they may not produce a solution. These strategies
are discussed in another section of the unit.

2.3.1 Judging the Best Among the Likely Solutions

At this stage we must evaluate each alternatives and outcomes of the problem.
The objective of this step is to move closer to goal and learn about major obstacles
and hidden costs of the particular solution and choose the best solution.

Carrying out the best solution

This stage involves actually working out the best solution. Various strategies can
be adopted in reaching the solution. Algorithms and heuristics are the strategies
which can be used depending upon the requirements of the problem. These are
being dealt in the next section.

Evaluation of solution
In this the problem solver compares the solution with the representation of the
problem. The path taken from the initial state to the goal state is checked as to
whether it is specified as legal or not. Sometimes the evaluation stage leads to
the conclusion that the problem has not been solved adequately, and thus one
starts from an earlier stage, depending upon the source of the inadequacy.

2.3.2 Strategies for Problem Solving

An individual uses various kinds of methods or strategies to solve problems.
Some strategies when used take a long time but definitely give an answer. On the
other hand, there are some other strategies which take lesser time but do not
always guarantee success. These strategies can be mainly classified under two
categories, viz., (i) algorithm and (ii) heuristics. These two are discussed in the
following section.

Algorithm
An algorithm is a specific procedure for solving a type of problem. An algorithm
invariably leads to the solution if it is used properly, that is. It is a procedure of
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Problem Solving steps that does guarantee a solution if one follows the steps correctly. The rules
of multiplication constitute an algorithm because a correct answer is guaranteed
if one follows the rules.

Consider anagram problems in which we try to reorganise groups of letters into

words. Examples of algorithms are systematic and unsystematic random search
techniques. Unsystematic random search means that we try out all kinds of
possible answers but make no attempt to be orderly in our search and keep no
record of our previous attempts. As a consequence we may repeat a response
that has already proved to be wrong. In systematic random search we try out all
possible answers using a specified system. This method is somewhat more
efficient than unsystematic random search, but it is highly time consuming when
there are many alternative answers. If you are given a 3 letter anagram, YBO,
with instructions to unscramble it, proceed with a systematic random search:
YOB, BYO, BOY, ! However, notice how time consuming it would be to use a
systematic random search to solve a longer anagram, such as
LSSTNEUIAMYOUL.

Heuristics
In this strategy an individual does not go for all the alternatives to solve problems
but choose some most relevant alternatives. This is kind of short cut rule which
takes lesser time but does not guarantee success. Heuristics are rules of thumb
that help us simplify and solve problems.

Heuristics do not guarantee a correct solution to a problem but when they work,
they permit more rapid solutions. A heuristic device for solving the anagram
problem would be to look for familiar letter combinations. For e.g. how many
words can you make from the pool of letters DWARG? In this anagram we can
find the familiar combinations dr and gr. We may then quickly find draw, drag,
and grad. The drawback to this method, however, is that we might miss some
words.

Psychologists have paid more attention to how humans use heuristics than how
they use algorithms. Let us look at some of the heuristics as strategies in solving
problems. Problem solvers can use one or more of these heuristics as they attack
a problem.

Self Assessment Questions

1) Define problem and problem solving.
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2) Discuss the nature of the problem.
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3) How do we generate solutions to the problem?
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4) Discuss strategies for problem solving.
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5) What is algorithm?
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6) What is heurisitcs?
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2.3.3 Some Specific Techniques of Problem Solving

The way to solve a problem depends to a great extent on the nature of the problem
itself. For example, if you want to go from New Delhi to Chennai you will call
various travel agents for information regarding the various available options for
traveling and staying. However, if you want to know your bank balance you will
not call a travel agent for assistance but go to your bank or nearest ATM or use
net-banking. This is called domain specific problem solving approaches, that is
the solution that work only for a limited class of problems. In the following
section, a certain class of general, domain independent techniques of problem
solving is discussed.

2.3.3.1 Generate and Test Techniques

To understand this let us begin with a simple problem:

“Think of ten words beginning with letter c that you eat or drink.” 19
Problem Solving The process that most of us use to arrive at the solution to such a problem generally
involves what is called generate and test technique. It consists of generating
possible solutions and then testing them. For example, for the above problem of
generating a list of things to eat or drink beginning with letter c, some of the
names that often come to our mind that sound as if beginning with c but which
actually do not (like ketchup) and some that start with c but are not names of
eatables/drinks (like cable, can) might have come to your mind a s a solution but
on thinking you would have discarded these words. This explains the process of
thinking of possible solutions (generating) and then seeing if those possibilities
met all the criteria (testing).

Generate and test is a technique that loses its effectiveness very rapidly when
there are many possibilities and when there is no particular guidance over the
generation process. For example, if you forget your ATM pin, the technique
might eventually work but your frustration level by that time might exceed beyond
your willingness to work on the task. Moreover, if we do not have a way to keep
track of the possibilities that we have already tried, along with the ones that we
still have to try, we might be further frustrated.

Generate and test can be useful when there aren’t a lot of possibilities to keep
track of. If you have lost your keys somewhere between your classroom and
college cafeteria the technique can be easily used to help search the keys.

2.3.3.2 Means-ends Analysis

It is a strategy in which the problem solver divides the problem into a number of
sub problems, or smaller problems. Each of these sub problems is solved by
detecting the difference between the original state and the goal state and then
reducing the difference between these two states. The name means ends analysis
fits the process, because it involves figuring out the “ends” you want and then
figuring out what “means” you will use to reach those ends. Every day we all
solve problems by using means ends analysis. Means ends analysis involves
subgoals to eliminate the difference between the current state and the condition
for applying desired operator.
Our original state at one point is an equation
2s – 10 + 5 = s + 5 + 8
and our goal state is an equation with a single s alone one side. We reduced the
difference between the two states by adding +5 to each side of the equation and
subtracting s from each side of the equation.
This strategy repeatedly compares states and seeks operators, establishing
subgoals and finding ways to reach the sub goals, all on the way to finding a path
to the final goal.

2.3.3.3 Backward Search

With the backward search heuristic, the problem solver starts at the goal state.
Sometimes it is useful to start at the goal state of a problem and attempt to work
backward to the initial state. In solving a paper-pencil maze, it may be easier to
see the correct path by starting at the end. Working backwards can be a very
useful heuristic, particularly for problems that contain a uniquely specified goal
state. For example, a backward search would be ideal for a maze with many
paths out of the beginning point yet only one path leading form the goal.
20
The reason working backward helps lies in the subgoals that one begins to see Stages of Problem Solving
by starting with the final goal. Once the problem solver can envision a string of
subgoals projecting backward from the goal state, then going about solving the
subgoals in a forward direction can be readily accomplished. Working backward
is only viable when the goal state is uniquely well defined (Wickelgren, 1974).

2.3.3.4 Planning Strategy

In this heuristic, the problem is divided into two simple aspects and complex
aspect. First, the simple aspect of the problem is solved leaving behind the
complex one, and thereafter the complex aspect is taken and is solved. It is
particularly useful if the aspects that are ignored can easily be worked into the
solutions to the complicated problems.

One common kind of planning strategy is analogy. In analogy, a solution to an

earlier problem is used in order to help with an original problem. The current
problem is solved on the basis of past experience of solving similar problems.
This heuristic looks for similarities between a current problem and one solved in
the past. Try to solve the anagram BODUT. By thinking of words D, O, U will
simplify the problem information. The usefulness of the planning strategy depends
on the extent to which the solution to the simple problem will be helpful when
the complex problem is considered.

2.3.3.5 Thinking Aloud

Ericsson and Simon referred to the method of thinking aloud as a Method for
Studying Human Problem Solving is referred too as concurrent verbalisation,
that is verbalisation of information at the time the subject is attending to it. This
is to be distinguished from retrospective verbalisation, in which the subject is
asked about cognitive processes that occurred at an earlier point in time.

Concurrent verbalisation relies on short-term memory whereas retrospective

verbalisation relies on long-term memory.

When subjects think aloud, they put into words a process that normally takes
place nonverbally. This provides a description of the subject’s solution process.
A verbal description so obtained is called a protocol. Although there may be
omissions in these protocols, they still contain a great deal of useful information.
NeweIl (1977) recommended a series of steps in order to clarify the protocol.
1st Step: First, the protocol needs to be divided into phrases, which are
descriptions of single acts.

2nd Step:Seconcd, the experimenter constructs a problem behaviour graph, a

concrete description of the way in which the subject moves around in
the problem space. This description can be used as the basis for a
production system designed to model the subject’s behaviour.

Although concurrent verbalisation is widely used, there is evidence suggesting

that it may interfere with some aspects ‘of the problem-solving process. For
example, Schooler, Ohlsson, and Brooks (1993) did a study in which subjects
were interrupted while trying to solve an insight problem.

21
Problem Solving One group was then asked to describe their problem-solving strategies, while
another group engaged in an activity irrelevant to the problem. Subjects then
resumed attempting to solve the problem.

The group that had verbalised their strategies were less likely to solve the problem
than the group engaged in an irrelevant activity. Schooler, Ohlsson, and Brooks
concluded that there are “non reportable or unconscious processes” that lead to
insightful solutions, and these are interfered with by verbalisation.

These non reportable processes may be memory searches that lead to the recovery
of the items needed for the solution. These processes may be disrupted by the
attempt to verbalise the solution process. Therefore, researches using think-aloud
techniques should also consider including silent control groups to determine
whether verbalisation influencing performance.

