Chapter 15

BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES

IN METALWORKING
1. Rolling
2. Other Deformation Processes Related to Rolling
3. Forging
4. Other Deformation Processes Related to Forging
5. Extrusion
6. Wire and Bar Drawing
 Bulk Deformation
 Metal forming operations which cause significant shape
change by deforming metal parts whose initial form is
bulk rather than sheet
 Starting forms:
 Cylindrical bars and billets
 Rectangular billets, slabs, and similar shapes

 These processes stress the metal sufficiently to cause

plastic flow into the desired shape
 Performed as cold, warm, and hot working
 Importance of Bulk Deformation

 In hot working, significant shape change can be

accomplished
 In cold working, strength is increased during shape
change
 Little or no waste - some operations are near net shape
or net shape processes
 The parts require little or no subsequent machining
 Four Basic Bulk Deformation Processes
1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between
opposing rolls
2. Forging – work is squeezed and shaped between
opposing dies
3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die opening,
thereby taking the shape of the opening
4. Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is
reduced by pulling it through a die opening
Rolling
 Rolling
Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness or changing the cross-section of a
long workpiece by compressive forces applied through a set of rolls.

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 90% of all metal working

 Flat rolling (simply rolling)  flat plates and sheets

Plate: thickness > 6mm (1/4 inch)

 Can have a thickness up to 300 mm
 Applications include, boilers, bridges, griders, ship hulls, machine
structures, and nuclear vessels.

Sheets: thickness < 6 mm

 automobile body, office furniture, appliances, food and beverage containers,
kitchen equipment and aircraft fuselage.

Initial form or raw material for the rolling operation is an ingot or may be from
continuous casting process.
 Rolling Process

From continuous
casting process or
ingots
 Rolling Process

From continuous
casting process or
ingots
 Effect on Grain Structure

 Hot rolling converts the coarse-grained, brittle, and porous cast structure to a
wrought structure.
 Hot rolling is an effective way to reduce grain size in metals for improved
strength and ductility.
 Flat Rolling and Its Analysis

W0: Original Width of the Workpiece

t0: Original Height of the Workpiece
to
V0: Velocity of the Workpiece at Entry to
Rollers

Wf : Final Width of Finished Part

tf : Final Height of Finished Part
tf
Vf : Velocity of Finished Part at Exit of Rollers

R: Radius of Roll
D = 2R: Diameter of Roll
N: Rotational Speed of Roll
Vr: Surface Speed of Roll
L: Arc Length of Contact of Roll

Draft d  t0  t f

Reduction
 Velocity Distribution in Rolling
In addition to thickness reduction, rolling usually increases work width. This is
called spreading. Conservation of matter is preserved, so the volume of metal exiting the
rolls equals the volume entering

Similarly, before and after volume flow

rates of material flow must be the same
A f  Ao R
Vo Ao  V f A f
 V f  Vo
 Along the arc length of contact
between workpiece and roll at one
point the velocity of workpiece is Neutral
equal to Vr. This point is called the Point
NEUTRAL or NO SLIP point
Forward Slip:
The amount of slip between the rolls and the work can be measured by means of
the forward slip
 Frictional Forces in Rolling
 As Vr=constant along the roll gap
SLIDING occurs between the roll and
the workpiece. R
 The sliding causes friction forces at F1 F
2
roller-strip interface
L
For rolling: F1  F2 F1 F2
Which makes the rolling operation The arrows represent the frictional
forces acting on the strip.
possible by pulling the workpiece
in the gap of rollers α : Angle of acceptance

Limiting Draft Value: L  R

The maximum draft values would
depend on frictional force and roll
radius:
d max   2 R d  t0  t f
The roll will slip above dmax
 Frictional Forces in Rolling

 Coefficient of friction in rolling depends on lubrication, work

material, and working temperature.
 In cold rolling, the value is around 0.1; in warm working, a typical
value is around 0.2; and in hot rolling, it is around 0.4.

 Hot rolling is often characterized by a condition called sticking, in

which the hot work surface adheres to the rolls over the contact arc.
 This condition often occurs in the rolling of steels and high-
temperature alloys.
 When sticking occurs, the coefficient of friction can be as high as
0.7.
 The consequence of sticking is that the surface layers of the work
are restricted to move at the same speed as the roll speed vr; and
below the surface, deformation is more severe in order to allow
passage of the piece through the roll gap.
 Roll Forces (Roll separating forces)
Roll force F required to maintain separation between the two rolls can be computed by

(Wo=Wf)

n 
F  p  ( Rd )  (w)  p  ( Rd )  (w)
0
pav
n

Average Pressure Approach

F  L  w  pav

(wL) is the roll-work contact area, mm2

Contact length can be approximated by

L  Rd with, d  t0  t f
 Roll Forces (Roll separating forces)
Average Pressure Approach
F  L  w  pav where,

F  L  wYf
Yf : Average flow stress
K 1n
Yf 
n 1
L  Rd

d  t0  t f
Pressure Distribution by Slab Method

Pressure distribution in the roll gap as a function of the

coefficient of friction. Note that as friction increases,
the neutral point shifts toward the entry. Without
friction, the rolls will slip, and the neutral point
shifts completely to the exit.
 Torque T, & Power P, on Roll

Assuming Roll Force F acts in the middle of L, that is;

 Moment Arm = 0.5L (Hot Working) F

= 0.4L (Cold Working)
 Force is Perpendicular to plane of workpiece.

