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Directory of African-Appalachian Musicians
Author(s): Bob Eagle

Source: Black Music Research Journal , Spring, 2004, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Spring, 2004), pp. 7-
71
Published by: Center for Black Music Research - Columbia College Chicago and
University of Illinois Press
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DIRECTORY OF
AFRICAN-APPALACHIAN MUSICIANS
BOB EAGLE
The aim of this guide is to fix significant positions for musical activity
onto specific portions of the landscape, with a view to assisting future
research. It is not intended to fulfill the tourist expectation of finding, say,
that "Blind Boy Fuller slept here." Therefore, it does not record where a
particular artist appeared on one night of a whirlwind one-night tour, but
if that same artist habitually played in the location for decades, it can be
hoped that he or she will be found here.
The intention is to set down, so far as can be known at this remove, the
main places where particular Appalachian musicians (specifically
African Americans) were born, spent their lives, learned from others, per-
formed, influenced others, or died. African-American churches, so
important in black communities and frequently the location of significant
musical activity, have been included when they could be identified
definitely.
There has been an attempt to date musicians' activity and to point to
other locations within the guide that they may be found; suggestions for
enhancing the simplicity and improving the presentation of the guide are
welcomed. The usual magazines and references have been consulted,
albeit with inevitable omissions by the compiler, but the work also large-
ly draws on substantial original research in the indexed census records of
1920 and 1930.
The definition of "Appalachia" chosen is that promulgated by the
Appalachian Regional Commission, with the proviso that certain Virginia
Piedmont and Valley cities and counties that were initially included in
BOB EAGLE became interested in black music through an early love of rock and roll. He has
contributed to journals in the United States and Europe and some decades ago edited his
own magazine in Australia. Since that time, he has been compiling biographies of all par-
ticipants in blues and gospel music, and in his spare time practices as an attorney.

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8 BMR Journal
the region by the

porated.
Attempts have been made to avoid the use of abbreviations, but some
are so pervasive as to require their usage.
COGIC Church of God in Christ
AME African Methodist Episcopal (Church)
AMEZ African Methodist Episcopal Zion (Church)
The directory is presented alphabetically by state, then by county,

then by city. In some cases, there is additional general information th
pertinent to either a state or a county preceding the presentation of
next category. For example, the Alabama state heading is followe
information about songs that mention the state, sociological trends
influenced the music, important performers that hailed from the st
and demographic statistics; then the county listings begin.
Alabama
Alabama has been an important state for gospel music but, in recent
decades, is less influential as a source of blues music.
The traditional song "Alabama Bound" has the sense more of ramblin
than of specifically going to Alabama. Examples include "'Bama Bou
Blues" by Ida Cox, Papa Charlie Jackson, and Charlie Patton; "Alaba
Bound" by Bowlegs (Library of Congress); "Alabama Bound" by Un
Rich Brown.
Apart from "Alabama Bound," a number of songs mention the state,
including "Alabama Mis-Treater" by Davenport and Carr (Okeh 8306,
recorded March 11, 1926), "Alabama Strut" by Cow Cow Davenport and
Ivy Smith (Vocalion 1253, recorded July 16, 1928), "Alabama Mistreater"
by Cow Cow Davenport (Vocalion 1227, recorded October 25, 1928), "The
Blues Singer from Alabam" by Bessie Brown (Brunswick 4346, recorded
ca. April 1929), "Alabammy Mistreated" by Iva [Ivy] Smith (Gennett
7231, recorded June 7, 1930), "Alabama Scratch" by the Harum Scarums
(Paramount 13054, recorded ca. January 1931), "Alabama Hustler" by
Sam Tarpley (Gennett unreleased, recorded August 30, 1930, and
Paramount 13062, recorded ca. January 1931), and "I've Got a Man in the
'Bama Mines" by Sweet Pease Spivey (Bluebird B-7224, recorded October
11, 1937), which inspired Jazz Gillum's "answer," "I'm That Man Down
in the Mine" (Bluebird B-7718, recorded June 16, 1938).
Although the ravages of the boll weevil were ultimately felt harder
through the Black Belt of central Alabama than in most other locations,

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Eagle * Directory of African-Appalachian Musicians 9
they came later than in states to the West and did not reach a peak until
around 1922. The impact of the boll weevil therefore cannot explain the
district's failure to develop as a strong blues center along the lines of the
Yazoo Delta of Mississippi.
The huge exodus of tenant farmers from the southern states also seems
to have begun at least a decade earlier in Alabama than in Mississippi.
The land value of Alabama farmland in black hands was also consider-
ably lower than its counterpart in Mississippi. Perhaps the conditions of
life were harsher in Alabama, but more likely, the exodus became an eco-
nomic necessity some years earlier than it did in Mississippi.
There is some evidence that the Black Belt had earlier been a center for
blues music. Ike Zinnerman, from southern Alabama, moved to
Mississippi and was an influence in the early 1930s upon Robert Johnson.
There is a blues piano tradition evident, perhaps especially in the
Anniston area.
At first sight, the obvious music center of the state is Jefferson County,
including the county seat of Birmingham and the mining center o
Bessemer. Perhaps because of the concentration of coal mining, by ana
gy with Wales, the music of the area emphasized singing, particularly
group singing. The populace leaned heavily toward religious music, and
Birmingham was an early center for quartet singing groups.
Performers thought or known to be from somewhere in the sta
include the Alabama Sheiks, The Amerson Children, Boss Clark, the Re
Edward Clayborn, John Daniels, Evangelist Singers of Alabam
Napoleon Fletcher, A. C. Forehand, Blind Mamie Forehand, The Gold
Voices of Alabama, Warren Grey, Eddie Harris, Jimmy Lee Harris, Wil
Henley, possibly Papa Harvey Hull, Isaiah "Little Shot" Jones, the la
Willie Lyons, Eddie "King" Milton, Mary Lou "Mae Bee May" Milton, A.
B. Stanton, John Sykes, Arthur Tucker, and Odelle Turner.
As of 2003, the following thirty-seven counties fell within the purvie
of the Appalachian Regional Commission: Bibb (1920 black population of
7,817), Blount (1,418), Calhoun (12,089), Chambers (19,724), Cheroke
(2,079), Chilton (3,963), Clay (3,179), Cleburne (735), Colbert (11,152
Coosa (5,806), Cullman (443), De Kalb (771), Elmore (11,944), Etowah
(7,528), Fayette (2,481), Franklin (1,418), Hale (17,896), Jackson (3,008),
Jefferson (130,391), Lamar (2,850), Lauderdale (8,117), Lawrence (6,739),
Limestone (9,628), Macon (19,614), Madison (17,483), Marion (621),
Marshall (1,287), Morgan (7,736), Pickens (12,324), Randolph (5,936), St.
Clair (4,449), Shelby (7,044), Talladega (17,398), Tallapoosa (10,070),
Tuscaloosa (19,780), Walker (8,190), and Winston (81).
In 1920, the thirteen Appalachian counties in the state with urban pop
ulations-more than 2,500 people living in an incorporated town-we

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10 BMR Journal
Calhoun (42.6% urb

(50.0%), Jefferson
Madison (15.5%), Mo
Tuscaloosa (22.3%), a
The southwesterly
Mountains occupy th
Tennessee Valley and
The latter area com
Lauderdale, Lawren
Tuscaloosa, Walker, a
Calhoun County
Willie Guy Rainey w

Anniston (city, 11,
Bostick, Cow Cow
Location (2002) of V
Gregory Sr.); locati
Walls Sr.).
Hobson City (town, 814 black residents in 2000). Celebrated by Cow
Cow Davenport in "Hobson City Blues."
Clay County
Ashland (city, 407 black residents in 2000). Possible base for Brownie
Stubblefield.
Colbert County
Leighton (city, 468 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Percy Sledge.