2.3.3.6 Other Strategies

Some other strategies that people often employ in problem solving include:
Abstraction: This technique involves solving the problem in a model of the system
before applying it to the real system.
Divide and conquer: While using this approach to problem solving, people break
down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems.
Hypothesis testing: This involves assuming a possible explanation to the problem
and trying to prove (or, in some contexts, disprove) the assumption.
Lateral thinking: Many problems involve approaching solutions indirectly and
creatively and this involves the use of lateral thinking.
Method of focal objects: This approach involves synthesizing seemingly non-
matching characteristics of different objects into something new and reaching to
a solution.
Reduction: Problem solving may also be done by transforming the problem into
another problem for which solutions exist and this is called reduction.
Research: This involves employing existing ideas or adapting existing solutions
to similar problems.
Root cause analysis: involves eliminating the cause of the problem.

Trial-and-error: This is one of the most widely studied methods in psychology

and involves testing possible solutions until the right one is found.
Brainstorming: This approach is especially used among groups of people wherein
a large number of solutions or ideas are suggested by various members of the
groups and later these ideas are combined and developed until an optimum
solution is found.

Self Assessment Questions

1) What are some of the specific techniques of problem solving?
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22
 .............................................................................................................. Stages of Problem Solving

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2) What is involved in “generate and test” technique?
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3) What do you understand by the term “Means Ends “ analysis?
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4) What is backward search in problem solving?
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5) Discuss “thinking aloud” as a method for studying human problem
solving.
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2.4 CREATIVITY AND PROBLEM SOLVING

As discussed in Unit1, many of the problems are called insight problems, and
are believed to have a solution that comes from insight. The process by which
insight comes is not well understood. However it is strongly believed that
creativity plays a vital role in insight and vice versa.
Although the term is difficult to define precisely, many psychologists believe
that creativity has to do with appropriate novelty, that is, originality that suits
some purpose (Hennessey & Amabile, 1988).
23
Problem Solving Appropriate ideas that lack novelty are mundane; conversely original ideas that
do not address some problem in a useful way are bizarre. Cognitive scientists
refer to creativity as a combination, or recombination, of knowledge, information
or mental representations. In other words the person who has created it knows
about it, and also has depicted it.(Dartnall, 2002). Creative problem solving
forms the essence of insight problem solutions. Insight seems to involve at least
three separate problem-solving skills (Davidson, 1986; Davidson & Sternberg,
1984) and these are (i) selective encoding (ii) selective combination (iii) selective
comparison. These are discussed below.
1) Selective Encoding. When we try to solve a new problem, we are often
overwhelmed by large amounts of useless information. An insight arises
when we determine which information is relevant for further consideration.
Sir Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin through selective encoding.
Fleming’s attempts to grow bacteria had been disrupted by the appearance
of a mold in his culture. Rather than dismissing this mold as irrelevant to
his original experiments, he realised that the mold’s bacteria has a killing
ability that was relevant to a greater medical concern, that is the need for
antibiotics to kill disease-causing organisms.
2) Selective Combination: When we have a problem to solve, we often have
all the pieces of the solution, but we do not know how to put them together.
An insight arises when we discover a novel way of combining the elements
of the solution.
For example, Darwin’s construction of the theory of evolution involved
selective combination. The various facts about natural history had been
available to him for a long time. What Darwin did was to combine this
information into an innovative and coherent theory.
3) Selective Comparison. When we solve a problem, we often use a model
solution that we encountered in the past. Insight occurs when we discover
that a more novel comparison leads to unforeseen consequences.
To give an example, Kekule’s discovery of the structure of the benzene ring
involved selective comparison.
In a dream Kekule saw a snake curl back on itself and catch its own tail. Upon
waking, he realised that this was the structure he had been seeking. His insight
was to discern the underlying similarity between his dream image and the benzene
ring.
As the above examples suggest, insight is an important aspect of the creative
process. Even though the laboratory puzzles and problems that we have been
discussing in this Unit as examples bear little resemblance to the kinds of problems
that Fleming, Darwin, and Kekule worked on, they all involve insight in that a
solution suddenly comes to mind. They also share another property, that is, the
person begins in the dark, not knowing what to do. What factors promote creative
solutions to important problems?

2.4.1 Stages Involved in Creative Discoveries

Many creative discoveries seem to occur in these four stages:
1) Preparation
2) Incubation
24
3) Insight Stages of Problem Solving

4) Verification.
As discussed, Creativity is the ability to see something new in something quite
ordinary.

Preparation: First a goal is set. Then potentially relevant information is gathered,

sometimes deliberately, sometimes by accident.

Incubation: This preparation done, a period of apparent inactivity, that is

incubation can set in. Incubation may involve unconscious mental activity, or it
may simply be a period of waiting for some important missing link to fall into
place.

Insight: The moment of insight (also called illumination) often involves familiar
elements coming together in new ways. The mathematician Henri Poincare wrote,
“To create consists of making new combinations of associative elements that are
useful” (1929).

Verification: The final step, verification, tells whether a new combination is, in
fact, useful. Two characteristics stand out in the creative person:

The first is a clear sense of purpose: An invention, a painting, a musical

composition, or any other creative product is a solution to a problem. Without a
clear goal, a clear problem to solve, nothing would be created. The second
outstanding characteristic of creative people is their store of knowledge and
techniques. Inventors have to know both the content and the techniques of their
field, composers have to know music and the craft of composition, and scientists
must know the facts and theories of their field and master the mathematical and
technical tools of the trade. Because “creativity” has an almost mystical
connotation, it is easy to forget how basic and indispensable purpose and
knowledge are.
Self Assessment Questions
1) How are creativity and problem solving related?
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2) What are the 3 problem solving skills that insight involves? Give
examples
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25
Problem Solving
3) What are the various stages in creative discoveries?
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2.5 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN PROBLEM

SOLVING
Researchers studying problem solving propose problem space hypothesis which
states that “every possible state of affairs within a problem corresponds to a
particular mental node and the entire set of nodes occupy some mental area and
this area together with the mental graph is a problem space”.

This problem space hypothesis has been used to create expert systems called
computer programmes designed to model the judgments of one or more human
experts in a particular field.

Expert systems contain a knowledge base that store facts relevant within that
field. They typically also contain a set of inference rules, a search engine that the
programme uses to search knowledge base using inference base and some interface
or means of interacting with a human user who has a question or problem for
which he/ she is consulting the expert system.

These are computer programmes that solve problems in ways that are similar to
the intelligent way in which humans solve problems are called artificial
intelligence approaches and have been found to be extremely influential.

2.5.1 Criticisms of the Computer Simulation Approach

Not all researchers agree that computer simulation can capture the way that people
think when they solve problems. Some people argue that thinking is just too
complex to be mimicked by a machine. However, as we know, computer programs
can produce some solutions to very complicated problems. Current experience
and researches suggest that there appear to be no reason, in principle, why
computer program should not-approach (or surpass) the complexity of human
thought.

Other criticisms derive from the belief that whatever it is that computer programs
do it does not really count as thinking and problem solving. People who express
this belief often ally themselves with the German philosopher Heidegger (1968).

The properties of computer programs that they can represent the chain of
inferences leading from one state to another are not the essence of thinking for
Heidegger who strongly propound that ‘Computer programmes are good
stimulators of such processes as reasoning and calculating. However, the essence
of thinking lies behind such processes as reasoning and calculating and computer
programmes are not reducible to them. It is the subjective origin of thinking-the
26
concern with the fundamental problem of being alive in the world which the Stages of Problem Solving
computer programmes do not capture. Despite these arguments, in the current
times artificial intelligence is widely used for problem solving and appears to
have promising future.
Self Assessment Questions
1) How does artificial intelligence function in problem solving?
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2) What is meant by computer simulation approach in problem solving?
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3) What are the criticisms against computer simulation? Discuss
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2.6 LET US SUM UP

Problem solving involves both domain specific and general strategies that people
may use. General strategies (like generate and test, means-ends analysis, reasoning
by analogy) are believed to be general strategies of problem solving that people
use in wide variety of situations. In contrast there are domain specific strategies
that are suitable in one particular situation and problem but not for others.

Many expert systems that represent artificial intelligence are specially designed
computer programmes that mimic a human expert in a specific field. However,
there are many unanswered questions pertaining to the utility of artificial
intelligence in problem solving. Insight problem solving has been found to be
related to creativity. In summary, problem solving is a multi step process and
may be facilitated by individual characteristics such as creativity.

27
Problem Solving
2.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) What are the stages in problem solving? Highlight the stages with a problem
from your day to day life.
2) Compare and contrast the generate- test, the means ends and the backward
search method of problem solving.
3) Discuss “thinking aloud as a method of studying human problem solving
4) Discuss “other strategies” in problem solving. For example, abstraction,
divide and conquer etc.
5) Critically evaluate the utility of artificial intelligence in problem solving?
6) Compare and contrast the general stages of problem solving with the stages
of creative problem solving.
7) Discuss the concept of thinking aloud approach of problem solving.

2.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Hunt, R. R., & Ellis, H.C. (2006). Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology. New
Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.

Solso, R.L. (2006). Cognitive Psychology. New Delhi: Pearson Education.

Sternberg, R.J. (2009). Applied Cognitive Psychology: Perceiving, Learning,

and Remembering. London: Cengage.

References
Feldman, R. S. (2008). Essentials of Understanding Psychology. New Delhi:
Tata McGraw Hill.

Galotti, K.M. (2008). Cognitive Psychology In and Out of the Laboratory. Canada:
Nelson Education

Reed, S.K. (2010). Cognition: Theories and Applications. London: Cengage.