Torque per Roll; T  0.5FL

Power per Roll; P  T    0.5 FL  2N

P  FLN where, N is rpm.
   F (Newtons)  L(meters)  N (rpm) 
Power (kW)   
 60 ,000 
   F (lbs)  L(fts)  N (rpm) 
Power (hp)   
 33,000 
 Problem

d= t0-tf
dmax= μ2R

L  Rd

 to 
1  ln  
 tf 
K 1n  
Yf 
n 1
 Problem

T  0.5FL
P  FLN

 Force and/or power can be reduced by any of the following:

(1) using hot rolling rather than cold rolling to reduce strength and strain hardening
(K and n) of the work material;
(2) reducing the draft in each pass;
(3) using a smaller roll radius R to reduce force; and
(4) using a lower rolling speed N to reduce power.
 Problem
In rolling a flat plate/sheet the maximum draft Δh= h0-hf is limited by the amount of
friction and the roll radius R, such that Δhmax= μ2R. If an aluminum sheet (K=200
MPa, n=0.2) is to be cold rolled from h0=12.5 mm to hf=10.0mm using rolls of
D=150 mm and 250 mm wide with a coefficient of friction μ=0.2; do the following:
Check if the proposed reduction is possible (use the maximum draft equation
given above). If not possible what is the maximum draft ?
d= t0-tf dmax= μ2R
Estimate the average roll force required for the process.

L  Rh

 to 
K 1n 1  ln  
Yf   tf 
n 1  
Estimate the power required (in kW) if the rolls are turning at 100 rpm.
   F (Newtons)  L(meters)  N (rpm) 
Power (kW)   
 60 ,000 
 Problems
A plate is 250 mm wide and 25 mm thick is to be produced in a single pass in a two
high rolling mill to a thickness of 20 mm. the roll has speed = 30 m/min. The work
material has a strength coefficient K = 240 MPa and a strain hardening exponent n =
0.2. The coefficient of friction at roll workpiece interface is given as 0.2. Determine

Average roll force for minimum possible roll radius

L  Rd d  t0  t f dmax= μ2R

K 1n  ho 
Yf 
n 1
 1  ln 

 hf 
Roll torque Power required for accomplishing this operation.

   F (Newtons)  L(meters)  N (rpm) 

T  0.5FL Power (kW)   
 60 ,000 
 Problem
An aluminum alloy slab of 100 mm in thickness and 600 mm width is rolled at
500oC. The flow stress of the material is given by   35 0.2 MPa between 1000 mm
diameter roll. The coefficient of friction is 0.2 and the roll rotates at 200 rpm. A
minimum reduction of 10% is required in a single pass to achieve an optimized
rolling operation. The original width of the strip does not change during the rolling
process.
a. determine whether this reduction is possible
b. calculate the flow stress
c. calculate the roll separating force
d. compute the power required to drive each roll

A plate 25 mm thick and 250 mm wide is cold rolled at a velocity of 5 m/min. The
rolls are 500 mm in diameter. The coefficient of friction = 0.18. The flow stress of the
material is given as σ=530ε 0.26 MPa, Determine
a. the minimum plate thickness after rolling (in mm)
b. the force/roll (in Newton's)
c. the torque/roll (in Newton-meters)
d. the power/roll (in Watts)
 Shape Rolling
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 Work is deformed into a

contoured cross section rather
than flat (rectangular)
 Accomplished by passing
work through rolls that have
the reverse of desired
shape
 Products
 Construction shapes such
as I-beams, L-beams, and
U-channels
 Rails for railroad tracks
 Round and square bars
and rods
Shape Rolling
Shape Rolling
Shape Rolling
 Rolling Mills

 Equipment is massive and expensive

 Rolling mill configurations:
 Two-high – two opposing rolls
 Three-high – work passes through rolls in both
directions
 Four-high – backing rolls support smaller rolls
 Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls
 Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high mills
 Rolling Mill Configurations

 (a) Two-high, (b) three-high, (c) four-high

 Two-high – two opposing rolls

 Three-high – work passes through rolls
in both directions
 Four-high – backing rolls support smaller
rolls
 Rolling Mill Configurations

 (d) Cluster mill, (e) tandem rolling mill

 Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls

 Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high mills

Cluster Mill
 Other Deformation
Processes Related to
Rolling
 Other Deformation Processes Related to Rolling

 Ring rolling
 Thread rolling
 Gear rolling
 Roll piercing
 Ring Rolling Operation

 A small-diameter, thick ring is

expanded into a larger-
diameter, thinner ring.
 Large rings for rockets and
turbines, gearwheel rims,
flanges and pressure vessels
etc., are manufactured by ring
rolling operations.
Ring Rolling Operation
 Gear Rolling Operation

A great variety of cross-sections can be rolled with shaped rolls.

 Thread Rolling Operation
Flat dies
Thread rolling with
flat dies:
(1) start of cycle and
(2) end of cycle.

Two-roller dies
 Thread Rolling Operation
 Material should be ductile, and the raw material diameter is smaller than the
finished part major diameter.
 Threads are produced without any metal loss and with greater strength
because of cold working.
 Machined threads, are cut through the grains of the metal.
 Rolled threads follow the grains and are stronger, because of the cold
working involved.
 A rolled thread requires a smaller diameter round stock to produce the same
major diameter as a machined thread
 Rotary tube piercing

Rotary piercing is a hot working metalworking process for

forming thick-walled seamless tubing.
The terms roll piercing and Mannesmann process are
also used for this tube-making operation.
Hot working process
 A heated cylindrical billet workpiece is fed between
two convex-tapered rollers, which are rotating in the same
direction.
Cavity formation by secondary tensile stresses in a solid
round bar in the rotary-tube-piercing process.
The mandrel is held in place by the long rod,
Material should be of high quality and defect free.
Other rolling processes
 Forging

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 Forging
 Forging
 denotes a family of processes by which plastic deformation of the workpiece
is carried out by compressive forces.
 oldest metalworking operation known (dating back 5000 BC), Blacksmith
(hammers and anvil)
 Modern forging parts: crankshafts, connecting rods, turbine disk, gears,
wheels, bolt heads, hand tools etc.