Muscle Shoals (city, 1,689 black residents in 2000). Possible birthplace of
Emerson Houston (ca. 1895). Muscle Shoals has been a site for soul
recordings, including performers such as Lattimore Brown and Aretha
Franklin.
Tuscumbia (city, 1,768 black residents in 2000). Residence of Henry
Hankins. Location (2002) of New Life COGIC (Pastor, Supt. Larry
Anderson).
Cullman County
Hanceville. Birthplace of Candi Staton.

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De Kalb County
Fyffe. The Alabama Sacred Harp Singers, possibly a white group,

recorded at Fyffe circa the 1970s.
Elmore County
Santuck. Location (2002) of Sweetwater Baptist Church.

Speigner. Will "Stovepipe" Bennett recorded gospel in Speigner in 1934.
Wetumpka (1,661 black residents in 2000). Residence of the Thrasher
Wonders and presumably of Lee Fields. Location of Robert Henderson of
WAPZ Radio (2001).
Etowah County
Gadsden (city, 13,252 black residents in 2000). Residence (and birthplace

in 1930) of Jerry McCain and his band The Upstarts, of his brothers
Roosevelt McCain and Walter McCain, and of Chris Collins. Willie
Hightower of Too Late Music, 900 Central Avenue, Gadsden, Alabama
35901 (1974) may be of interest.
Fayette County
Fayette (city, 1,151 black residents in 2000). Residence (2002) of Elston

Driver (shaped-note singer). Location (2002) of McConnell Chapel.
Austin. Childhood residence of Ethel Caffie.
Elveston. Residence (1930) of Elmer Fletcher (born ca. 1909); and Luther
Fletcher (born ca. 1914).
Montgomery. Location (2001) of Mt. Zion Missionary Baptist Church;
and St. John Missionary Baptist Church.
Oak Hill. Birthplace (1941) of white country musician Charlie McCoy.
Place of death (1953) of white country musician Hank Williams Sr.
Red Star. Residence (1930) of James R. Pryor.
Franklin County
Slickrock Ford [sic] may be a location referred to by Lucille Bogan in

"Hungry Man's Scuffle."
Hale County
Greensboro (1,663 black residents in 2000). P. Dunn, M. A. Gooden, and
Julia Johnson were all recorded at Greensboro, which was the birthplace
of Little Sonny Willis. Location (2003) of St. Thomas AME Church.

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12 BMR Journal
Newbern (178 black

(1920) (alias Barefoot
Jackson County
Scottsboro (city, 788

Slick Rock Hollow [s
"Hungry Man's Scuf
Jefferson County
Jefferson County is
Inez Andrews, Jean
Prof. Alex Bradford
Jimmy Carter (1932)
Birmingham George
Rockin' Charles Edwards, Dennis Edwards, Wilbert Ellis, Bedile
Goldsmith (of the Mighty Clouds of Joy), John Grimes, Joe Guy, Wilbur
Harden, Roger Hatcher (1946), Shelton Hemphill, Minnie Hicks' hus-
band, Ace Holder, Dennis Irwin, Gus Jenkins, Eddie Kendricks, Frederick
Knight, Sam Lay, Shorty Long, M. Lillian McGriff, Bobby Nunn, Odetta,
Avery Parrish, King Porter (1916; James A. Pope), Carl Pruitt, Bobby
Scott, David Sea, the Rev. Charles Taylor, Bruce Upshaw, Billy Valentine,
Don Varner (1943), Eddie Ware, Hibert "Alabama" Watson, James "Piano
'C' Red" Wheeler, Jody Williams, Paul Williams (of the Temptations), and
Leola B. Wilson.
Jefferson County landmarks are referred to in numerous songs, includ-
ing "Jefferson County" (composed by Sid Harris), recorded by Priscilla
Stewart (1926) and Bo Weavil Jackson (1926; issued as performed by Sam
Butler); "Pratt City Blues" by Bertha "Chippie" Hill (1926 and 1929) and
the same title by "Jabo" Williams (1932); "Third Alley Blues" by Iva [Ivy]
Smith (1927); "Snatch It Back Blues" by Buddy Boy Hawkins (1927);
"Keep Your Man Out of Birmingham" by William Harris (1928); "Frisco
Leaving Birmingham" by George "Bullet" Williams (1928); "Big Rock
Jail" by Barefoot Bill (1929); "Seventh St. Alley Strut" by Marshall Owens
(1931); "45 Pistol Blues" by Walter Roland (1935); "Eighth Avenue Blues"
by Peanut the Kidnapper (1937); "Bessemer Blues" by Tampa Red (1939);
"Birmingham Bounce" (composed by "hillbilly" performer Hardrock
Gunter), performed by Amos Milburn (1950); "Washington Heights, Pratt
City Special" and "Bessemer Rag," all by Robert McCoy (1962). Erskine
Hawkins' hit song "Tuxedo Junction" (composed by Buddy Feyne,
Erskine Hawkins, William Johnson, and Julian Dash and set to the
melody of "Alabama Jubilee") refers to the Birmingham district of that

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name. There is also a Birmingham district called "West End," but Louis
Armstrong's composition "West End Blues" reportedly relates to a resort
spot of that name overlooking Lake Pontchartrain, north of New Orleans,
Louisiana, active during the first two decades of the twentieth century.
Bessemer (city, 20,638 black residents in 2000). Residence (pre-World
War II) of Bessemer Harmony Four; Bessemer Sunset Four (also known
as Bessemer Quartet); Bessemer Big Four (1941); and Bessemer Melody
Boys. Birthplace of Alex Bradford and James Hill (1916). Location (2002)
of McAdory Temple COGIC.
Birmingham (178,372 black residents in 2000). Birmingham and its
neighboring cities formed a focus for blues activity and a more important
focus for gospel activity (particularly for male quartets). Birmingham is
colloquially known as "The Magic City," and its blues society is the Magic
City Blues Society. Birmingham had 126,338 black residents (over 41% of
the city's total population) in the 1970 Census; its greater metropolitan
area had a population of 767,230. The city and its suburbs previously
relied heavily upon the steel industry but has now diversified into chem-
icals and food processing. Birthplace of Erskine Hawkins (1914), Claude
Jeter (1914), Sun Ra (1914); Willie Love (1925); Dorothy Love Coates
(1928; nee McGriff); Lillian McGriff (1928); and James Taylor (1961).
Location (2002) of East Birmingham COGIC (Pastor, Bishop Peter Wren);
(2002) Emanuel Temple COGIC (Pastor, Bishop O. L. Meadows); (2002)
and Grace Covenant COGIC (Pastor, Supt. Michael L. Frazier).
Prior to World War II, the Gennett label had a link with the E. E. Forbes
Piano Company of Birmingham, and one Jimmy Allen was talent scout
for the company's 1927 Birmingham session: Wiley Barner with Will
Jennings; Jaybird Coleman; Daddy Stovepipe and Whistling Pete;
Dunham's Jubilee Singers (also known as the Bessemer Blues Singers);
Joe Evans and Arthur McClain; the Rev. J. F. Forest; William Harris with
Joe Robinson; Ollis Martin; Mount Sinai Jubilee Quartet, alias the
Bessemer Harmony Four; R. D. Norwood; and Bertha Ross backed by
Vance Patterson. Brunswick/Vocalion recorded some performers at
Birmingham in 1928: Bessemer Sunset Four (also known as Bessemer
Quartet); Golden Leaf Quartet; and the Rev. I. B. Ware; as well as some
"hillbilly" performers. The Library of Congress recorded Tom Bradford at
Birmingham in 1934 and the Bessemer Big Four in 1941. W. R. Calaway
held a session at Birmingham for ARC in 1937, using Theodore White as
a talent scout: William Blevins Quartet; Bogan's Birmingham Busters;
Charlie Campbell; Georgia Slim; Guitar Slim; Peanut the Kidnapper;
Ravizee Singers; Mack Rhinehart and Brownie Stubblefield; George
Torey; reputedly, Lucille Bogan; and Willie Hagood.
After the war, John Daniels' Quartet (possibly white) recorded for the