28
 Stages of Problem Solving
UNIT 3 THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO
PROBLEM SOLVING

Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Approaches to Problem Solving
3.2.1 Traditional Approaches
3.2.2 Gestalt Approaches
3.2.3 Information Processing and Computer Simulation Approach
3.2.3.1 The General Problem Solver
3.2.3.2 Mean end Analysis
3.2.3.3 Wickegren’s General Problem Solving Strategies
3.3 Newell’s Approach
3.3.1 Summary of the Problem Space Hypothesis
3.4 Problem Solving as Modelling
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
3.6 Unit End Questions
3.7 Suggested Readings

3.0 INTRODUCTION
The different forms of thinking behaviour including problem solving vary along
a number of dimensions. The degree to which we are conscious of our thought
processes can vary considerably. We tend to be conscious of the products of
problem solving rather than the processes themselves. Furthermore, even these
conscious products may not be recalled accurately in retrospect by people.
Problem solving tasks can also be more or less directed. Some problem solving
tasks are directed towards specific, well-defined goals, whereas other forms are
rambling and goal-less. Thinking episodes directed at problem solving also differ
in terms of the amount of knowledge that comes into play to achieve .a goal and
these may be knowledge-lean or knowledge-rich. Most of the early research on
problem solving has examined directed thinking in knowledge-lean situations
that have specific goals (i.e. puzzles). Later research considers more knowledge-
rich situations (e.g. expert problem solving). In the present unit we focus on the
various theoretical approaches to understanding the process and nature of problem
solving.

3.1 OBJECTIVES
On completing this unit, you will be able to:
• Explain the theoretical aspects of problem solving;

• Give a historical account of problem solving; and

• Describe the various theories related to problem solving.

29
Problem Solving
3.2 APPROACHES TO PROBLEM SOLVING
In this unit, we will examine the theoretical understandings of nature and process
of problem solving from the traditional to the most recent viewpoints. The
theoretical models that are discussed in detail include the traditional models of
problem solving, Gestaltists Theories, Information processing and computer
simulation, The General Problem Solver (GPS), Wickelgren’s general problem
solving strategies and Newell’s approach to understanding Problem Solving.
3.2.1 Traditional Approaches
Traditional approaches explain problem solving in terms of principles of
associative learning derived from the studies of classical and instrumental
conditioning. According to some theorists an individual enters a problem situation
with an existing complex of stimulus response associations as a result of prior
experience. The problem is more likely to elicit some of these associations than
others, with a clear implication that problem difficulty will depend on the strength
of the correct association relative to the strength of other incorrect associations.
In the course of problem solving, the associative complex gets rearranged as
some tendencies are weakened through extinction (failure) and other strengthened
through reinforcement (success). This viewpoint stresses the transfer of prior
learning to the problem situation and to the learning which takes place during
problem solving.
3.2.2 Gestalt Approaches
A different view of problem solving was proposed by the gestalt psychologists.
These theorists emphasised the importance of the structure of the problem situations
and the formation of new combinations of old ideas. They were particularly
interested in how people solve problems by rearrangement of objects. A well known
example is the problem described by Kohler (1925) in his book, The Mentality of
Apes. Kohler hung some fruits from the top of a cage to reach it. The cage contained
several sticks and crates. The solution depended on finding a correct way to rearrange
the objects. According to the Gestalt analysis, solving the problem required the
reorganisation of the objects into a new structure. Gestaltists argued that discovering
the correct organisation usually occurred as a flash of insight. Insight is the sudden
discovery of the correct solution following a period of incorrect attempts based
primarily on trial and error. Insightful solutions seem to occur in a flash.
Gestalt psychologists distinguished between reproductive and productive thinking
(Wertheimer, 1959). Reproductive thinking entails the application of tried and
true paths to solution. The thinker reproduces a series of steps that are known to
yield a workable answer by using rote memory. Productive thinking on the other
hand, requires insight and creativity. According to gestalts view the thinker must
see a new way of organising the problem, a new way of structuring the elements
of thought and perception. A classic problem calling for productive insightful
thinking is the nine dot problem shown below:
• • •

• • •

• • •

Fig. 1: The Nine dot problem

30
The task (problem) is to connect the nine dots with just four straight lines, without Theoretical Approaches to
Problem Solving
lifting your pencil from the paper in drawing the lines. To think productively in
this problem situation one must restructure the problem, to throw off the
unnecessary assumption that the lines must lie within the visual boundaries.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Describe traditional approaches to problem solving.
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2) Describe Gestalt approaches to problem solving.
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3) Compare and contrast the traditional and Gestalt approaches.
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3.2.3 Information Processing and Computer Simulation

A number of researchers have tried to program computer to perform tasks that
human beings do. Such computer simulation research has had a profound
influence on psychology of human cognitive processes. The method consists of
programming a computer to work in a specified manner and comparing its
performance to that of human subjects given the same tasks. Researchers
employing computer simulation have made major contributions to the
development of information processing view of problem solving.

A problem requires a person not only to register information from the environment
but also to operate on, modify, or transform that information in some way in
order to reach a solution.

Solving problem also requires the retrieval of both factual and procedural
knowledge from long term memory. Especially for longer problems, reaching a
solution might involve repeated storage and retrieval of information generated
early in the problem for use in later stages. Even this brief listing clearly indicates
31
Problem Solving that problem solving is not a single cognitive process but rather involves a number
of activities which need to be properly executed and organised to be successful.

The most promising kind of theory in the early 1980s involves computer
simulation. In the last couple of decades a number of computer simulation theories
of problem solving have emerged. The general problem solver (GPS) developed
by Newell, Shaw and Simon (1958). It introduced a way of looking at problem
solving which has influenced virtually all problem solving theories.

3.2.3.1 The General Problem Solver (GPS)

The program was equipped with the equivalent of:
A limited capacity working memory characterised by rapid storage and retrieval
A large capacity long term memory characterised by relatively low storage and
retrieval
A serial processor that performs one operation at a time
A reliance upon heuristics, rather than algorithms that would require a large
number of high speed calculations.
Newell and his colleagues collected verbal protocols that were used and kept as
a record of people talking aloud as they solved problems. Then they transcribed
these lengthy records carefully to see if they could find general heuristics that
emerged. It introduced a way of conceptualising problem that is adopted in most
contemporary theories of problem solving.

The General Problem Solver (GPS) assumes that the problem solver represents
a problem as a problem space which consists of a set of nodes, each node
corresponding to a state of knowledge about the problem. The problem solver
begins at the initial state of knowledge and seeks to convert it into the goal state
by applying operators, which are actions that are permitted in order to move
from one state of another. Problem solving, then, requires a constructive search
during which the solver builds up a problem space, which leads from the initial
to goal state using a set of allowed operators.

3.2.3.2 Means End Analysis

This was recognised as a general problem solving heuristic which involves a
search for operations that will reduce the difference between present state of
knowledge and the goal state. In particular, means-end analysis involves the
following steps:
Set up a goal
Look for a difference between the current problem state and the goal state.
Look for a method to decrease or eliminate the difference between the two stages.
Set as a sub goal which is the application of that method.
If necessary apply means- ends analysis to apply to the sub goal.
Thus, the main heuristic used in GPS involves setting up goals and sub goals. In
fact, this strategy can be expressed very precisely as a production system, that is,
as a set of if – then pairs stored in the computers memory as production.

32
An illustrative geometric problem: Theoretical Approaches to
Problem Solving
The problem is that ABCD is a rectangle; prove that AD and BC are same length.

Steps in problem solving:

Represent the problem as a proposition or in visual form
Determine the goal.
Break down the goal into sub goals.
Select a problem solving technique
Solution is:
It can thus be proven that triangles ACD and BDC are congruent if one could
prove that two sides included angles are equal. (We reason from goal to sub
goal, proving the triangles congruent, from the sub goal to another sub goal
improving the sides and angle equal), and so on, until we reach a sub goal that
we have a ready means of obtaining).

The 3 strategies that we can use to solve this problem are difference reduction,
means-end-analysis, and working backwards and these three strategies are
extremely general and can be applied to virtually any problem.

3.2.3.3 Wickelgren’s General Problem Solving Strategies

Wickelgren’s view of problem solving is based on information processing theories
such as GPS. According to this view, a formal problem contains three types of
information:
A statement of the initial state.
Description of the goal state.
Description of set of operation or transformations.
A solution can be defined as a sequence of state or actions which helps to represent
in a diagram called the State Action Tree. The nodes or branch points on the tree
represent all the possibly different problem states that could result from all the
different action sequences. 33
Problem Solving The branches on the tree represent the possible actions that could be made at the
particular state of knowledge. The given state is represented by the single node
at the top level of the state action tree, and the goal state is represented by the
indicated node in the lowest level of the tree.

For this schematic tree, we assume that from the goal state there are only two
possible actions that the person can take. One of which starts the person on the
path toward the goal, the other of which does not.

Having chosen one of these (thereby leading the person to state level 1), the
person is then faced with a new set of possible actions. Here, we arbitrarily
assume that there are three possible actions that could be taken at either of the
state level 1 nodes.