 Three basic categories:

1. Open-die forging
2. Impression die
3. Closed die
Crank Shaft Forging
 Open-die Forging
 Also known as UPSETTING
 Involves the compression of the workpiece between two flat dies
 Homogeneous Deformation – an Ideal Behavior

Grid pattern in upsetting:

(a) original grid pattern;
(b) after deformation,
Deformation of a solid cylindrical specimen without friction
compressed between flat frictionless dies.

(h0  h1 ) (h0  h1 )
The Engineering Strain: e1  Reduction in height:  100
h0 h0

 h0  
The True Strain:  1  ln   The True Strain Rate:   
 h1  h1
 Homogeneous Deformation – an Ideal Behavior
For Strain Hardening Material with a Yield Stress, Y
σ Y
The applied Normal Compressive Stress:
  Yf
Yf is the flow stress and can be obtained as:

Y f  K 1n or C mm
The strain at height h1 is obtained as:
 ho 
 1  ln  
 h1 
The Compressive Force at any height, h1 is : F  Y f A1

Ao ho
The final cross-sectional area A1 can be
A1 
obtained from Volume Constancy: h1
 Homogeneous Deformation – an Ideal Behavior
For Strain Hardening Material with a Yield Stress, Y

K 1n 1
u  Y 1
n 1
_
Where Y is the average flow stress and can be
obtained:

K 1n
Y 
n 1

For Perfectly Plastic Material with a Yield Stress, Y

_
The Flow stress : Y  Y f  Y
And Strain hardening exponent, n = 0
 Inhomogeneous Deformation – a True Behavior

Deformation of a solid cylindrical specimen Grid Pattern in upsetting:

compressed between flat dies with friction at the die- (a) original grid pattern;
workpiece interface. (c) after deformation,
with friction.
The frictional forces between platen-workpiece surfaces opposes the outward flow
of material at these interfaces. Which Causes BARRELING in the Finished Part.
Barreling can be minimized by:
(a) Applying an effective lubricant (b) Ultrasonically vibrating the platen
(c ) Thermal barrier at interface will reduce barreling in hot working
Hammer Forging
 Inhomogeneous Deformation – a True Behavior

Grain flow lines in upsetting a solid steel cylinder at elevated temperatures. Note the
highly inhomogeneous deformation and barreling. The different shape of the bottom,
section of the specimen (as compared with the top) results from the hot specimen
resting on the lower, cool die before deformation proceeded. The bottom surface was
chilled; thus it exhibits greater strength and hence deforms less than the top surface.
 Inhomogeneous Deformation – a True Behavior

Inhomogeneous deformation and friction in actual upsetting force to be greater

than what is predicted in ideal deformation. As an approximation, we can
apply a shape factor to account for effects of the D/h ratio and friction:

F  K f Yf A

Kf is the forging shape factor, defined as:

0.4D
K f  1
h
where μ = coefficient of friction; D = workpart diameter or other dimension
representing contact length with die surface, mm (in); and h= workpart height,
mm (in).
Practice Problems

0.4D
K f  1
h

F  K f Yf A
Practice Problems

Y f  K 1n

0.4D
K f  1
h
F  K f Yf A
Practice Problems
 Practice Problems
Determine the value of the strain hardening exponent for a metal that will cause the average
flow stress to be 3/4 of the final flow stress after deformation.
Solution:
 Practice Problems

A low-carbon annealed steel bar having an initial diameter of 125 mm is reduced in height
from 25 mm to 20 mm by open die forging. Estimate the maximum die force. Neglect
friction for this estimate.

F  K f Yf A
Practice Problems


  
h1

Y f  C mm
 Several Open-die Forging Operations
Operations classified as open-die forging or related
operations include fullering, edging, and cogging.

Fullering is a forging operation performed to reduce

the cross section and redistribute the metal in a
workpart in preparation for subsequent shape forging.

It is accomplished by dies with convex surfaces.

Fullering die cavities are often designed into multi-
cavity impression dies, so that the starting bar can be
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rough formed before final shaping.
 Several Open-die Forging Operations

Edging is similar to fullering, except that the

dies have concave surfaces.
 Several Open-die Forging Operations

Cogging operation consists of a sequence of forging

compressions along the length of a workpiece to
reduce cross section and increase length. It is used in
the steel industry to produce blooms and slabs from
cast ingots. It is accomplished using open dies with
flat or slightly contoured surfaces. The term
incremental forging is sometimes used for this
process.
 Impression Die Forging (closed-die forging)
The Blank acquires the shape of the die cavities (impressions) while it is being upset
between the closing dies. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U1k2A3_MQMM

Schematic illustration of stages in impression-die forging.

Note the formation of flash, or excess material that is subsequently trimmed off.
 Forging Dies

Terminology for various features of a typical impression forging die.

 Forging Dies

Some of the terminology in an impression die

 Force in Impression Die Forging
The flash resists deformation more than the bulk and therefore helps fill the die
cavities.