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14 BMR Journal
Bama label. Tiger R

Jubilees (1952). La
McCain may have r
recorded for Tune,
featured Lizzie Col
1962); Charlie Barke
leased). Arhoolie f
tured Robert McCo
Blues performers a
ed Charles Anders
Cleo Gibson; Iva [Iv
Mozelle Alderson
Covington; Ben Cu
James Wiggins.
Active, or probab
Birmingham Jug
"Cherryville"; Geo
Priest Ivin; Marsh
Theodore Roosevelt
Working there in
Clearwater and To
Summerfield.
In the 1950s, active artists probably included Wild Child Butler with
"Big Bee" and "Drumming Cleve" (1956 to 1964); Elmer Parker; and Del
Thorne.
In the 1960s and 1970s, blues performers probably included Dot
Adams; Frank Adams; Lee Aikerson (returned from Chicago); Alabama
Red; Tom Anderson; King Jesse Ellston; Dave McConico; Roscoe
Robinson; and Odis Spencer.
In the 1980s, Frederick Knight Productions production company
actively promoted soul performers.
During the 1920s, gospel performers active in the Birmingham area
included the Birmingham Jubilee Singers, alias Alabama Four and Sugar
Cane Four; A. C. Forehand; Blind Mamie Forehand; Rolling Mill Four;
Arthur Lee Turner; (possibly) the Rev. Jim Beal; and Georgia Lee Stafford.
In the 1930s, the area featured Will Bailey; the Bessemer Melody Boys;
Joe Coleman; L. V. Cox; Arizona Dranes with Bishop Williams; Fairfield
Traveling Stars; Famous Blue Jay Singers of Birmingham; and Claude
Jeter.
Performers active in the 1940s included the Apollo Boys Choir of
Birmingham; the Rev. Sandy Davis; Ensley Jubilee Singers; the Rev. Paul
Exkano (originally from New Orleans); Four Great Wonders; Happy

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Hitters of Birmingham; Leo Manley's Heavenly Gospel Singers, alias

Stars of Harmony; Kings of Harmony (of Birmingham, Alabama);
Original Gospel Harmonettes; Walter Patton; Protective Harmoneers;
Aldridge "Cap" Stanfield; and Jim Steele.
In the 1950s, area gospel performers included Bessemer Big Four (back-
ing the Rev. Gatemouth Moore on Coral 65096); Evangelist Singers of
Alabama; and Willie Love.
Active in the 1960s and 1970s were John Alexander (Sterling Jubilee
Singers); Carl Coates; Dorothy Love Coates; Eunice Cook; Johnny Gaines;
The Harmonizing Five; Henry Holston; Rozetta Johnson; Sam Johnson;
Tom Lacy; Sam Lewis; Herbert Pickard; Dock Terry; and Joe Washington.
In the 1980s, gospel performers included The Four Eagle Gospel
Singers; the Gospel Sunlites of Birmingham; the Harps of Memory; and
the Sterling Jubilees.
In the 1990s, Birmingham was the location of the Rev. J. T. Hutton.
Brighton (city 3,244 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Silas Steele
(1911).
Cottage Hill (now a section of Pleasant Grove). Residence of Walter
Roland's ex-wife circa the 1940s.
Fairfield (city, 11,171 black residents in 2000). Residence of Wiley Barner
(pre-World War II); Fairfield Traveling Stars.
North Johns (town, 84 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Isaac
"Dickie" Freeman (1928).
Midfield (city, 3,347 black residents in 2000). Location (2002) of Free Will
COGIC (Pastor, Eugene Starks).
Pratt City. Birthplace of Charlie Bridges (1901); Jabo Williams.
Lamar County
Millport (town, 394 black residents in 2000). George "Bullet" Williams

reportedly hailed from Millport.
Vernon (city, 271 black residents in 2000). Location (2002) of New Zion
COGIC (Pastor, Supt. Marry R. Johnson).
Lauderdale County
Florence (city, 6,963 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of W. C. Handy

(1873); Homer Smith (1902); Arthur Alexander; and Jimmy Hughes.
Location (2002) of Morrow Memorial COGIC (Pastor, Supt. Larry
Anderson).
Lexington (town, 0 black residents in 2000). Location (2000) of Woodrich
Publishing Company (in 1974, based in Rogersville), operated by Woody
Richardson.

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16 BMR Journal
Rogersville (town,
Woodrich Publishing
it was based in Lexin
Sensational Harmone
Lawrence County
Courtland (town, 31
Tabernacle COGIC.
Town Creek (town, 416 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Andrew
"Moohah" Williams.
Limestone County
Ardmore. Birthplace of Aaron Wilburn (1950).

Athens (city, 3,464 black residents in 2000). Although no details of ide
tity are known, local black blues men influenced the Delmore Brother
(Alton and Rabon).
Macon County
Notasulga (town, 297 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Geor

"King" Scott (1929) (Five Blind Boys of Alabama).
Society Hill. Residence of Albert Macon (born 1920) and Robert Thoma
(born 1929).
Tuskegee (city, 11,310 black residents in 2000--out of 11,846 total).
Birthplace of Eddie McFarland; and Lionel Ritchie (1949). Residence of B.
T. Foote (born 1908, deceased by 1991); McKinley James; Albert Macon
(born 1920); and Robert Thomas (born 1929).
Madison County
Birthplace of Augusta James (1955).

Huntsville (city, 47,642 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Roosevelt
Childress (1926); James Holland (1927); and Mervyn Warren (1965).
Huntsville is the subject of a song by Evans and McClain in a 1931 record-
ing titled "New Huntsville Jail." Little Richard attended theological col-
lege there from 1958. Location (2002) of Beirne Avenue COGIC (Pastor,
Supt. Dave Draper Sr.); (2002) Bibleway COGIC (Pastor, Reginald
Roberts); (2002) Fountain of Life COGIC (Pastor, James Strong); and
(2002) Right Way COGIC (Pastor, Jesse Draper).
Madison (city, 3,798 black residents in 2000). Location (2002) of
Cathedral of Faith COGIC (Pastor, Hugh E. Mitchell).

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New Haven. Location (2002) of Inspirational Zion COGIC (Pastor,

Kenneth Washington Jr.).
Marion County
Hamilton (city, 515 black residents in 2000). Possible location of Harry

Rutledge.
Morgan County
Decatur (city, 10,548 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Earl Gaines

(1935).
Laceys Spring. Location (2002) of Crutcher Temple COGIC (Pastor,
Strong).
Pickens County
Aliceville (city, 1,708 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Joe McCoy

(Robert McCoy's father); and Robert McCoy. Residence of Benny
Houston (1950s-to Chicago); and Milton Houston (1950s-to Chicago).
Carrollton (town, 440 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Donald Ray
Hill (1954).
Dancy. Residence of Alabama Red (1970s); and Birmingham George
Conner (1970s).
Shelby County
Montevallo (city, 1,249 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of James

"Piano 'C' Red" Wheeler (1933). Location of Alabama College.
Talladega County
The county was the birthplace of Bishop Joe Perry Tillis and Bill
Johnson.
Lincoln (city, 1,238 black residents in 2000). Location (2002) of St. Mark
COGIC (Pastor, T. Huffman).
Talladega (city, 6,402 black residents in 2000). Site of Talladega College,
previously the Talladega Institute for the Deaf and Blind. The institute
was the impetus for the creation in 1939 of the Five Blind Boys of
Alabama, initially led by Velma Traylor. The Five Blind Boys of Alabama
included, in its early days, the Rev. Paul Exkano, Johnny Fields, Clarence
Fountain, George Scott, and Olice Thomas.