This successive making of choices goes on and on until the person either reaches
the goal state or finds himself at a dead end. Thinking about state action trees is
the fact that as you get further into a problem (i.e. lower and lower levels in the
tree) the number of possible action sequences increases rapidly. Wickelgren argues
that there are seven general problem solving techniques for searching the state
action tree.
i) Inference: Deducing from the explicitly stated goals givens, and operations
stated in the problem
ii) Classification of action sequences: organising possible sequences of actions
(or operations) that are equivalent as far as the problem is concerned. These
are called equivalence classes.
iii) State evaluation and hill climbing: state evaluation involves defining a
quantitative evaluation function that can be calculated for all possible
problem states and hill climbing involves choosing the action to be taken
next that will have an evaluation that is closest to the goal.
iv) Subgoals: This stage involves searching for sub goals involve breaking down
the problem into sub goals to make it simpler.
v) Contradiction: deriving some inference from the givens that is inconsistent
with the goal state to narrow down the state action tree in a systematic
fashion by eliminating possibilities that could possibly not work.
vi) Working backward: It involves beginning with the goal state and working
backward from it.
vii) Finding relations between problems: finding relations between the new
problems and problems solved previously.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Describe and delineate the characteristic features of information and
computer simulation approach to problem solving.
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34
 Theoretical Approaches to
2) What do you understand by the term General Problem Solver.? Problem Solving
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3) Describe the Menan end analysis with examples
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4) Put forward in detail the general problem solving strategies of
Wickelgren.
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3.3 NEWELL’S APPROACH

It is very natural to think of problems as being solved through the exploration of
different paths to a solution. Taker maze for example. In this, you start from a
point outside the maze and then progress through it to the centre. On your way,
you reach junctions where you have to choose between going straight on, turning
to the left or right, or turning back. Each of these alternative paths may branch
again and again so that, in the maze as a whole, there are hundreds of alternative
paths (only some of which will lead to the centre). Different strategies can be
used to find one’s way through a labyrinth.

The strategies provide you with a systematic method for searching the maze and
help you to select one from among the many alternative paths.

Newell and Simon used parallels to these basic ideas to characterise human
problem solving behaviour.
They suggested that the objective structure of a problem can be characterised as:
i) a set of states, beginning from an initial state (e.g. standing outside the maze),
ii) involving many intermediate states (e.g. moving through the maze), and
iii) ending with a goal state (e.g. being at the centre of the maze).
35
Problem Solving The application of these operators (turn left, go straight etc.) results in a move
from one state to another. In any given state there may be several different
operators that apply (e.g. turn left, turn right, go back) and each of these will
generate numerous alternative states. Thus, there is a whole space of possible
states and paths through this space , and only some of these will lead to the goal
state. This problem space describes the abstract structure of a problem.

3.3.1 Summary of The Problem Space Hypothesis

For any given problem there are a large number of alternative paths from an
initial state to a goal state; the total set of such states, as generated by the legal
operators, is called the basic problem space.
People’s problem solving behaviour can be viewed as the production of
knowledge states by the application of mental operators, moving from an initial
knowledge state to a goal, knowledge state.
Mental operators encode legal moves that can be made. There are also restrictions
which disallow a move if certain conditions hold.
People use their knowledge and various heuristic methods (like means-end
analysis) to search through the problem space and to find a path from the initial
state to the goal state.
All of these processes occur within the limits of a particular cognitive system.
That is, there may be working memory limitations and limitations on the speed
with which information can be stored and retrieved from long-term memory.
Newell’s approach, which is based on this problem space hypothesis, propounds
that the knowledge level rationalises behaviour in terms of the reasons that an
agent has to believe that certain actions will lead to achieving certain goals. In
this sense knowledge is a means to an end, a resource for behaviour.
The goal of problem solving is to select one of the possible actions.

3.4 PROBLEM SOLVING AS MODELLING

More recently, a different view is being explored, namely the view of problem
solving as modeling.

The idea is that problem solving is the construction of situation specific model
or case model.

From a knowledge level perspective the person’s perception of the world is

through knowledge alone. A goal therefore must correspond to the desired state
of ones knowledge about the world.

Consequently this knowledge must refer to the specific systems that the goal is
about. The case model thus summarises the person’s understanding of the
problem, and allows it to eventually conclude that the goal has been reached.

The actions are the means by which the person interacts with the world. Since at
the knowledge level the person’s perception is through knowledge, the interaction
must be viewed as a way of obtaining knowledge about the reality. Thus one
may say that actions of perception and interactions fit in this scheme.
36
In the problem solving as modeling, the actions are not the goal of problem Theoretical Approaches to
Problem Solving
solving but are themselves a means to an end. That end is the construction of a
model which will help in eventually achieving the goals. Whether it is the domain
model or task model the construction of the model should be such that it should
lead to the goal.
For instance, in making a domain model, it is not just packaging statements
about the domain, but it should involve augmenting statements with a series of
assumptions about how the information about the systems is connected.
In regard to task model, it embodies assumptions about the meaning of goals.
For example, if a diagnostic task is modeled as a process to generate and test
over components of a system, then one implicitly assumes that the fault one is
looking for can be localised in a component.
Thus, modeling a task corresponding to a goal is to make more precise what one
assumes that goal to mean.
The role of the problem solving method is to tie domain and task models together
in an argument on what accomplishing the task means in terms of the available
models. This is termed as competency theory.
To give an example, a heuristic classification problem solver assumes that the
solution to its problem is within the differential and it is what the problem solver
believes that it can say about the problem. This actually defines its competence.
In addition the competence theory also talks about what rationality means. A
heuristic classification problem solver will use the knowledge and actions
pertaining to rationality to reduce the sise of the differential. This is called
specialised principle of rationality. It contains the basis for all “why” questions
about the system’s behaviour.

This model is the case model and it is obtained from the competence theory
through actions. Specific control regimes (e.g., data-driven or hypothesis-driven
heuristic classification) correspond to different ways of operationalising the
specialised principle of rationality.

The configuration of models, tasks and methods entails a set of assumptions that
together can be interpreted as a model of the problem. The goal of problem
solving is to instantiate this model by making it realistic.
This can be done by making derivations from
i) the case-specific knowledge obtained by the person’s actions and
ii) the assumptions embodied in the domain and task models.
The form of the case model is determined by the selection of problem solving
method.

In this view problem solving is no longer an input-output process (as in KADS-

I). It is also not a means to select actions (as in Newell’s knowledge level
theory). It is also not a model transformation process (as in Components of
Expertise). It is in fact a process of organising knowledge by making assumptions
(i.e., constructing a model) that allow one to conclude (in effect, only assume)
that the task is accomplished.
37
Problem Solving Successful problem solving is a matter of making the right assumptions and
exploring their consequences.

Problem solving is thus viewed as the ‘creation’ of a suitable case model and the
interaction with the world is only a resource for this. It is almost a side-effect in
the process of maintaining an internal organisation and identity.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Describe Newell’s approach to problem solving.
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2) What do you understand by the term problem space hypothesis?
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3) Summarise the Problem space hypothesis.
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4) What is problem solving as modeling?
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5) Discuss successful problem solving.
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38
 Theoretical Approaches to
3.5 LET US SUM UP Problem Solving

Like most of the psychological and cognitive constructs problem solving has
also been construed in different light by different researchers following different
schools of psychology. The more traditional approaches explained problem
solving in terms of principles of associative learning derived from the studies of
classical and instrumental conditioning.

Gestaltists viewed it differently and emphasised the importance of the structure

of the problem situations and the formation of new combinations of old ideas.
Since then we have observed many different approaches to understanding problem
solving in terms of the Information Processing and Computer Simulation
approach, the General Problem Solver (GPS) approach, Wickelgren’s general
problem solving strategies and Newell’s approach which is based on problem
space hypothesis.

As knowledge and research progresses it is likely that one may come up with
more comprehensive theories of problem solving.

3.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) What are the traditional approaches to understand problem solving? Think
of some problems that you can explain based on these approaches.
2) Explain Wickelgren’s approach of general problem solving strategies.
3) Compare the Gestallt approach of problem solving with information
processing approach to problem solving.
4) Newell’s problem solving approach rests on a famous hypothesis in the
literature of problem solving. Name and explain this hypothesis.
5) Critically discuss Newell’s approach to problem solving.
6) What do you understand by the term “General Problem Solver”. Explain
with examples.
7) Do you think that a single approach amongst the approaches discussed in
this chapter is sufficient to explain all kinds of problems and problem solving
that we face.

3.7 SUGGESTED READINGS

Darley, J.M., Glucksberg, S., & Kinchla, R.A. (1991). Psychology. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.

Feldman, R . S. (2008). Essentials of Understanding Psychology. New Delhi:

Tata McGraw Hill.

Hunt, R. R., & Ellis, H.C. (2006). Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology. New
Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.

39
Problem Solving References

Galotti , K.M. (2008). Cognitive Psychology In and Out of the Laboratory. Canada:
Nelson Education.

Reed, S.K. (2010). Cognition: Theories and Applications. London: Cengage.

Solso, R.L. (2006). Cognitive Psychology. New Delhi: Pearson Education.

Sternberg, R.J. (2009). Applied Cognitive Psychology: Perceiving, Learning,

and Remembering. London: Cengage.