Rapid increase of
force as the flash
forms and grow

Gradual increase of
force as the cavity is
filled.

Typical load-stroke curve for impression-die forging. Note the sharp increase in load when the
flash begins to form. Source: After T. Altan.
 Force in Impression Die Forging
Because of more complex shapes involved, accurate calculation of force in impression
die forging is difficult.
In impression die forging each element within the work-piece is generally
subjected to different strains and strain rates.

Approximate forging load F  K f Yf A

A = Projected Area, including Flash

Yf = Flow stress
Kf = Forging Shape factor/Pressure Multiplying factor
 Advantages and Limitations of Impression-Die Forging
 Advantages compared to machining from solid stock:
 Higher production rates
 Less waste of metal
 Greater strength
 Favorable grain orientation in the metal
 Limitations:
 Not capable of close tolerances
 Machining is often required to achieve accuracies and
features needed

Comparison of metal grain flow in a part that is: (a) hot forged with finish
machining, and (b) machined complete
 Precision Forging features
Improvements in the technology of impression-die forging have resulted in the
capability to produce forgings with thinner sections, more complex geometries,
drastic reductions in draft requirements on the dies, closer tolerances, and
the virtual elimination of machining allowances. Forging processes with these
features are known as precision forging. Common work metals used for precision
forging include aluminum and titanium

precision forgings are properly classified as near net shape or net shape
processes.
 Flashless Forging/Closed die Forging
Same as impression  without flash
 Amount of material is important to get flashless forging.

 Compression of work in punch and die tooling whose cavity does not
allow for flash
 Starting work volume must equal die cavity volume within very
close tolerance
 Process control more demanding than impression-die forging
 Best suited to part geometries that are simple and symmetrical
 Often classified as a precision forging process

(1) Just before contact

with workpiece,
(2) partial compression,
(3) final punch and die
closure
Flashless Forging/Closed die Forging
 Flashless Forging/Closed die Forging

Coining

Coining is a special application of closed-die forging in which fine details in the die
are impressed into the top and bottom surfaces of the workpart. There is little flow of
metal in coining, yet the pressures required to reproduce the surface details in the die
cavity are high, as indicated by the value of Kf in Table 19.1.
The process is also used to provide good surface finish and dimensional accuracy on
workparts made by other operations.
 Forging Hammers
 Apply impact load against workpart: Two types:
 Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from falling weight of a heavy ram
 Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by pressurized air or steam
 Disadvantage: impact energy transmitted through anvil into floor of building
 Commonly used for impression-die forging

Diagram showing details of a drop

hammer for impression-die forging
 Forging Hammers

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Drop forging hammer, fed by conveyor and heating units at the right of
the scene (photo courtesy of Ajax-Ceco).
 Forging Presses
Forging equipment of various designs, capacities, speeds, and speed-stroke
characteristics is available

Mechanical Press Screw Press Hydraulic

Stroke limited presses Energy limited presses  Capacity up to 730
Capacity 10-100 MN Capacity up to 280MN MN
 Maximum force at the  Constant load
bottom position and zero at top throughout the
stroke
 Other Deformation
Processes Related to
Forging
 Upsetting and Heading
 Forging process used to form heads on nails, bolts, and similar
hardware products
 More parts produced by upsetting than any other forging operation
 Performed cold, warm, or hot on machines called headers or
formers
 Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is headed, then piece is
cut to length
 For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then used to form threads

Upset forging to form a head on a bolt : (1) wire stock is fed to stop, (2) gripping dies
close on stock, stop retracts, (3) punch moves forward, (4) bottoms to form the head
 Upsetting and Heading

(a) Heading a nail using open dies, (b) round head formed
by punch, (c) and (d) two head styles for screws formed by
die, (e) carriage bolt head formed by punch and die
 Swaging and Radial Forging

 Accomplished by rotating dies that hammer a workpiece radially

inward to taper it as the piece is fed into the dies
 Used to reduce diameter of tube or solid rod stock
 Mandrel sometimes required to control shape and size of
internal diameter of tubular parts

Swaging process to reduce solid rod stock; the dies rotate

as they hammer the work. In radial forging, the workpiece
rotates while the dies remain in a fixed orientation as they
hammer the work.
 Radial Forging

Radial forging is similar to swaging in its action against the

work and is used to create similar part shapes.
The difference is that in radial forging the dies do not rotate
around the workpiece; instead, the work is rotated as it feeds
into the hammering dies.
 Swaging and Radial Forging
Examples of parts made by swaging:
(a) reduction of solid stock,
(b) tapering a tube,
(c) swaging to form a groove on a tube,
(d) pointing of a tube,
(e) swaging of neck on a gas cylinder.
 Roll Forging

 Cross-sectional area of a bar is reduced and altered shape by passing it

through a pair of rolls with grooves of various shapes.
 Tapered leaf springs, tools and knives can be made by this process with
specially designed rolls.
Roll Forging
 Production of Ball Bearings
Skew Rolling Upsetting

Production of steel balls for Production of steel balls by

bearings by the skew-rolling upsetting of a cylindrical blank.
process. Note the formation of flash. The
balls are subsequently ground and
polished for use as ball bearings
and in other mechanical
components.
 Orbital Forging
Also called, Rotary forging, swing forging, and rocking-die forging

Die moves along an orbital path and

forms the part incrementally.