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18 BMR Journal
Tuscaloosa County
Fosters. Residence o
Holt Census Design
of Johnny Shines (
active there.
Ralph. Birthplace of Walter Roland (1902); and Little Whitt.
Tuscaloosa (city, 33,287 black residents in 2000). Residence of Blind
Buddy Bailey; Franklin Bell (drums-later to Los Angeles); Willie King;
Mike McCracken (2000); Big Bo McGee (2000); Candy Martin Shines
(1960s-at least 2000); Johnny Shines (with Candy Martin Shines, to his
death in 1992); Vera Hall Ward; and "Little Whit" (Jolly Wells). Location
of Stillman College.
Walker County
Jasper (city, 1,965 black residents in 2000). Location (2002) of New

Bethel COGIC (Pastor, Supt. Marry R. Johnson).
Georgia
Georgia was a strong blues area pre-World War II and has had an
important place in gospel music. Its major urban center, Atlanta, just out-
side the Appalachian region, was the main pre-World War II recording
center for the southeastern states, only being replaced by Nashville,
Tennessee, from about 1947 onward.
King George II chartered Georgia to James Edward Oglethorpe as a
colony for persecuted Protestants in 1732, with the aim of protecting the
Carolinas against incursion by the Spaniards in Florida and the French in
Louisiana. Initially, the colony prohibited slavery, but this was changed
after it became a royal province in 1753. By 1860, the population was
1,057,286, of which 44 percent were black slaves. As late as 1900, when the
population was 2,216,331, 46.7% were black, but the proportion of blacks
at each U.S. Census has fallen steadily since.
Cotton was the major crop until the boll weevil devastation of about
1923, which brought about some diversification. The peak cotton crop
was in 1911, when 2,768,000 bales were grown on 5 million acres.
Almost 60 percent of the state lies within the Atlantic coastal plain,
below a fall line stretching from Augusta through Milledgeville and
Macon to Columbus. Up country from the fall line lies the Piedmont
plateau, which includes Atlanta. The more mountainous regions above
the Piedmont include the Blue Ridge, the Cumberland Plateau, and the
Great Valley, extending north from Cedartown.

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In 2003, the Appalachian Regional Commission had jurisdiction over

Banks, Barrow, Bartow, Carroll, Catoosa, Chattooga, Cherokee, Dade,
Dawson, Douglas, Elbert, Fannin, Floyd, Forsyth, Franklin, Gilmer,
Gordon, Gwinnett, Habersham, Hall, Haralson, Hart, Heard, Jackson,
Lumpkin, Madison, Murray, Paulding, Pickens, Polk, Rabun, Stephens,
Towns, Union, Walker, White, and Whitfield counties.
As of 1850, based on the ratio of slaves to free colored and the numbers
of each (the Mance Index, see page 73), racial conditions in the
Appalachian region were apparently harshest, in descending order, in
Elbert, Floyd, Jackson, Heard, Gwinnett, Murray, Madison, Franklin,
Chattooga, Paulding, Walker, Hall, Habersham, Carroll, and Cherokee
counties. It is in those counties where the development of distinctively
black Appalachian blues or gospel music might have been expected to
occur. However, those are also the Appalachian counties most likely to
lose black population by emigration.
In 1920, the Appalachian counties with the largest nonwhite tenant
farmer numbers were Elbert (1,479) and Carroll (1,043). The top cotton-
producing Appalachian counties, all with over 25,000 bales were, in
descending order, Jackson, Carroll, Gwinnett, Madison, Elbert, Hart,
Franklin, and Bartow. The Appalachian counties were modest tobacco
producers, the main ones being Union (22,959 pounds), Fannin, Gilmer,
and White. Prominent Appalachian sweet potato producers included
Carroll (119,425 bushels), Gwinnett, Jackson, Madison, Elbert, Franklin,
Hart, Cherokee, Walker, Catoosa, and Heard.
Among those performers known or thought to have hailed from
Georgia are Sister Cally Fancy and Lucius Hardy.
Barrow County
Probable county of residence of Henry Dink at his death (1987, age 58).
Carroll County
Carrollton (6,184 blacks in 2000). Birthplace of Margie Alexander (1948).

Possible location of Carrollton label (1959) (featuring Billy Wright and the
Mighty Harmony Kings).
Villa Rica (city, 740 blacks in 2000). Birthplace of Thomas A. Dorsey.
Whitesburg (county line, 100 blacks in 2000). Possible location of Velma
"Chubby" Newsome (1930).
Cherokee County
Macedonia. Likely location of Jesse Fuller (1908-1912).

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20 BMR Journal
Elbert County
Elberton (2,039 black

Residence of Willie Hill.
Floyd County
Rome (9,677 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Albert Washington.

Place of death of Gertrude "Ma" Rainey (1939).
Franklin County
Martin. See Stephens County.

Royston. See Hart County.
Gordon County
Calhoun. Residence (1930) of Andrew and Jim Baxter.

Curryville. Birthplace of concert singer Roland Hayes.
Gwinnett County
Probable county of death of Henry Dink (1987, age 58).

Grayson. Residence of Bobby Byrd and wife Vicky Anderson (2004).
Lawrenceville (city, 3,048 black residents in 2000). Location (2003) of
Simmons Chapel AME Zion Church.
Loganville (city, 246 black residents in 2000, partly in Walton County).
Location (2003) of Mt. Zion AME Zion Church.
Habersham County
Cornelia (city, 350 black residents in 2000). Residence of Affrilachian

performance poet doris davenport; John Gibson; and Will Gibson.
Hall County
Gainesville (city, 4,023 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of doris dav-

enport. Residence of Sister O. M. Terrell.
Hart County
Reported location of Arthur Gunter (Excello label recording artist).
Heard County
Birthplace of Roy Lee Johnson (1938).

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Lumpkin County
Dahlonega (city). Location (2003) of Hickory Grove CME Church.
Paulding County
Hiram (city, 201 black residents in 2000). Residence of white hillbilly

performer John Dilleshaw and of his black mentor, Bill Turner (ca. 1917).
Weddington Militia District (near Brownsville). Residence of Will "Bill"
Turner (1920, age 33).
Polk County
Cedartown. Residence (1900) of Ida Cox (nee Prather).
Rabun County
Residence of Barbara Fruster (2003).
Stephens County
Location of Crossroads Baptist Church.

Avalon (town, 22 black residents in 2000). Residence of Boyd Kay (pos-
sibly died 1988, age 74).
Gumlog. Residence of Taft Dortch (1972).
Martin (town, 82 black residents in 2000). Residence of Paul Harrison;
Mac Kay; Ed Odister; and Barbara Fruster.
Scott Road. Residence of Boyd Singleton; and his white student
Ramblin' Tommy Scott.
Toccoa (city, 2,001 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Ida Cox (nde
Prather; 1888); Bobby Byrd; Sarah Byrd Giglio; Sylvester "King" Keels;
Nafloyd Scott; Baroy "Baby Roy" Scott; James Crawford; and Teddy
Brown (1954-1973). Residence of James Brown (1952-1955); Famous
Flames; Johnny Terry; Utta Kay (died in 1982); Robert Scott; J. C. Staggers
(died in 1984, age 85); Teddy Brown and the Torches; Detroit Steeples'
Community Choir; Mellowtones (1940s and 1950s); Friendly Five; and
Bub Williams' New Mixed Choir. Location of "Black Bottom" club (1920s
and 1930s); Bill's Rendevous Club (1950s); and Barry's Recreation Center
(1950s). Location of Friendship Baptist Church (500 Sage St.); Mount Sinai
Fire Baptized Holiness Church (607 S. Broad St.); Mount Zion Baptist
Church (Whitman Street); and Trinity CME Church (329 Franklin St.).
Walker County
Rossville (city, 137 black residents in 2000). Residence of Palmer