40
 Theoretical Approaches to
UNIT 4 IMPEDIMENTS TO PROBLEM Problem Solving

SOLVING

Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Effective Problem Solving
4.3 Other Methods for Problem Solving
4.3.1 Einstellung
4.3.2 Understanding the Problem
4.4 Overcoming the Constraints
4.4.1 Typical Processes in Solving a Problem
4.5 Impediments to Problem Solving
4.6 Productive Problem Solving and Impediments Thereof
4.6.1 Impediments ot Productive Problem Solving
4.7 Problem Solving in Team and Small Groups
4.8 Critical Thinking in Problem Solving and Impediments
4.9 Other Barriers to Problem Solving
4.9.1 Perceptual Blocks
4.9.2 Emotional Blocks
4.9.3 Intellectual Blocks
4.9.4 Expressive Blocks
4.9.5 Environmental Blocks
4.9.6 Cultural Blocks
4.10 Teaching and Learning Strategies that Enhance Problem Solving Skills
4.10.1 Pedagogical Stuff
4.10.2 Promoting Transfer
4.10.3 Dialogue
4.11 Functional Fixedness
4.12 Using Complete or Incorrect Representations
4.13 Lack of Problem Specific Knowledge or Expertise
4.14 Let Us Sum Up
4.15 Unit End Questions
4.16 Suggested Readings

4.0 INTRODUCTION
You might have come across many situations when your attempts at problem
solving may have failed. This is largely because the problem space is not
adequately searched or because it is not represented well in the first place. There
are numerous factors that are influential impediments to problem solving.
Einstellung (or set or mental set) and functional fixedness are classic obstacles
to both proper representation and search identified by the Gestalt psychologists.
However, there are other impediments to problem solving also. In this chapter
we will study some of these impediments to problem solving.
41
Problem Solving
4.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to :
• Define probles;
• Differentiate between problems and dilemmas;
• Define and describe Mental Set;
• Describe Luchin’s Water Jar Problem;
• Explain impediments to problem solving;
• Define Functional Fixedness;
• Explain Incomplete or Incorrect Representations; and
• Analyse Lack of Problem Specific Knowledge or Expertise.

4.2 EFFECTIVE PROBLEM SOLVING

Depending on the kind of dilemma or problem, there are a number of models
that can help people to think through their approaches to decision-making.

Haynes’ model
This suggests a 3-step approach in the form of reflective questions, for dealing
with ethical decision-making dilemmas and problems

When working out a solution to the problem, there are a few questions one should
pose to oneself and these are for instance, “If this particular solution is considered
what will be the consequences and would there be more benefits vis a vis harmful
effects?”

Hall’s model (2001)

Alan Hall (University of Waikato) offers a set of questions that educators can
use to help consider all things before deciding what they ought to do when
confronted with an ethical problem, and how they will do it:
What is the basic issue concerned with the problem?
What principle is at risk?
Who will benefit?
Will benefits be more than harm?

4.3 OTHER METHODS FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

4.3.1 Einstellung
It is the term used by the Gestaltists to describe the tendency to set the mind into
a routine approach to problem solving. When we considered Wertheimer’s
laboratory problems, we noted that sometimes previous experience can blind a
person to simple solutions. The experiments of Luchins (1942; Luchins &
Luchins, 1950, 1994a, 1994b) are among the most interesting demonstrations of
the way in which repeating a particular problemsolving method can make a person
blind to alternative ways of solving the problem.
42
Luchins (1942) discovered set or Einstellung effects with the water jar problems. Impediments to Problem
Solving
In this problem it is required to measure out a desired quantity of water using
three jars with different capacities. Jars used have no gradations on them so they
have to be filled up to the top to measure amounts that result in the desired
quantity.
Luchin’s Water Jar Problems
Jar Sizes
A B C Goal
Problem 1 21 127 3 100
Problem 2 14 163 25 99
Problem 3 18 43 10 5
Problem 4 9 42 6 21
Problem 5 20 59 4 31
Problem 6 23 49 3 20
For instance, suppose the desired quantity was 5 cups and Jar A held 10 cups, Jar
B held 4 cups, and Jar C held 1 cup, the solution would be to fill A first. Next
from A pour into B once, and then pour from B into C once (A-B-C). Try all six
problems in above Table before proceeding.

Luchins found that problem solvers adopt a set in solving these problems. After
solving the first two or three, they automatically try the solution B-A-2C without
searching the problem space for an alternative solution. Take a look at problem
6 again. Although B-A-2C works fine, it entails much more effort than A-C. Yet
because of Einstellung, people typically overlook the obvious, easy solution.

Langer (1989) saw that Einstellung effects are one type of mindlessness that
characterises human behaviour, particularly in our dealings with other people.
All too often we act from a single perspective or rule that has worked in the past.
Instead of exploring our environment carefully to seek out alternative courses of
action, we sample just enough features to recognise that our set approach seems
to be on track.

Einstellung also constrains how we represent problems as well as how we search

them.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Define problem solving.
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43
Problem Solving
2) Describe effective problem solving. What is required for effective
problem solving.
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3) What are the various other methods of problem solving?
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4) What is Einstellung? Explain
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4.3.2 Understanding the Problem

1) Interpretation
Develop a relatively clearer understanding of the problem before attempting
to solve it.
Devote more time and effort to the initial formulation of ill structured
problems.
Look at the immediate problem in its relation to the broader mission and
problems of the organisation.
2) Goals
Adopt a broader range of goals for problem solving
When solving problems in groups, have less personal stake in any
preconceived solution. Because their aim is to arrive at the best solution the
group can produce.

4.4 OVERCOMING THE CONSTRAINTS

The problem solver must adequately anticipate many of the constraints likely to
arise during problem solving.
44
They must show a greater tendency to plan, in advance, for how to address Impediments to Problem
Solving
anticipated constraints.

They must respond more adaptively and flexibly to constraints that arise
unexpectedly.

They should not view the constraints as major impediments to problem solving.

4.4.1 Typical Processes in Solving a Problem

• Think through their solution processes in considerable detail
• Develop an explicit plan for solving the problem, which often includes many
steps.
• Collect comprehensive amounts of relevant information from reliable sources
as part of developing and implementing their solution plan.
• Monitor progress with the plan and refine it when outcomes are not
satisfactory.
• Consult, often extensively, with others in developing their solution plan.
• Plan for follow-up.

4.5 IMPEDIMENTS IN PROBLEM SOLVING

Solving problems is a complex process and each of us is better at the skills
required at some stages than others.

A problem exists when an obstacle prevents the person from reaching an objective.

In order to achieve effective problem solving , this problem solving itself can be
divided into stages, which must be followed methodically.

Solving problems effectively requires a controlled mixture of analytical and

creative thinking.

The following are the list of some of the reasons why people fail to find effective
solutions include:
• Not being methodical
• Lack of commitment to solving the problem
• Misinterpreting the problem
• Lack of knowledge of the techniques and processes involved in problem
solving
• Inability to use the techniques effectively.
• Using a method inappropriate to the particular problem
• Insufficient or inaccurate information
• Inability to combine analytical and creative thinking
• Failure to ensure effective implementation.

45
Problem Solving
Self Assessment Questions
1) What are the two important aspects involved in problem solving?
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2) What are the ways in which the constraints in regard to problem solving
could be overcome?
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3) What are the various impediments in problem solving?
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4) Why do people fail to find effective solutions to problems?
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4.6 PRODUCTIVE PROBLEM SOLVING AND

IMPEDIMENTS THEREOF
Let us first consider what is required for productive problem solving. The
following provides the requirements
A clear description of the problem.
A description of the limiting (or negative) factors involved in the problem.

A description of the constructive (or positive) factors involved in the problem.

46
A clear delineation of the “ownership’’ of the problem. Whose problem is it: Impediments to Problem
Solving
mine, yours, the other guy’s, my boss’, my spouse’s, my child’s, my parents’, my
teacher’s?
A clear description of the scope of the problem: How extensive a problem is it?
How long has this problem existed? How many people are affected? What else
is affected by this problem?
A clear description of the consequences if the problem were not solved: What is
the possible impact on my family, job, marriage, school performance, life in this
community, etc., if this problem isn’t solved? What is the worst possible thing
that could happen if this problem isn’t solved?
A list of brainstormed solutions to the problem, with each alternative analysed
as to its reality, its benefits and the consequences for following each one.

A system of ranking each solution to finalise the decision-making process. A

rating system for analysing each solution is developed, e.g., 100 percent chance
of success, 75 percent chance of success, 50 percent chance of success.

It is always ideal to brainstorm the problem and to do this one should follow the
rules given below:
1) Express all ideas.
2) Deem no idea too wild to be considered.
3) Quantity is important; every idea that comes to mind should be included.
4) Getting together with others to brainstorm is desirable.
5) Criticism or negative evaluation regarding any idea is forbidden until
brainstorming is completed.
Some of the questions one should ask of oneself in order to achieve effective
problem solving are:
• Am I procrastinating?
• Am I avoiding the problem?
• Am I in denial?
• Am I shutting down or blocking my creativity on this problem?
• Am I ignoring it, hoping it will go away?
• Am I using magical and/or fantasy thinking in addressing the problem?

4.6.1 Impediments to Productive Problem Solving

• A “Yes, but’’ attitude.
• Intellectual defensiveness closed to new ideas.
• Fear of being perceived as being incompetent.
• Fear of one’s ideas being unaccepted.
• Inability to be objective about the problem.
• Fear of being wrong.
• Inability to be creative, imaginative or “off the wall’’ in developing alternative
solutions. 47
Problem Solving • Being inflexible or too serious to have fun while problem solving.
• Not tuning into one’s “inner child’’.
• Being so chronically immersed or emotionally “stuck’’ in problems that no
feelings or emotions can be elicited.
• Believing that one’s emotions and feelings about a problem are “wrong’’
and should be discounted in problem solving.
• Resentment about having to solve the problem and blaming others for causing
the Problem.
• No desire to own up to the problem yourself.
• Believing that problems are the concerns of others, why waste time in trying
to solving them.
• Mental and/or physical fatigue from trying to cope with problems and finding
no fruitful solutions.
• Burnout, feeling so stressed, anxious or tense in the face of a problem that
your body systems shut down.
• Getting so angry about the problem that all energy and attention is drawn to
the anger rather than to the problem.
• Feeling sorry for oneself so much that the “self-pity’’ overwhelms and
obstructs all creative thinking on the matter.
• Getting so down or depressed about the problem that it is impossible to
come up long enough to deal with the problem.
• Denial that the problem exists.
• Bargaining in dealing with the problem; e.g., agreeing to perform certain
steps only as long as the solution to the problem benefits you.