 The die is in contact with only a

portion of the workpiece surface.
 Due to this orbiting motion over the
work-piece, a high resultant
deformation can be achieved at a
relatively low force levels.
 Orbital Forging
 Process is used for forming bevel gears, wheels, and bearing rings
 Hubbing

A hardened punch with a particular tip geometry is pressued into the surface of a
block. It is used to produce a die cavity.

F: Hubbing Force
F  3 UTS  A
A: Projected Area of the impression
Hubbing
 Hubbing

The hardened steel form, called the hub, is machined to the geometry of the part to be
molded. Substantial pressures are required to force the hub into the soft block, and this
is usually accomplished by a hydraulic press.

Complete formation of the die cavity in the block often requires several steps—
hubbing followed by annealing to recover the work metal from strain hardening.

The advantage of hubbing in this application is that it is generally easier to machine

the positive form than the mating negative cavity. This advantage is multiplied in cases
where more than one cavity are made in the die block.
 Isothermal Forging
Also known as Hot-die forging

Isothermal forging is a term applied to a hot-forging operation in which:

 Dies are heated to the same temperature as the hot blank (avoiding chill
of the workpiece on contact with the cold die surfaces as in
conventional Forging).
Cooling of workpiece is eliminated
Flow of material in die is improved and maintained (the metal flows more
readily and the force required to perform the process is reduced).
Dies are made from Nickel alloys.
Complex parts with good dimensional accuracy can be forged.
Expensive (usually reserved for difficult-to-forge metals, such as
titanium and superalloys, and for complex part shapes.)
The process is sometimes carried out in a vacuum to avoid rapid
oxidation of the die material.
 Trimming
 Cutting operation to remove flash from workpart in
impression-die forging
 Usually done while work is still hot, so a separate
trimming press is included at the forging station
 Incases where the work might be damaged by the cutting
process, trimming may be done by alternative methods,
such as grinding or sawing.
Extrusion
 Metal Extrusion
The billet (raw material) is compressed and forced to flow through a suitably shaped die
to form a product with reduced, but constant cross section.

Each billet is extruded individually

Variety of sections are possible to extrude
Grain structure and strength enhancement
Close tolerance
No material wastage.
 Direct and Indirect Extrusion

 Ram and extruded billet move in

the same direction.

 Friction with the container wall

opposes forward motion of the
billet.

 Friction increases the ram force

 Indirect Extrusion
Also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion

 Metal is forced to flow through the die

in an opposite direction to the ram’s
motion.
 There is no friction between billet-
container wall interface
 Lower extrusion force as the work billet
metal is not moving relative to the
container wall.
 Hydrostatic Extrusion
 No container-wall friction.

 lower the power requirement.

 Sealing is the major problem.

 Brittle material can be extruded at

room temp.
 Extrusion of Hollow Shapes
Extrusion with Mandrel
 Hollow sections also extruded with a ram
fitted with a mandrel.
 For billets with a pierced hole, the mandrel
may be attached to the ram.
 If the billet is solid, it must first be pierced
in the container by the mandrel.

Extrusion with Spider Die

 The mandrel is attached to the die.
 Billet does not contain pierced hole.
 The individual strand from each
opening reweld themselves under
high pressure at die exit.
 The process is classified as welding
chamber method.
 Extrusion of Hollow Shapes
Complex hollow shapes can also be extruded by WELDING-CHAMBER methods,
using various special shapes dies known as spider, porthole, and bridge dies

(a) An extruded 6063-T6 aluminum ladder lock for aluminum extension ladders. This part is 8
mm (5/16 in.) thick and is sawed from the extrusion, as also shown in Fig. 6.48a. (b)-(d)
Components of various types of dies for extruding intricate hollow shapes.
 Various parts obtained through extrusion

(a)-(c) Examples of extrusions and products made by sectioning them. Source: Kaiser
Aluminum. (d) Examples of extruded cross-sections. Source: (d) Courtesy of
Plymouth Extruded Shapes.
 Cold Extrusion
Process carried out at room temp. or at a few hundred degrees

Often used to produce discrete parts.

Increase strength due to strain hardening.
High Ram force
Close tolerances.
Improved surface finish.
Absence of oxide layer
High production rates.
 Cold Extrusion
Process carried out at room temp. or at a few hundred degrees
 Impact Extrusion

 Cold Extrusion process.

 Impact extrusion is performed at higher speeds and shorter strokes than
conventional extrusion.
 For making thin wall-thickness items by permitting large deformation at high
speed, so concentricity of die and punch is important for uniform thickness.
 Thickness depends on the clearance between die and punch
 The extruded parts are stripped by the use of a stripper plate, because they tend
to stick to the punch
 Suitable for hollow/tubular shapes.
Impact Extrusion
 Hot Extrusion

 Hot extrusion is one of the most popular method to

develop objects having a fixed cross-sectional
profile.
 This extrusion process is done at increased
temperature, which keeps the materials from work
hardening.
 In general, a large amount of hot extrusions are
done using horizontal hydraulic presses that belong
to the range of 250 - 12,000 tons.
 The pressure range is 30 to 700 MPa (4,400 to
102,000 psi), hence lubrication is needed.
 This lubrication can be done by glass powder in
case of higher temperature extrusions and graphite
or oil for all the lower temperature extrusions.
 Though the hot extruded materials are highly
preferred, hot extrusion has couple of
disadvantages associated with it that are the cost of
extrusion machines and their Maintenance.
 Metal Flow in Extrusion
Two factors influence the metal flow pattern in extrusion are:
1. Friction between billet-container and billet-die wall.
2. Thermal gradient in the billet

Billet before deformation

The Flow Pattern of material in

Extrusion
 Metal Flow in Extrusion with Square Die (α=90°)
The most homogeneous flow pattern.
There is no friction between billet-container, and
billet-die wall interface. Same flow pattern for
indirect extrusion.