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22 BMR Journal
McAbee (1930), whit

have been black.
Kentucky
Kentucky is not a state well known for blues or gospel music, although
it was a slave state. It was originally part of the territory claimed by
Virginia, and its initial settlement was influenced by conditions in
Virginia. Kentucky is mentioned in the title of Smokey Smothers' song
"Way Up in the Mountains of Kentucky."
Counties falling within the purview of the Appalachian Regional
Commission as of 2003 were Adair, Bath, Bell, Boyd, Breathitt, Carter,
Casey, Clark, Clay, Clinton, Cumberland, Edmonson, Elliott, Estill,
Fleming, Floyd, Garrard, Green, Greenup, Harlan, Hart, Jackson,
Johnson, Knott, Knox, Laurel, Lawrence, Lee, Leslie, Letcher, Lewis,
Lincoln, McCreary, Madison, Magoffin, Martin, Menifee, Monroe,
Montgomery, Morgan, Owsley, Perry, Pike, Powell, Pulaski, Rockcastle,
Rowan, Russell, Wayne, Whitley, and Wolfe.
Historically, there were greater numbers of blacks in some parts of the
Appalachian region than at present. Overall for the entire state, there
were twenty-one slaves for each free colored person in 1850. The slave
populations in 1850 of counties falling in the Appalachian Regional
Commission's area were Adair (1,707), Bath (2,535), Bell (did not yet
exist), Boyd (did not yet exist), Breathitt (170), Carter (257), Casey (634),
Clark (4,840), Clay (515), Clinton (262), Cumberland (1,485), Edmonson
(325), Elliott (did not yet exist), Estill (411), Fleming (2,139), Floyd (149),
Garrard (3,176), Greene (now known as Green, 2,608), Greenup (606),
Harlan (123), Hart (1,301), Jackson (did not yet exist), Johnson (30), Knott
(did not yet exist), Knox (612), Laurel (192), Lawrence (137), Lee (did not
yet exist), Leslie (did not yet exist), Letcher (62), Lewis (322), Lincoln
(3,355), McCreary (did not yet exist), Madison (5,393), Magoffin (did not
yet exist), Martin (did not yet exist), Menifee (did not yet exist), Monroe
(831), Montgomery (3,073), Morgan (187), Owsley (136), Perry (117), Pike
(98), Powell (did not yet exist), Pulaski (1,307), Rockcastle (also spelled
Rock Castle, 375), Rowan (did not yet exist), Russell (435), Wayne (830),
Whitley (201), and Wolfe (did not yet exist).
Greenup County
212 black residents in 2000.
Greenup. Place of residence and death (1973, age 75) of William "Bill"
Williams, from Richmond, Virginia.

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Harlan County
Lynch Mines. Possible location of Sam Collins (1930).
Letcher County
Whitesburg. Location of June Appal label (Box 743, Whitesburg,
Kentucky 41858).
Perry County
Hazard (city, 316 black residents in 2000). Residence of Bayless Rose
(1930).
Pike County
Birthplace of Todd Wright.
Maryland
Maryland has probably been more important for its gospel music per-
formers than for blues. Maryland became, in 1663, the second colony,
after Virginia, to legislate the legalization of slavery.
Norman Brown, guitarist of Mills Brothers fame, may have hailed from
Maryland.
Gospel singer Alma Parks Brown was born in Maryland in 1907; and
gospel singer Clifton Stanton Jr. was born in Maryland in 1960.
Allegany, Garrett, and Washington counties fall within the area for
which the Appalachian Regional Commission is responsible.
Allegany County
No black tenant farmers in 1920 and a total 1920 black population of

1,825.
Cumberland. Location (2002) of Ebenezer Full Gospel Baptist Church;
and Metropolitan AME Church.
Washington County
Six black tenant farmers in 1920 and a total 1920 black population of
2,242.

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24 BMR Journal
Hagerstown. Poss
Hagerstown, India
Mississippi
Mississippi has been a most important state for the development of

blues, and it also has a rich gospel heritage.
Mississippi achieved statehood in 1817, but tentative population fig-
ures are available back to 1800. Its black population numbered around
half the state's total population for many decades, although the percent-
age of blacks has generally fallen since 1900.
Before emancipation, many black slaves were brought to the state. Its
black population rose from 3,671 in 1800 to 17,328 in 1810, 33,272 in 1820,
66,178 in 1830, 196,577 in 1840, 310,808 in 1850, and 437,404 in 1860. As of
1850, there were only 23,116 slave-holding families in the state, but the
state's average number of slaves (13.4) per slave-holding family was the
second highest in the United States, after South Carolina (at fifteen slaves
per slave-holding family).
Mississippi's total population was 606,526 in 1850, so that blacks out-
numbered whites. By 1860, blacks formed 55.3 percent of the state's pop-
ulation. Of the 1850 black population, only 1,930 (1.3%) were free, among
the lowest percentages in the United States at that time, and the percent-
age who were slaves in the state changed little prior to emancipation
(1863-1865).
The Civil War retarded the state's growth, but in the decade to 1880, the
state again attracted strong growth, including net black immigration of
17,600 estimated by the Census Office, the last decade for which the
Census Office has estimated net black migration into the state. By 1880,
there were 650,291 black residents in the state (57.5% of the state total),
and in 1900, there were 907,630, representing a peak share of 58.5% of its
population.
Between 1880 and 1960, depending on the method of calculation, the
U.S. Census Bureau and others have estimated that there was net outmi-
gration of between 710,600 and 960,100 blacks from the state. Between
1960 and 1990, net black emigration from the state was in the order of
406,000, including an estimated 279,000 in the decade to 1970.
In 1990, the black population was 915,057, not much different from the
totals in 1900 or in 1960. The state's black population had reached a mil-
lion by 1910, peaked at 1,009,718 in 1930, and hit a trough of 815,770 in
1970. The 1990 black population represented around 35.6 percent of the
state's population.
In 1920, of the 935,048 blacks living in Mississippi, 861,340 (92%) were

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
born there. From other states, blacks from Alabama were the largest
group (almost 3%), followed by Louisiana (almost 2%), and then (in
descending order) Tennessee, Georgia, Arkansas, North Carolina,
Virginia, and South Carolina (all less than 1% each, although over a thou-
sand in number).
The traditional (pre-1950) definition of "urban" population in the
United States was a population residing within incorporated places hav-
ing 2,500 or more inhabitants. As of the 1920 census, only 240,121 people
lived in urban areas in the state (just over 13% of the total), but even that
figure was almost twice the number of urban dwellers in 1900, and seven
times that of 1880. Although the definition of "urban" was extended by
1950 to include unincorporated places of 2,500 or more, even in 1970, the
state's urban population was only 987,000, compared with a rural popu-
lation of 1,230,000. The rural population had peaked in 1940 at 1,751,000.
The black population was initially even more rural-oriented than the
white population, but that altered with the influx of blacks to the cities
and towns from the plantations.
Counties falling within the ambit of the Appalachian Regional
Commission as of 2003 included Alcorn, Benton, Calhoun, Chickasaw,
Choctaw, Clay, Itawamba, Kemper, Lee, Lowndes, Marshall, Monroe,
Montgomery, Noxubee, Oktibbeha, Panola, Pontotoc, Prentiss, Tippah,
Tishomingo, Union, Webster, Winston, and Yalobusha.
The 1850 slave population of the Appalachian counties was Chickasaw
(6,480 slaves), Choctaw (2,978), Itawamba (2,127), Kemper (5,378),
Lowndes (12,993), Marshall (15,417), Monroe (11,717), Noxubee (11,323),
Oktibbeha (4,844), Panola (6,420), Pontotoc (4,968), Tippah (4,928),
Tishomingo (1,961), Winston (2,768), and Yalobusha (8,597). As of 1850,
Alcorn, Benton, Calhoun, Clay, Lee, Montgomery, Prentiss, Union, and
Webster counties did not yet exist.
The harshest racial conditions as of 1850 in the Appalachian counties
(using the Mance Index) appear to have been (in descending order of
harshness) in Marshall, Lowndes, Monroe, Noxubee, Yalobusha,
Chickasaw, Panola, Kemper, Pontotoc, Tippah, Oktibbeha, Choctaw,
Itawamba, and Tishomingo.
Among those performers known or thought to come from the state are
Madlyn Davis; Tom Dumas; Washington Herron; Earnest Johnson;
Tommy Lee Luster; Alenda Moore; and Wiley Pittman.
Alcorn County
The county had 414 black farmers as of 1920, including 272 black ten-
ant farmers.