Self Assessment Questions

1) What is meant by Productive problem solving?
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2) What are the essential pre requisites for productive problem solving?
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 Impediments to Problem
3) What are the impediments to productive problem solving? Solving
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4) How can you overcome these impediments to productive problem
solving?
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4.7 PROBLEM SOLVING IN TEAMS AND SMALL

GROUPS
There are many things that make a group or team fail to solve a problem. Some
of the barriers in this regard include the following:
1) Lack of structure.
When there is no structure group members lose focus and direction.
2) Poor communication.
This is a barrier that can wreak havoc for every group member that is involved.
Poor communication can lead to misunderstanding of the problem. Further
poor communication itself can be caused by inattentiveness and dominance
that can be made by one or more group members. Ineffective communication
will definitely be a negative against any discussion or meeting.
3) No communication
This would be a problem solving killer.
4) Negative attitude
This is a barrier to problem solving in small groups. If members are not
flexible and open minded during a discussion or meeting, then a balanced
opinion can not be produced.
5) No goal or agenda
When having a team or small group meet for problem solving, it is very
important to have a goal or agenda. This in turn will help to avoid most
barriers and keep the group focused and organised.
6) Lack of participation
It is important in a small group or team every member should participate in
the problem solving process. They must all have clear idea as to what the 49
Problem Solving group is trying to achieve and give all members time to participate and give
their views and feelings. This path, in the end, will help to keep focus,
structure, and communication open for all members.
In addition to the above other problems that may affect the problem solving
processes are:
• Emotions
• Learning styles
• Gender
• Cognitive barriers
• The lack of transfer of structure between problems.

4.8 CRITICAL THINKING IN PROBLEM

SOLVING AND IMPEDIMENTS
Critical thinking consists of three steps:
1) Becoming aware that assumptions exist
2) Making assumptions explicit
3) Assessing their accuracy
Misconceptions about Critical Thinking
• It is a wholly negative process – it tears down ideas and puts nothing in their
place
• It will lead to relativistic freeze – the inability to make commitments to
people, ideas, and structures.
• It seems to involve traumative change – one is expected to abandon old
assumptions continually.
Other fallacies in regard to problem solving are :
• Irrelevant reason.
• The person’s character attached to discredit arguer rather than argument
• Generalisation – one event which follows was cause by first
• Slippery slope with an either or approach which leads to non resolving a
problem.
• Appeal to emotion – emotional appeals rather than logical reasons to persuade.

Self Assessment Questions

1) How do problems get resolved in teams and groups?
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 Impediments to Problem
2) What makes solution to the problem a failure in teams and groups? Solving
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3) What is meant by critical thinking in problem solving?
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4) What are the impediments to problems solving through critical thinking?
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4.9 OTHER BARRIERS TO PROBLEM SOLVING

These are Perceptual blocks, Emotional blocks, Intellectual blocks, Environmental
blocks, Culture blocks.

4..9.1 Perceptual Blocks

Perceptual blocks exist when we are unable to clearly perceive a problem or the
information needed to solve it effectively .

They include:
a) Seeing only what you expect to see
Obscures the “true nature of a problem, either because we exclude relevant
information or include information simply because we assume it is there.

b) Stereotyping

Often we don’t look beyond the obvious and tend to label. For example, if
someone isn’t working as hard as we would like and we apply the label ‘lazy’ to
that person, we might overlook the possibility that boredom with monotonous
work is the problem, and not laziness

51
Problem Solving c) Not recognising problems
Problems go unnoticed until the effects have become severe and emergency action
is required.

d) Not seeing the problem in perspective

This results from taking too narrow a view of the situation, so that we recognise
only part of the problem or the information required to solve it. Sometimes
people fail to recognise how different parts of the problem are related, rather
they look at the problem more superficially and hence the solution alsom becomes
inadequate.

e) Mistaking cause and effect

If cause and effect are confused then we are unlikely to find an effective solution.
For example, if goods do not arrive and we assume that the supplier is late in
despatching them when in fact our ordering department has failed to send out
the order, then our search for solutions will be misdirected. In this situation the
late despatch of the goods is an effect of the problem and not a cause.

4.9.2 Emotional Blocks

Emotional blocks exist when we perceive a threat to our emotional needs. These
needs differ in type and strength from person to person but include needs for
achievement, recognition, order, belonging and self-esteem. The emotional blocks
include:

a) Fear of making mistakes or looking foolish

This is the most significant emotional block because it affects most of us and is
difficult to overcome. As a result of traditional schooling, the expected reaction
when we make a mistake or suggest radically different ideas is laughter and
ridicule. No one likes being laughed at and as a result we learn to fear making
mistakes and to avoid suggesting ideas which are different. This block becomes
more severe in the presence of colleagues of a different rank to our own. With
those who are more senior we imagine that we will be thought inexperienced or
immature. With those more junior we want to protect our image as being
knowledgeable and experienced.

b) Impatience
Being impatient to solve a problem may be due either to a desire to succeed
quickly or to end the discomfort or loss caused by the problem. This has two
major consequences. We tend to grab the first solution which comes along, without
adequate analysis of the problem, and we evaluate ideas. too fast, almost
instinctively rejecting unusual ideas. Either way, our solution is unlikely to be
the most effective available.

c) Avoiding anxiety
This is another common block. Some of- us are more susceptible to anxiety and
also find it more unpleasant than others. Many factors can cause anxiety, including
high risk, disorder and ambiguity, long-term stress, and fear for our security. The
effects on problem solving include avoiding risks, indecision in situations which
are not ‘black and white’, excessive reliance on others’ judgement, and avoiding
challenging the status quo. .
52
d) Fear of taking risks Impediments to Problem
Solving
This leads to the avoidance of situations where the outcome is uncertain or could
be unpleasant. A major cause is our desire for security. The consequences include
setting objectives within easy reach, so that there is no risk of failure, and accepting
known solutions in preference to the unusual because their value is certain. A
liking for taking risks and over-confidence in being able to avoid unpleasant,
consequences are more dangerous blocks.

e) Need for order

This is related to avoiding anxiety. It can lead to an inability to cope with the
frustration of situations which are not clear cut or where ambiguities exist.

f) Lack of challenge
This may arise when the problem is routine or the benefits/losses are not
significant to us. The result is that either we don’t tackle the problem or we take
the easiest, quickest route to solution.

4.9.3 Intellectual Blocks

Intellectual blocks exist when we don’t have the necessary thinking skills to find
a successful solution, or are unable to use them effectively. They include:

a) Lack of knowledge or skill in the problem solving process

This is one of the most common blocks. It includes: inadequate skills in analytical
and creative thinking; an inflexible strategy, using one approach for every type
of problem; the inability to use the various problem solving techniques. They
can all lead to ineffective solutions.

b) Lack of creative thinking

This is always caused by an inability to use the skills rather than their absence,
resulting from the dominance of analytical thinking in our day-to-day lives and
a lack of practice.

c) Inflexible thinking
This is a difficulty in switching from one type of thinking skill to another, such
as from analysis to idea generation or from verbal to visual thinking.

d) Not being methodical

This is perhaps the most common block. A step-by-step approach is essential to
solving problems effectively.

e) Lack of knowledge or skill in using the ‘Language’ of the problem

If a problem involves a language that we cannot understand or cannot use, such
as specialist jargon or statistical analysis, we will not be able to tackle the problem
effectively. Similarly, we may use an inappropriate language, such as trying to
find an error in accounts by describing the situation verbally rather than analysing
it mathematically.
f) Using inadequate information
This happens when we do not make sufficient effort to collect the relevant
information, or do not understand what information is relevant, where to find it,
53
Problem Solving or how it relates to the problem. Similarly, using inaccurate information can lead
us to the wrong conclusions.

4.9.4 Expressive Blocks

Expressive blocks arise when we are unable to communicate in the way required
to produce an effective solution, e.g. not being able to express our ideas effectively
to those who have to implement the solution. .

Expressive blocks exist when we do not have the knowledge or skills necessary
to communicate or record ideas in the ways required. They are caused by an
inability to use ‘languages’ effectively, such as words, drawings, mathematics,
scientific symbols, and so on. They include:

a) Using the wrong language

Some problems are more effectively solved or communicated using one language
rather than another. For example, we are unlikely to get very far if we record data
only verbally when the problem requires quantitative analysis. Similarly, people
may find it hard to grasp our meaning if we try to explain our feelings about a
situation using mathematics instead of words.

b) Unfamiliarity with a particular application of a language

The most obvious example is the difficulty many people have making a speech,
even though they can write their ideas effectively on paper.

Inadequate explanations
These can result from a real lack of information about what you are trying to
convey, or from assuming that your audience already has some of the information
when, they don’t.

c) A passive management style

A situation where we are reluctant to or find it difficult to exert influence may
prevent us communicating our ideas effectively. This is particularly important
when people need to be convinced of the validity of ideas.

d) A dominant management style

This is when we exert oppressive control, either deliberately or unconsciously,
and can make those we are communicating with automatically reluctant to accept
what we say or hostile to our ideas.