Non-homogeneous flow patterns.

Dead-metal zone develops as the friction along
all interface is high. As the material flows into the
die exit, high shear area like funnel develops. That
may cause inclusion of surface scales/corrosion
/lubrication within the extruded part.

For the materials that have

rapid drop in flow stress with
temperature change. Shear
zone extends back further.
This flow leads to a defect
known as pipe defects.
 Analysis of Extrusion
Nomenclatures Container (Chamber) Billet
Ao: Billet Original X-sec. Area Die

Af : Extruded Part X-sec. Area


Extruded part
Lo: Billet Initial Length. p
Lf : Extruded Part length Ao Af

L: Remaining Part length

α : Die Angle.
p = Extrusion or Ram pressure
L Lf
Lo
Extrusion Force
Ram Travel, X
F  pAo
Extrusion Ratio Extrusion True Strain

Ao  Ao   Lf 
rx    ln    ln    ln( rx )
Af  Af 
   Lo 
 Analysis of Extrusion

The “ Specific Work of Deformation” can be estimated from True Stress-Strain curve
Container (Chamber) Billet
Die


Extruded part
p
Ao Af

L Lf
Lo
Ram Travel, X

𝑌𝑓 = 𝐾𝜀1𝑛
Schematic illustration of true stress-true
K 1n strain curve showing yield stress Y,
Y : Average flow stress of the material Y  average flow stress, specific energy u1
n 1
and flow stress Yf.
 Homogeneous Deformation – an Ideal Behavior
Ideal Deformation (NO Friction and No Redundant Work)
The pressure applied by the ram

p  Yf  x and
Force,F  pA0
Power,P  F  v
𝑝 = 𝑌ሜ𝑓 ln 𝑟𝑥

K n  Ao   Lf 
Yf    ln    ln    ln( rx )
n 1  Af 
   Lo 

 In fact, extrusion is not a frictionless

process, and the previous equations
grossly underestimate the strain and
pressure in an extrusion operation.
Friction exists between the die and the
work as the billet squeezes down and
passes through the die opening.
 Deformation with friction – an actual Behavior

The following empirical equation proposed by Johnson for

estimating extrusion strain has gained considerable recognition:

 x  a  b ln( rx )
where a and b are empirical constants for a given die angle. Typical
values of these constants are: a = 0.8 and b = 1.2 to 1.5. Values of a
and b tend to increase with increasing die angle.
 Deformation with friction – an actual Behavior

The ram pressure to perform indirect extrusion can be

estimated based on Johnson’s extrusion strain formula as
follows:

p  Yf  x
 x  a  b ln( rx )
Where 𝑌ത𝑓 is calculated based
on ideal true strain

K n
Yf 
n 1
 Ao   Lf 
  ln    ln    ln( rx )
 Af 
   Lo 
 Deformation with friction – an actual Behavior
In direct extrusion, the effect of friction between the
container walls and the billet causes the ram pressure to be
greater than for indirect extrusion.

__
p  Y  x  p f
f

pf = pressure to overcome friction, MPa

πDo2/4 = billet cross-sectional area,mm2
µ = coefficient of friction at the container wall;
pc= pressure of the billet against the container wall, MPa
πDoL= area of the interface between billet and container wall,mm2
 Deformation with friction – an actual Behavior
In the worst case, sticking occurs at the container wall so that friction
stress equals shear yield strength of the work metal:

Based on this reasoning, the following formula can be used to compute

ram pressure in direct extrusion:
__
p  Y  x  p f
f
 Deformation with friction – an actual Behavior

Direct extrusion

Indirect extrusion

where the term 2L/Do accounts for the additional pressure due to
friction at the container–billet interface. L is the portion of the billet
length remaining to be extruded, and Do is the original diameter of
the billet. Note that p is reduced as the remaining billet length
decreases during the process.
 Force and Power Calculation
Container (Chamber) Billet
Die


Extruded part
p
Ao Af

L Lf
Lo
Ram Travel, X

Force,F  pA0

Power,P  F  v
Practice Problems

 x  a  b ln( rx )
K n
Yf 
n 1
Practice Problems
 Effect of Die Angle
Important factors in an extrusion die are die angle and orifice shape

: Total

: Redundant

: Ideal

: Friction

Low die angle - surface area is large, leading to increased friction at

die-billet interface
 Higher friction results in larger ram force
 Large die angle - more turbulence in metal flow during reduction
Turbulence increases ram force required
The optimum angle depends on various factors (e.g., work material, billet
temperature, and lubrication)
 Shape of Extrusion Die Orifice

 Simplest cross-sectional shape is circular die

orifice
 Shape of die orifice affects ram pressure
 As cross section becomes more complex,
higher pressure and greater force are
required
Effect of cross-sectional shape on pressure can be assessed by means of the die
shape factor Kx

Where

Kx = die shape factor in extrusion;

Cx= perimeter of the extruded cross section,
mm (in); A complex extruded cross section
Cc = perimeter of a circle of the same area as for a heat sink. (Photo courtesy of
Aluminum Company of America, Pittsburg,
the extruded shape, mm (in). Pennsylvania.)
 Shape of Extrusion Die Orifice: Modified pressure equations

For Die Orifice shapes other than round, the corresponding

expression for:

Indirect extrusion is:

Direct extrusion is:

 Example: Shape of Extrusion Die Orifice:
Determine the shape factor for each of the extrusion die orifice shapes in Figure

Solution:
(a) Cx = 2(20 + 60) = 160 mm,
Ax = 20 x 60 = 1200 mm,
Ao = R2 = 1200 R2 = 1200/ = 381.97, R = 19.544 mm,
Cc = 2R = 2(19.544) = 122.8 mm
Kx = 0.98 + 0.02(160/122.8)2.25 = 1.016

(b) Cx = Do + Di = (50 + 45) = 298.45 mm

Ax = Ro2 - Ri2 = (252 - 22.52) = 373.06 mm2
R2 = 373.06/ = 118.75, R = 10.897 mm, Cc = 2R = 2(10.897) = 68.47 mm
Kx = 0.98 + 0.02(298.45/68.47)2.25 = 1.53
 Example: Shape of Extrusion Die Orifice:

(c) Cx = 30 + 60 + 30 + 5 + 25 + 50 + 25 + 5 = 230 mm
Ax = 2(5)(30) + 5(60 - 10) = 300 + 250 = 550 mm2
Ao = R2 = 550, R2 = 550/ = 175.07, R = 13.23 mm
Cc = 2R = 2(13.23) = 83.14 mm
Kx = 0.98 + 0.02(230/83.14)2.25 = 1.177

(d) Cx = 2 x 55 + 16 x 25 + 8 x 15 + 10 x 5 = 680 mm
Ax = 5(55)(5) + 5(85 - 5x5) = 1675 mm2
Ao = R2 = 1675, R2 = 1675/ = 533.17, R = 23.09 mm
Cc = 2R = 2(23.09) = 145.08 mm
Kx = 0.98 + 0.02(680/145.08)2.25 = 1.626
 Example: Shape of Extrusion Die Orifice:

A cup-shaped part is backward extruded from an aluminum slug that is 50 mm in

diameter. The final dimensions of the cup are: outside diameter = 50 mm, inside
diameter = 40 mm, height = 100 mm, and thickness of base = 5 mm. Determine (a)
extrusion ratio, (b) shape factor, and (c) height of starting slug required to achieve the
final dimensions. (d) If the metal has flow curve parameters K = 400 MPa and n =
0.25, and the constants in the Johnson extrusion strain equation are: a = 0.8 and b =
1.5, determine the extrusion force.

Solution:
(a) rx = Ao/Af
Ao = 0.25(50)2 = 1963.75 mm2
Af = 0.25(502 - 402) = 706.86 mm2
rx = 1963.75/706.86 = 2.778

(b) To determine the die shape factor

Cx = (50 + 40) = 90 = 282.74 mm.
A = 706.86 mm2.
The radius of the circle is R = (706.86/)0.5 = 15 mm,
The perimeter of the extruded cross section Cc = 2(15) = 94.25 mm.
Kx = 0.98 + 0.02(282.74/94.25)2.25 = 1.217
 Example: Shape of Extrusion Die Orifice:
(c) Volume of final cup consists of two geometric elements: (1) base and (2) ring.

(1) Base t = 5 mm and D = 50 mm. V1 = 0.25(50)2(5) = 9817.5 mm3

(2) Ring OD = 50 mm, ID = 40 mm, and h = 95 mm.

V2 = 0.25(502 - 402)(95) = 0.25(2500 - 1600)(95) = 67,151.5 mm3

Total V = V1 + V2 = 9817.5 + 67,151.5 = 76,969 mm3
Volume of starting slug must be equal to this value V = 76,969 mm3

V = 0.25(50)2(h) = 1963.5h = 76,969 mm3

h = 39.2 mm

A   Lf 
  ln  o   ln    ln( rx )
 Af 
   Lo 

 x  a  b ln( rx )
K n
Yf 
n 1
Force,F  pA0
Power,P  F  v
 Extrusion Presses

 Either horizontal or vertical

 Horizontal more common
 Extrusion presses - usually hydraulically
driven, which is especially suited to
semi-continuous direct extrusion of long
sections
 Mechanical drives - often used for cold
extrusion of individual parts
 Effect of Temperature
The effect of temperature and ram speed
on extrusion pressure.
 Extrusion Defects

Surface cracking:

Due to high extrusion speed, friction, and strain

rates, part surface temperature rises significantly
which can lead to surface cracking and tearing. or
SPEED Cracking).

Extrusion Defects:

In non-homogeneous direct extrusion the surface

oxides and impurities tends to draw towards the
center of billet, much like a funnel and causes
defects such as PIPE, TAILPIPE or
FISHTAILING.
 Extrusion Defects
Centreburst:
 An internal crack developed due to tensile stresses along
the centerline.
 Also called, arrowhead fracture, center cracking, and
chevron cracking

 Inhomogeneous deformation → significant

material movement in outer regions →stretching
of the material along the center → bursting.
Promoting factors are:
high die angles,
low extrusion ratios,
impurities →starting points for crack defects

 Internal defect → can not be detected visually

 Would decrease the strength of the finished
part.
Wire and Bar Drawing
 Rod/Wire Drawing Process
Deformation under Tension

σy σ
y
σx σx
σy σy

Area reduction

The draft

 Reducing the cross section of a bar, rod or wire by pulling it through a converging die.
 Similar to extrusion except work is pulled through die in drawing (it is pushed through in
extrusion).
 Although drawing applies tensile stress, compression also plays a significant role since metal
is squeezed as it passes through die opening.
 Successful drawing operation requires proper selection of process parameters and other
considerations.
 Bar, Rod and Wire Drawing
 Difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is:
Bar drawing - large diameter bar and rod stock
 Wire drawing - small diameter stock - wire sizes down to 0.03 mm (0.001
in.) are possible
 Although the mechanics are the same, the methods, equipment, and even
terminology are different

Drawing practice:
 Usually performed as cold working
 Most frequently used for round cross-sections
Products:
 Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat hangers, and shopping carts
 Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and springs
Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging, and other processes
Drawing Equipment
 Single-draft Bar Drawing

Bar drawing is generally accomplished as a single-draft operation the

stock is pulled through one die opening.