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26 BMR Journal
Corinth (city, 3,035

Jr. (1892-1974); po
Robert Carter. Re
Barnes and the late
Carter (1996).
Benton County
The county had 90

ant farmers.
Ashland (62 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of the late Nathan
Beauregard (ca. 1876); and Joe L. Beard (1938). Residence of Nathan
Beauregard. Location (2003) of Saint Luke COGIC (Pastor, Nathaniel L.
Holleman Jr.).
Hudsonville. Birthplace of Junior Kimbrough (1930).
Lamar. Birthplace of Jimmie Thompson (1928) (to Chicago); and Mac
Thompson (1934) (to Chicago). Residence of Clyde Jamison (Holly
Springs?); Eugene Jamison (Holly Springs?); Floyd Murphy (Holly
Springs?); Matt Murphy (Holly Springs?) (born Sunflower, 1929); Sam
Thompson (1930s) (to Holly Springs); (Compare Syl Johnson
[Thompson], who was born in Centreville, Tennessee, in 1936).
Michigan City. Birthplace of the late Will Batts (1904). Compare
"Michigan City Blues" (Vocalion unreleased), recorded by Joseph "Piano
Slim" Stovall in 1927, which, however, may refer to Michigan City,
Indiana.
Calhoun County
ant farmers.
Joe Dan Boyd was the contact for Sacred Harp Singers from Calhoun
County.
Bruce (town, 930 black residents in 2000). Location (2003) of New Hope
COGIC (Pastor, Sinatra Williams).
Calhoun City (town, 599 black residents in 2000). Location (2003) of
Porter Chapel AME Church.
Chickasaw County
The county had 1,616 black farmers as of 1920, including 1,306 black
tenant farmers.
Houston (city, 1,492 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Willie Buck;

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and the late Bukka White (1904). Location (2003) of Christian Fellowship
(Full Gospel Baptist) Church (Senior Pastor, Jimmy Jones).
Choctaw County
ant farmers.
Residence of Doc Hemphill (fiddle; great-grandfather of Jessie Mae
Hemphill).
Ackerman (town, 591 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Therley
"Speedy" Ashford (1910); Velmer Ashford. Location (2003) of Gospel
Temple COGIC.
Beat 1. Residence of Velmer Ashford (1930, age 26).
Eupora. See Webster County.
Weir (town, 297 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of the late Levester
(Big Lucky) Carter (1920).
Clay County
tenant farmers.
Pheba. Location (2003) of Hogan Chapel AME Church.
West Point (city, 6,823 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of the late
Chester Arthur Burnett (Howlin' Wolf) (1911); Johnny Moore (1940); and
Zora Young (ca. 1948). Residence of Booker T. "Bukka" White. Location
(2003) of London Chapel AME Church; St. John AME Church; Friendship
(Full Gospel) Baptist Church (Senior Pastor, Willie B. Lairy); and Union
Star (Full Gospel) Baptist Church (Senior Pastor, Robert Branson).
Whites (also known as White Station). Residence of Howlin' Wolf
(1920).
Itawamba County
ant farmers.
Beat 2. Residence of Archie Brownlee (1930).
Kemper County
tenant farmers.
De Kalb (town, 489 black residents in 2000). Location (2003) of
Deliverance Temple COGIC (Pastor, Gregory Brown).

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28 BMR Journal
Lee County
The county had 1,51

tenant farmers.
Baldwyn (city). See Prentiss County.
Nettleton (town). See Monroe County.
Tupelo (city, 9,676 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Aaron Gant
(Aaron Sparks) (ca. 1908) and his brother Marion Gant (Marion Sparks);
Ernestine Sparks; Jimmie Lee Sparks Miller (female); and Richard
"Harmonica Slim" Riggins (to San Francisco). Residence of Arthur
Johnson (1910s); and the Supreme Angels (probably including Howard
Hunt) (ca. 1968). Presumed location of Tupelo Slim, probably more
recently in Michigan. Location (2003) of Emmanuel COGIC; and
Emmanuel COGIC (Pastor, Jeremiah Penro). Record labels include The
Master's Hands Records, associated with Robert S. Riley Sr. (1960s). The
city was celebrated in song by Chuck Berry, Albert King, and John Lee
Hooker. It is best known as Elvis Presley's birthplace.
Lowndes County
tenant farmers.
Artesia (town, 395 black residents in 2000). Residence of Willie Lee
Harris (harmonica).
Beat 5. Residence of Bert Logan (1930, age 58).
Columbus (city, 14,117 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Bogus Ben
Covington; Huey Davis (of the Contours) (1938). Residence of Otto
Virgial; and Tom Turner (122 11th Avenue South-rear) (1967). Location
(2003) of Charity Missionary Full Gospel Baptist Church (Senior Pastor,
Charles Fisher); Deliverance Evangelistic Outreach (Senior Pastor,
George Ampiah); Full Gospel Ministry (Senior Pastor, Maxine Hall); New
Beginnings Full Gospel Ministry (District Overseer, Glen Jefferson); and
Victory Full Gospel Baptist Church (Senior Pastor, Burt Richardson).
Crawford (town, 610 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Tom Turner
(1901); Joe Lee Williams (Big Joe Williams) (1906); and John Wesley
Macon (Mr. Shortstuff) (1933). Residence of Bert and Russ Logan (previ-
ously Beat 5, Oktibbeha County); and Ben Walker (guitar). Location
(2003) of Charity Mission (Full Gospel) Baptist Church (State Bishop,
Bobby L. McCarter).
South Columbus. Location (2003) of Turner Chapel AME Church.

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Marshall County
tenant farmers.
Barton. Residence of L. C. McKinley (ca. 1938).
Byhalia (town, 252 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of P. T. Hayes;
Will Roy "Slim" Sanders (1924) (to Orange Mound, Memphis); Bob
Myers (Robert L. Myers) (1925); David Myers (1927); the late Louis Myers
(1929); and Jan Bradley (1944). Residence of Johnny Booster (to Chicago
by 1972); Jan Bradley (birthplace, 1944-to Chicago by 1959); Ed Hill; Tim
Hill; Joseph Jenny (1930s); Amos Myers (to Chicago-deceased); Bob
Myers (birthplace, 1925-to Chicago); Curtis Myers (birthplace-to
Chicago); David Myers (birthplace, 1927-to Chicago); Louis Myers
(birthplace, 1929-to Chicago); Mary Myers (to Chicago); Mary Louise
Myers (birthplace-to Chicago); Will Roy "Slim" Sanders (birthplace,
1924-to Memphis by 1950s); Alison Shipp (1939); Christeen Shipp
(1939); Shipp family (1939); "Souphouse" (1930s-recalled by Will Roy
Sanders); Ernest "Boose" Taylor; Sam Taylor; Richard Taylor; and
Raymond Payne. Location (2003) of Mt. Pisgah CME Church.
Cayce. Birthplace of Rufus Thomas (1917).
Chulahoma. Residence of Wilbert Lee Reliford.
Holly Springs (city, 6,062 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Arthur
Brooks (ca. 1890) (to Winchester, Kentucky, by 1975). Birthplace of Elec
Greer (1912) (to Memphis, then Missouri); Mose Vinson (1917); Roosevelt
Harris (1908); John Lewis Sea (1910); the Rev. George Shields (1915); Lee
Roi Nabors (1916); Frank Howard (1925); Velba "Little" Applewhite
(1933); Sylvester Thompson (Syl Johnson) (1936); Dan Greer (1942) (to
Memphis); David Malone (D. K. Jr.); and Jimmy Johnson. Residence of
Hermon Applewhite (to Chicago); Melvin Applewhite (to Chicago);
Nathan Applewhite (to Chicago); Velba "Little" Applewhite (to
Memphis); Robert Belfour (1989); R. L. Burnside; Jimmy De Berry
(1912-1920). Residence of Golden Stars (radio WKRA, 1972); Roosevelt
Harris (radio WKRA, 1972); Frank Howard (to Memphis); George
Howard (to Memphis); Martha Howard (to Memphis); Leandrew
"Cotton" Howell (died 1991, in Memphis); Invincible Quartette of Rust
College (1928); Monroe "Guy" Jackson; Clyde Jamison; Eugene Jamison;
James Jefferson (to St. Louis); Ellen Jeffries; Jimmie Johnson (see
Thompson); Mac Johnson (see Thompson); Syl Johnson (see Thompson);
David Jr. Kimble/Kimbrough; Floyd Murphy; Matt Murphy (born
Sunflower, 1929); Lee Roi Nabors (to Chicago); Lewis Nunnaley;
"Roosevelt" (deceased by 1972); Rust College Quartet (1939); John Lewis
Sea (to Memphis); the Rev. George Shields (to Memphis); Willie "Coot"