4.9.5 Environmental Blocks

Environmental blocks are caused by external obstacles in the social or physical
environment, which prevent us from solving a problem effectively, e.g.
distractions from the task.

Environmental blocks, which exist when the social or physical environment

hinders our problem solving, include:

i) Management style
The way in which we are managed can influence both our attitude to problem
solving and the freedom we have to create and implement ideas. For example, if
54
our ideas are dismissed constantly with comments such as ‘No, it wouldn’t work Impediments to Problem
Solving
because ...’, or ‘No, we’ve tried it before and it didn’t work’, we soon give up
trying.

ii) Distractions
Due to excessive noise and interruptions, these affect some people more than
others, but in general they have a detrimental effect on problem solving.

iii) Physical discomfort

This can create a distraction as well as resulting in stress or lethargy depending
on the circumstances. For example, poorly designed chairs may create a distraction
by giving us backache which, in turn, can make us irritable and less interested in
any type of work.

iv) Lack of support

This comes in many forms. For example, we may need specialist information,
advice, skills or other resources, or authority to take action. A more pervasive
aspect of this block is a lack of encouragement and the necessary organisational
structure to support and exploit people’s ideas.

v) Stress
Stress due to pressure of work and deadlines, affects people differently. For those
who are susceptible to stress it can be a powerful block, hindering creative thinking
in particular.

vi) Lack of communication

This has a number of effects, including inability to get the information you require
and a lack of encouragement.

vii) Monotonous work

This can dull enthusiasm for solving problems and put us onto ‘automatic pilot’,
making us blind to problems when they occur.

viii) Expectations of others

These can influence both our general performance in problem solving and the
objectives we set ourselves. For example, if our peers and superiors are happy
with a regular solution to a problem we may feel that it’s a waste of time looking
for a new; more effective solution. On the other hand, if we are expected to find
an innovative solution we are likely to make a greater effort.

4.9.6 Cultural Blocks

Cultural blocks result from our conditioning to accept what is expected or ‘normal’
in a given situation, e.g. when the work ethic says that we must be serious-
minded, but finding an effective solution requires some playful fantasy.

Cultural blocks exist when our problem solving is hindrance by accepting that
some things are good or right and are done, while others are bad or wrong and
are not done, So that we become bound by custom. They include:

55
Problem Solving a) Unquestioning acceptance of the status quo
There is a tendency to conform to established ideas an methods of working and
not to question them or express ideas which depart from them. If something is
not normal done we tend to look for the reasons why it can’t be done or why it
wouldn’t work, rather that looking for ‘the reasons why it should be done or why
it could work’.

b) Dislike of change
The attitude that tradition is preferable to change can arise, from the need for
security. If a situation is acceptable as it is, any change, which must involve
some uncertainty, is felt to be threatening by some people. However, as we become
more and more accustomed to change this block is becoming less common, but
there must be reasons for change. Change for change’s sake can be dangerous.

c) Fantasy and humour are not productive

There is still a widespread belief that fantasy and humour have no place in the
serious business of problem solving. Subjective reports from innovators suggest
otherwise. Fantasy and humour are connected by one common feature – the
unlikely combination of ideas (think about it’ next time you hear a good joke –
the punch line is always unexpected). Innovative solutions to problems arise in
the same way – by making a link between apparently unrelated ideas.

d) Feelings, intuition and subjective judgements are unreliable’

There is a strong bias towards reason, logic and quantitative judgements because
they can be measured and communicated in accurate terms. Feelings, intuition
and subjective judgements, which cannot be measured or communicated as
effectively, are seen as unrealiable and are mistrusted.

Even in mathematics, one of the most logical of sciences, intuition is often reported
as playing a key role in, problem solving. A good problem solver needs to be
able to use both objective, logical methods and subjective, intuitive methods in
the search for solutions.

e) Over-emphasis on competition or cooperation

A strongly competitive environment (for recognition, promotion, and so on) can
make people unwilling to listen to the ideas of those with whom they are
competing. Similarly, in a strongly cooperative environment we may avoid
expressing new ideas because we don’t want to stand out from the crowd.

f) Taboos
Some actions and ideas are excluded from problem solving because they are
regarded as distasteful, or are harmful, or contravene accepted moral codes. For
example, in a test of creativity a group of students were given a problem to solve
using calculus. They had to follow certain rules and the objective was to see who
produced the largest number of different routes to the correct solution. A few
students produced a lot more than the others because they chose to break the
rules they were told to follow.

Although eventually we may not decide to break a taboo, there is no harm in

breaking them in thought. This can often lead to new perspectives on a problem.
56
We can overcome most of our own blocks permanently by re-learning, and Impediments to Problem
Solving
overcome other people’s blocks which hinder us by learning ways to sidestep
them.

Self Assessment Questions

1) What are the various other barriers to problem solving?
..............................................................................................................
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..............................................................................................................
2) What is meant by perceptual blocks to problem solving?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
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..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3) Discuss the emotional and Intellectural blocks in problem solving
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
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..............................................................................................................
4) Discuss the expressive and environmental blocks in problem solving
..............................................................................................................
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5) What are the cultural blocks that affect problems solving?
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57
Problem Solving Other barriers
Learning styles: Other barriers to problem solving include Learning styles or
how persons learn to solve problems. Some people learn primarily visually,
others aurally; some learn step-by-step, others employ an all-or-nothing process;
some cogitate on a problem introspectively, while others find they work problems
best when they can discuss them.

There is also evidence that some thinking styles that affect the ability to solve
problems are gender-linked. For instance it has been found that females organise
and relate data more efficiently than males.

Cognitive barriers: to mastering problem-solving is another important factor.

The primary difficulty is the inability to identify and use concepts and procedures
in analogous but novel situations.

The lack of transfer of structure: between problems is a significant cognitive

difficulty, not only for inexperienced problem-solvers but also for experts.
Successful transfer rests on the ability to recognise analogies, but even when
given an analogy, students often fail to see how to employ it.

A lack of transfer skills: is frequently marked by functional fixedness, the

perception that a particular object or concept has only one use. Another problem
is superficial transference, where persons identify and link words or variables
between problems instead of linking deeper, more meaningful structures.

4.10 TEACHING AND LEARNING STRATEGIES

THAT ENHANCE PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS
There are two types of strategies that can overcome difficulties in problem-solving:
Pedagogical strategies, which are teacher-centered methods, and Methodological
strategies, which tend to be learner-centered.

4.10.1 Pedagogical Strategies

Some pedagogical strategies allow the teacher to address the emotional,
psychological, and cognitive barriers to problem-solving simultaneously. For
example, on the first day of class, the teacher could have open discussion about
the nature of the course material, etc., and encourage students to voice their fears
and concerns about it. This approach helps create a comfortable learning
environment. Class discussion also reinforces success and transfer of learned
skills.

One effective strategy is that active involvement is critical in developing problem-

solving skills, and thus student learning groups can be used to promote active
experimentation with problems.

Other effective strategies include accepting multiple attempts of solutions for an

assignment. The persons should be asked to record how the problem was solved
etc., and then discuss if there are other methods that could be used to solve the
problem.

58
Different learning styles as well as gender-specific differences in thinking can Impediments to Problem
Solving
be addressed by employing a variety of activities and approaches in teaching.

The traditional instructional mode of lecturing and explaining is effective for

only one learning style.

One might use graphics to illustrate concepts, provide opportunities for practice
in class, ask for the persons interpretations of data, etc. could also be used to
address the other learning styles.

The five steps usually contained in many solution strategies is IDEAL.

1) Identify the problem.
2) Define and represent the problem.
3) Explore possible solution strategies.
4) Act on the strategies.
5) Look back and evaluate.
This scheme is beneficial in a large number of disciplines.

4.10.2 Promoting Transfer

Other strategies assist persons in transferring problem solving techniques from
one problem to very similar or analogous problems.
For successful transfer to occur, it is essential for persons to identify the central
theme that is common to a set of problems so they can readily recognise and
apply it in more abstract settings.
Through the conscious use of analogy, persons can explore situations which are
similar, transferring structure to the problem at hand.

4.10.3 Dialogue
This can also be useful in promoting transfer by highlighting the differences
between the problem-solving techniques used by experts and novices. In order
to solve a problem, both experts and novices do follow the same pattern, that is,
they read and analyse, plan a strategy, act on that strategy to produce a solution,
and then try to verify it.
Encouraging people to talk through the differences between problems that have
similar superficial structures but different deep structures decreases the risk of
incorrect transfer.
Having students work on numerous problems individually and in groups also
facilitates transfer.
Choosing problems which evolve from simple and well-defined to complex and
ill-defined will help people to develop transfer skills.
To develop better problem-solvers, persons should be helped to overcome both
emotional and cognitive barriers to learning effective problem-solving skills.
By first creating a comfortable environment and helping people to overcome
their fears and anxieties related to problem-solving, one lays the necessary
foundation for successful learning.
59
Problem Solving Then using an array of pedagogical and methodological strategies, one can
promote in the person the ability to reflect on the problem-solving process itself
and provide critical tools for and practice in productive problem-solving.