 Because the beginning stock has a large diameter, it is in the form

of a straight cylindrical piece rather than coiled.
 This limits the length of the work that can be drawn, necessitating a
batch type operation.
 Continuous Drawing (Tandem Drawing)
By contrast, wire is drawn from coils consisting of several hundred
feet of wire and is passed through a series of draw dies.

 Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple draw dies separated by

accumulating drums.
 Wire is wound one or two turn on each drum (capstan) to avoid excessive tension
of the wire and provides proper force to draw wire stock through upstream die
 Each die provides a small reduction, so desired total reduction is achieved by the
series
 Surface Preparation and Lubrication

 The stock (raw material for drawing) is first surface treated by chemical pickling or
or shot blasting followed by annealing.
 Cleaning is required to prevent damage of the work surface and draw die .
 Pointing involves the reduction in diameter of the starting end of the stock so that it
can be inserted through the draw die.
 This is usually accomplished by swaging, rolling, or turning

Dry Drawing:
The surface of the wire is coated with various lubricated (SOAP powder). High
strength materials and high temperature alloys surface of wire is coated either with
softer metal or with conversion coating (polymers are also used for coating).

Wet Drawing:
The dies and rods are completely immersed in a lubricant such as oil, emulsions etc.
 Features of a Draw Die

A typical die for drawing

round rod or wire

 Entry region - funnels lubricant into the die to

prevent scoring (frictional wear) of work and die
 Approach - cone-shaped region where drawing occurs
 Bearing surface - determines final stock size
 Back relief - exit zone - provided with a back relief
Tungsten-carbide die
angle (half-angle) of about 30° insert in a steel casing
 Effect of Die Angle

 The die angle has various effects on the three

drawing stress components (Ideal, friction
and redundant)
 For Drawing force to be minimum, high die
angle is required for higher reduction in wire
diameter.
 The die angle is in the range 6-15°
 Mechanics of rod and wire drawing
Drawing Stress (σd)
The tensile stress required to
perform drawing operation σx σx
At entry: x  0, Ax  Ao ,  x  0 x
At exit: x  L, Ax  A f ,  x   d L

(a) Ideal deformation (No Friction) Area reduction

 Y
d 

K 1n
Yf 
n 1
 Ao   Ao 
d  Y f ln   𝐹 = 𝜎𝑑 𝐴𝑓 F  Y f A f ln  
 Af   Af 
   
 Maximum reduction per pass
Maximum reduction per pass
 For perfectly plastic material (n=0)
 The maximum possible drawing stress is the
yield stress of the existing material.

 Ao 
K 10 d  Y f ln  
Yf  k  Af 
0 1  

   Y  K 0  K
f
Area reduction

Maximum reduction per pass

A0  A f 1
rmax   1   0.63  63%
A0 e
 Maximum reduction per pass

When n = 0 (for perfectly plastic material)

Maximum Reduction = 63%
 The value given is often used as the theoretical maximum reduction possible
in a single draw, even though it ignores
(1) the effects of friction and redundant work, which would reduce the
maximum possible value, and
(2) strain hardening, which would increase the maximum possible reduction
because the exiting wire would be stronger than the starting metal.

 In practice, draw reductions per pass are quite below the theoretical limit.
 Reductions of 0.50 for single-draft bar drawing and 0.30 for multiple-draft
wire drawing seem to be the upper limits in industrial operations.
 Mechanics of rod and wire drawing
(b) Ideal deformation + Friction + inhomogeous deformation

Equation suggested by Schey

ϕ is a inhomogeneous factor
D
  0.88  0.12
Lc σx σx
D = Average diameter of work (mm)
Lc = Contact length of the work with die x
Lc
D0  D f
D
2
D0  D f
Lc 
2 sin 
 Example -1

The metal will cause the average flow stress to be 0.83 of the final flow stress after
deformation. Determine
(a) the value of the strain hardening exponent
(b) the draw stress and
(c) the draw force in this operation

0.83
0.83
0.83
0.83
n = 0.2
 Example -1

D0  D f D0  D f
b) D Lc 
2 2 sin 

D
  0.88  0.12
Lc

K 1n
Yf 
n 1
 Example -2
Round rod of annealed 302 stainless steel (K= 1300 Mpa and n = 0.3) is being drawn
from a diameter of 10 mm to 8 mm at a speed of 0.5 m/s. Assume that the frictional
and redundant work together consist of 40% of the ideal work of deformation.
Power required for the operation

P  F V with F  1.4 Fideal

 Ao 
Fideal  Y A f ln  
A 
 f 

 K 1n 1 
Y   
 n 1 
2
 Ao   Do 
 1  ln    ln 
 D


 Af   f 
 Tube Drawing

Tube sinking

Examples of tube-drawing operations, with and without an internal mandrel. Note

that a variety of diameters and wall thicknesses can be produced from the same tube
stock (that has been produced by other processes, such as extrusion
 End
Thank You