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30 BMR Journal
Shields (died 1974); E

Jimmie Thompson
Chicago); Mac Thom
1934-to Chicago); S
Thompson ("John
Collierville, Tennes
Memphis); Bob Wal
Johnny Woods. Pl
Location of radio W
Temple COGIC (Pasto
whose Professor Syl
1980s and 1990s.
Hudsonville. See Benton County (birthplace of David "Junior"
Kimbrough).
Mt. Pleasant. Residence of Junior Kimbrough (1972-also at Holly
Springs).
Red Banks. Birthplace of Gus Cannon (1884) (to Hernando, then
Memphis; died 1979); Leandrew "Cotton" Howell (died 1991, in
Memphis); and George Lee Whitelaw (harmonica).
Slayden. Residence of Junior Kimbrough (1946); his student, white rock-
abilly artist Charlie Feathers (1946-1998); "Obie" (1940s); and "Tim."
Monroe County
tenant farmers.
Aberdeen (city, 3,862 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Howlin'
Wolf's grandfather and of his father, Dock Burnett (1896). Residence of
Booker T. Washington "Bukka" White (born Houston, Mississippi); J. D.
Burnett (1910s); C. D. Dobbs (1910s); Howlin' Wolf (1910s); George
Robinson; and Jesse Robinson (1910s). Location (2003) of Payne Chapel
AME Church; and First Assembly of God.
Amory (city, 2,030 black residents in 2000). Reported birthplace of
Lucille Anderson (later Lucille Bogan, known as Bessie Jackson-possi-
bly born in Alabama) (1897). Residence of Amory Male Quartet (1928);
Frank Swan; possibly Tom Dickson (1928). Location (2003) of Rose of
Sharon COGIC (Pastor, J. L. Hutton).
Beat 4. Residence of guitarist Octave Moore (1930).
Muldon. Probable location of Gertrude Burnett (1920), evangelist and
mother of Howlin' Wolf.
Prairie. Residence of Booker T. Washington "Bukka" White circa 1930.
Riggins. Compare Richard Riggins.

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Montgomery County
ant farmers.
Duck Hill (town, 472 black residents in 2000). Residence of Willie B.
James (previously). Birthplace of Wheeler Ford (1892) (moved to Tunica
County). Location (2003) of Binford Chapel United Methodist Church
(411 Martin Luther King Jr.); and Mt. Pleasant Missionary Baptist Church
(Highway 404 East).
Kilmichael (town, 443 black residents in 2000). Residence of B. B. King
(previously). Location (2003) of St. Paul Church of God in Christ (Old
Winona Road); and Mount Olive Missionary Baptist Church (1406 B. B.
King Drive).
Winona (city, 2,781 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Lafayette
Leake; Roebuck "Pops" Staples; and L. C. McKinley (1924) (later to
Barton, Marshall County). Residence of The Forrest Family (1990s)
(gospel).
Noxubee County
tenant farmers.
Gholson. Possibly associated with Clara Gholson Brock.
Macon (city, 1,657 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Carey Bell
(1936) (Harrington); Jesse Fortune; Eddie Harrington (Eddy Clearwater),
and the Rev. Houston H. Harrington (1924). Residence of Elijah Brown
(previously, born 1896); Jess Ingram (previously); Charlie West (born
1914); and Houston Harrington (born 1924). Location (2003) of Harrison
Grove (Full Gospel) Baptist Church (Senior Pastor, James D. Lockett).
Oktibbeha County
tenant farmers.
Starkville (city, 6,565 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Tony Hollins
(ca. 1900). Residence of J. H. Miller; J. L. Miller; and Piano Red. Location
(2003) of Porter's House Ministry (Senior Pastor, Eloise Thompson); and
Peter's Rock Temple COGIC (Pastor, Supt. Joseph Hawkins).
Sturgis (town, 12 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Louis Thomas
Watts (Kid Thomas) (1934).

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32 BMR Journal
Panola County
The county had 3,36

tenant farmers.
Big Amos (Patton) was born in the county in 1921 (near Sardis).
Batesville (city, 2,979 black residents in 2000). Residence of Lawrence
Hardy. Location (2003) of Brassell Chapel AME Zion Church.
Como (town, 941 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Jessie Mae
Hemphill; Sid Hemphill; Rosa Lee Hill. Residence of Napoloan [sic]
Strickland (to Senatobia, but by 1991 at Gravel Springs); Bernice Turner;
Othar Turner (by 1991 in Gravel Springs). Burial place (1972) of Fred
McDowell. Residence (1970s) of B. O. McKinney; Annie Mae Collins; and
James Collins.
Crenshaw (town, 655 black residents in 2000-partly in Quitman
County). Residence of Walter Armstrong (piano); Charlie Green (guitar);
and Watt (guitar-L. T. Watts?).
Gravel Springs. Residence of Napoloan [sic] Strickland (earlier at
Senatobia, but by 1991 in Gravel Springs); Bernice Turner; and Othar
Turner (by 1991).
Pleasant Grove. Birthplace of Lester "Big Daddy" Kinsey.
Sarah. Place of death of Felix Duke (presumably the same as Felix
Dukes) (1998).
Sardis (town, 1,150 black residents in 2000). Residence of Miller
McFarland (harmonica); and Big Amos (Patton).
Pontotoc County
ant farmers.
Algoma (town, 110 black residents in 2000). Birthplace (1923) of Leroy
Foster (Baby Face Leroy).
Pontotoc (city, 1,003 black residents in 2000). Location (2003) of Good
Shepherd COGIC (Pastor, Robert D. Fleming Sr.).
Toccopola (town, 1 black resident in 2000). Birthplace of white blues-
man Frank Floyd (Harmonica Frank, or Shankie) (1908).
Prentiss County
ant farmers.
Booneville (city, 1,595 black residents in 2000). Reported birthplace of
Ruby McCoy (1917); Willie George McCoy (1921); and Ethel McCoy
Wooten (1923) (all at East St. Louis by 1930).