Self Assessment Questions

1) Discuss the other barriers related to the person that affect the problem
solving adversely.
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2) What is IDEAL. Elaborate. How do these help in problem solving?
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3) Discuss the pedagogical strategiesin problem solving.
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4) Explain how promoting transfer and dialogue help in problem solving?
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4.11 FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS

Functional fixedness discovered by Duncker (1935) refers to the tendency to see
objects as having only a single, typical use. A hammer is for pounding nails and
other things for instance. We categorise objects based on their functional features
as well as their features. Generally the prototypical function dominates the way
we think.
60
Duncker in his experiment led an individual into a room with a table holding Impediments to Problem
Solving
several small objects. They included three cardboard boxes filled with candles,
tacks and matches, respectively and an ashtray, paper, paper clips, string, pencils,
and tinfoil. The individual was instructed to mount the candles at eye level on
the wall, ostensibly to prepare the room for a vision experiment. Can you think
of a way to put the candles on the wall using these materials?

Duncker found that only 43% of his participants could develop a solution to the
problem. He hypothesised that they fixated on the common function of a box,
namely, to serve as a container.

To help break their functional fixedness, he repeated the experiment but this
time emptied the candles, tacks, and matches on the table, leaving the boxes
empty. Under these circumstances, all participants solved the problem by first
mounting the boxes on the wall using the tacks, which then served as platforms
for the candles.

Here is another example of functional fixedness, called the coin problem (Simmel,
1953). Suppose you have eight coins and a balance. One of the coins is a
counterfeit coin and therefore lighter than the others. The problem is to find the
counterfeit coin by using the balance only twice?

Most people initially think of dividing the coins into two groups of four coins
each. One of the groups of four will be lighter and so must contain the counterfeit
coin. Then you can take the four coins from that group, and weigh them two
against two. Of course, one of the groups of two will be lighter. However, you
cannot determine which of the two remaining coins is counterfeit, because you
have already used the balance twice.

Before we consider how to approach this problem correctly, let us analyse the
previous solution attempt. Why do we initially divide the coins into two groups
of four? One reason is that we know that eight things can be evenly divided into
two groups of four. One of the functions of the number eight is that it can be so
divided.

The fact that 4 + 4 = 8 is a highly available bit of knowledge for us. Because this
property of the number eight is so available, it is the first thing we think of. In
fact, when people try to solve this problem, they often keep coming back to the
four versus four divisions. When the obvious way of using things keeps us from
seeing the correct way of using them, then we are functionally fixed.

In Simmel’s coin problem, the solution is often very difficult to see. You need to
divide the coins in a way that is far from obvious at first. Suppose you divide
them into three groups of three, three and two coins. Then weigh three versus
three. If they balance, then the counterfeit coin must be in ‘the group of two
coins. Your second weighing, then, is to take the group of two coins, and weigh
one versus one. Alternatively, suppose on your first weighing one group of three
coins is lighter: Then on your second weighing, take any two of the three coins
and weigh one against the other. If they balance, then the third (unweighed) coin
must be the counterfeit one. If they do not balance, then lighter one is counterfeit.
This procedure is guaranteed to find the solution. However, it is much more
complex and unfamiliar than the wrong procedure.
61
Problem Solving Thus, finding solutions to problems may require you to overcome functional
fixedness. It may only be after you have realised that the obvious ways of tackling
a problem do not work that you will be open to a reorganisation of the problem
that will allow you to see the solution.

4.12 USING INCOMPLETE OR INCORRECT

REPRESENTATIONS
A related difficulty in problem solving has to do with initial interpretation of the
problem. If the information is misunderstood, or if the wrong information is
provided/ focused upon, the solver is at a disadvantage. This can be illustrated
by a problem from Perkins (1981):
“There is a man at home. That man is wearing a mask. There is a man coming a
home. What’s happening?”
Most of the people start to go wrong in making assumptions about the home in
situation. Many equate home with house, although the answer is baseball game.
Perkins (1981) argue that assumptions people make in interpreting the problem
are a kind of mental set and that this mental set hinders problem solving.
In terms of representation, representing the problem in terms of a person sitting
in a house would lead you down the wrong path. It would be a case of using an
incorrect representation, that is one that included information not presented in
the problem and not correct.
The choice of representation can often make a great difference. Schwartz (1971),
studying problems such as this one found that people who constructed charts
and flow charts were successful in solving the problems than people who merely
wrote down available facts.
Here’s another example of a case where representation can make a problem either
very easy or very hard. It is called the numbers game and the objective of each
player is to choose from the set of digits enough to make an exact total of fifteen
from three digits.
Two players are given a sheet of numbers, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9.
They take turns crossing one of the digits off the list and adding it to their own
list.
The first player to have three digits totaling 15 (for example 4, 5, 6; or 1, 6, 8)
wins.
If you were to play this game, what would your problem solving strategy be?
What if you played first, which digits would you choose? What if you played
second and your opponent had first chosen a five?
The first time or two if you play this game, you might find it surprisingly
challenging. Now look at the figure below and notice how this problem can be
represented alternatively:
6 7 2
1 5 9
8 3 4
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Notice that, depicted this way, the difficult numbers game is actually the game Impediments to Problem
Solving
of tic tac toe in disguise. Represented this way the game is easy but without this
representation the problem is much harder to solve.
Self Assessment Questions
1) What is Functional Fixedness? Explain mental set in problem solving.
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2) Present Duncker’s experiment.
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3) How does coin problem demionstrate functional fixedness?
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4) What is meant by incomplete or incorrect represtnations? How do
these affect problem solving? Give suitable examples
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4.13 LACK OF PROBLEM SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE

OR EXPERTISE
Until now we have been discussing general problem solving abilities with
problems that have a puzzle like character. The assumption is that most of these
problems are about equally unfamiliar to everyone and that people basically go
about solving them in the same way. Other kinds of problems – for example,
63
Problem Solving those in chess or others killed games; textbook problems in physics, geometry,
or electronic; computer programming and problems in diagnoses and management
of health problems – seem to be different kind from the puzzles we have been
talking about. In particular, experts and novices approach most such problems
differently (Chi, Glaser & Farr, 1988).

Familiarity with a domain of knowledge seems to change the way one solves
problems within a frame of reference. A good example is to compare the ability
to of undergraduate psychology students from their professors in designing
experiments.

A classic study of expert novice differences was carried out by de Groot (1965).
He examined the thinking process of both chess masters and weaker players
considered about the same number of possibilities but somehow chose the best
move more easily. Chase and Simon (1973), in a replication study, found that the
more expertise a chess player had, the more information he extracted even from
brief exposures to chess boards set up to reflect ongoing chess games. That is,
when a chess master and chess beginner are both shown a chess board for five
seconds, the chess master will remember more about where the pieces were
placed, but only if the pieces are configured to depict a chess game.

In problem solving, experts see and represent a problem in their domain at a

deeper and more principled level than do novices, who tend to represent
information superficially (Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser 1981). For example, when
solving physics problems experts tend to organise the problems in terms of physics
principles like Newton’s first law of motion; novices instead tend to focus on the
objects mentioned in the problem, such as an inclined plane or a frictionless
surface. Experts tend to spend proportionately more time qualitatively analysing
the problem, trying to grasp or understand it; relative to novices who are more
likely to plunge in and start looking at solutions. Finally, throughout the process
of problem solving, experts are more likely to check for errors in their thinking.

Expertise by itself is not always enough for problem solving other factors like
medical status, mental status and other related aspects can also affect problem
solving abilities (Goel & Grafman, 2000).

4.14 LET US SUM UP

As discussed in earlier chapters problem solving involves both domain specific
and general strategies that people may use and may be attained through various
techniques. However, most of us often come across many situations when our
attempts at problem solving fail. This is largely because there are numerous
factors that are influential impediments to problem solving. Einstellung (or set
or mental set) and functional fixedness are classic obstacles to both proper
representation and search identified by the gestalt psychologists. Einstellung is
the tendency to set the mind into a routine approach to problem solving. Functional
fixedness refers to the tendency to see objects as having only a single, typical
use. Researchers have also talked about the novice versus expert differences in
problem solving.

64
 Impediments to Problem
4.15 UNIT END QUESTIONS Solving

1) What is a mental set? Think of the few problem situations where you think
your mental set hampered effective problem solving.
2) Describe some novice expert differences in problem solving.
3) Critically evaluate the concept of functional fixedness.
4) Compare and contrast with the help of examples the concept of Einstellung
with the concept of functional fixedness.
5) How does lack of problem specific knowledge or experience affect problem
solving?

4.16 SUGGESTED READINGS

Hunt, R. R., & Ellis, H.C. (2006). Fundamentals of Cognitive Psychology. New
Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.

Reed, S.K. (2010). Cognition: Theories and Applications. London: Cengage.

Solso, R.L. (2006). Cognitive Psychology. New Delhi: Pearson Education.

Sternberg, R.J. (2009). Applied Cognitive Psychology: Perceiving, Learning,

and Remembering. London: Cengage.

References

Gage, N. L. and D. C. Berliner (1992). Educational Psychology, 5th ed., Houghton

Mifflin Co..

Galotti , K.M. (2008). Cognitive Psychology In and Out of the Laboratory.

Canada: Nelson Education.

Gick S. and G. Holyoak (1983). “Schema Induction and Analogical Transfer,”

Cognitive Psychology 15: 1-38.

Feldman, R. S. (2008). Essentials of Understanding Psychology. New Delhi:

Tata McGraw Hill.

Kimura, D. (1992). “The Mind and the Brain,” Scientific American, September.

Kurfiss J. (1988). Critical Thinking: Theory, Research, Practice, and Possibilities,

ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Reports #2.

Wason, P. (1982). “Realism and Rationality in the Selection Task,” In Thinking

and Reasoning: Psychological Approaches, J. Evans, ed., Routledge and Kegan
Paul.

Woolfolk, A. E. (1993). Educational Psychology, 5th ed., Allyn and Bacon.

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