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Booneville. Residence of Anilla/Manila McCoy and Ruby McCoy

(1920).
Tippah County
ant farmers.
Tiplersville. Location (2003) of Greater Mount Olive COGIC (Pastor,
Rayfield Cameron).
Walnut (town, 109 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Travis Haddix.
Tishomingo County
The county had 119 black farmers as of 1920, including 50 black tenant
farmers.
Tishomingo. Compare Peg Leg Howell's song "Tishamingo [sic] Blues."
Union County
ant farmers.
New Albany (city, 2,509 black residents in 2000). Residence of Tarry
Williams (1950s); and Reverend Leon Pinson (1990s). Location (2003) of
Golden Gate COGIC (Pastor, Robert L. Hamilton Sr.).
Webster County
ant farmers.
Cumberland. Possible birthplace of John Hollins (1891?).
Eupora (city, 884 black residents in 2000). Residence of Therley Ashford
(born 1910); and Velma Ashford.
Maben (town). See Oktibbeha County.
Winston County
ant farmers.
Louisville (city, 3,675 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Tommy "T.
C." Carter.
Yalobusha County
The county had 1,317 black farmers as of 1920, including 1,069 tenant

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34 BMR Journal
farmers. Residence o
1908).
Oakland (town, 445 black residents in 2000). Location (2003) of
Robinson Chapel AME Church; and The Word of Life Community (Full
Gospel) Baptist Church (Senior Pastor, Samuel Jones).
Torrance. Birthplace of Morris Holt ("Magic Slim") (1937).
Water Valley (town, 1,498 black residents in 2000). Location (2003) of
New Jerusalem COGIC (Pastor, Loyd Walton Jr.).
New York
New York is a state with much blues and gospel recording activity but
relatively fewer performers than, say, Illinois, Pennsylvania, or Texas. It
is more renowned for jazz than for blues and gospel.
New York abolished slavery in 1827, although a few slaves were count-
ed in the state as late as the 1840 Census. Nevertheless, the state has a
long history of substantial black settlement. In 1850, the free colored pop-
ulation (being the whole black population, because the state had no
slaves by 1850) was 49,069, of whom 37,575 (77%) had been born in the
state, 10,366 (21%) in other states, and 705 (1%) in foreign countries; 423
(1%) gave no place of origin. In 1910, there were 116,516 blacks (87.5%) in
the state's urban areas, and only 16,705 (12.5%) in its rural areas.
Of the 166,512 black residents of the state in 1920 who gave their state
of origin, 62,369 (37%) had been born in New York, 31,425 (18%) in
Virginia, 13,326 (8%) in North Carolina, 13,102 (8%) in South Carolina,
and 8,850 (5%) in Georgia. Those from other states contributing more
than 1 percent included 4,272 (2%) from Maryland, 3,657 (2%) from
Florida, 3,537 (2%) from New Jersey, 3,511 (2%) from Pennsylvania, and
2,506 (1%) from the District of Columbia. Alabama, Tennessee,
Massachusetts, Kentucky, and Connecticut all contributed less than 1 per-
cent. Therefore, of the southern-born black residents, the greater numbers
were from states (Virginia and the Carolinas) having strong associations
with tobacco growing.
The following counties fell within the purview of the Appalachian
Regional Commission: Allegany, Broome, Cattaraugus, Chautauqua,
Chemung, Chenango, Cortland, Delaware, Otsego, Schoharie, Schuyler,
Steuben, Tioga, and Tompkins. In 1850, Appalachian counties had the fol-
lowing black populations: Allegany (128), Broome (431), Cattaraugus
(102), Chautauqua (140), Chemung (286), Chenango (264), Cortland (49),
Delaware (201), Otsego (175), Schoharie (478), Schuyler (did not yet
exist), Steuben (371), Tioga (197), and Tompkins (325). Only in Broome
and Schoharie counties did blacks exceed 1 percent of the total popula-

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
tion. By 2000, the black population of the Appalachian counties were:

Allegany (361), Broome (6,575), Cattaraugus (890), Chautauqua (3,051),
Chemung (5,303), Chenango (422), Cortland (416), Delaware (568),
Otsego (1,079), Schoharie (403), Schuyler (279), Steuben (1,347), Tioga
(282), and Tompkins (3,508).
The most significant centers of black population in Appalachian New
York in 2000 were Elmira (city, 4,039 black residents), Binghamton (3,987),
Ithaca (city, 1,965), Union (1,377), Jamestown (1,075), Southport (758),
Dunkirk (city, 665), Portland (663), Vestal (580), Ithaca (town, 533), Olean
(532), and Oneonta (city, 515). Less significant centers of black
Appalachians included Endicott (489 black residents), Johnson City (480),
Lansing (town, 430), Corning (308), Oneonta (town, 307), Pomfret (305),
Cortland (292), Dickinson (224), Bath (217), Hornell (215), and Dryden
(201).
Broome County
Binghamton. Location (2001) of Mt. Sinai COGIC (Pastor, Arthur W.

Jones Jr.).
Cattaraugus County
Ellicottville. Site of the Winter Blues Festival (January). Location of

Balloons nightclub (2003); Foster's nightclub; Gin Mill nightclub; and
Lake Effect Saloon (Kissing Bridge ski area).
Irving. Site of Eagles Nest Blues Festival (August).
Olean. Base of the Mojo Hand Blues Band (white) (2003).
Chautauqua County
Fredonia (109 blacks in 2000). Location of Coyle's Pub (2003); and New
York, New York nightclub.
Chemung County
Elmira. Location (2001) of All Saints Home COGIC (Pastor, Dr. Cephus
McGhee Jr.); and Faith Temple Community COGIC (Pastor, Leo
Hughey).
Schoharie County
Jefferson. Residence of The Hell Hounds (white).

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36 BMR Journal
Steuben County
Corning (city and

(August).
Tompkins County
Ithaca. Reported home (1975), of pianist Ezekiel Sanders. Location

(2001) of Our Lord's Temple COGIC (Pastor, Calvin F. Christian).
North Carolina
North Carolina is often associated primarily with Blind Boy Fuller, but
despite his enormous popularity and influence, he was a relative late-
comer.
In 1850, the state had a white population of 553,028. Th

27,463 free colored residents and 288,548 slaves, makin
869,039. The Appalachian counties with the largest numb
1850 were Rutherford (2,905), Davie (2,171), Burke (2,132
Stokes (1,793), Buncombe (1,717), Forsyth (1,353), Mc
Caldwell (1,203), Wilkes (1,142), Henderson (924), Alexander (543),
Haywood (418), Yancey (346), Cherokee (337), and Watauga (129).
The major Appalachian urban slave centers in 1850 included
Morgantown (Burke County; 298 slaves), Rutherfordton (Rutherford
County; 168), Asheville (Buncombe County; 82), and Rockford (Surry
County; 77).
On average, in 1850, there were almost ten slaves in Appalachian coun-
ties for each free colored person, but the ratio was as high as twenty-six
to one in Davie County and twenty-five to one in Henderson County.
Conversely, it was as low as three to one in Cherokee County. Based on
the Mance Index, racial conditions in 1850 in the Appalachian region
were apparently harshest, in descending order, in Davie, Buncombe,
Henderson, Rutherford, Burke, Haywood, Stokes, and Caldwell counties.
It is in those counties where the development of distinctively black
Appalachian blues or gospel music might have been expected to occur.
However, those are also the Appalachian counties most likely to lose
black population by outmigration.
The major cotton counties in 1850 included the Appalachian county of
Surry (21,369 bales). Tobacco production in 1919 exceeded 5 million
pounds in Stokes and Surry counties.
Of 763,316 black residents of the state who gave their place of origin in
the 1920 Census, 714,449 (93.6%) had been born in the state. The other
main states of origin were 33,806 (4.4%) from South Carolina, 7,769 (1%)

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
from Virginia, and 2,471 (0.3%) from Georgia, with no other state exceed-
ing 0.1 percent.
In the 1920 census, the state had 763,407 black residents, with Forsyth
(26,121) the only Appalachian county of note. By 1990, there were 66,102
black residents in Forsyth County.
Counties falling within the operations of the Appalachian Regional
Commission as of 2003 were Alexander, Alleghany, Ashe, Avery,
Buncombe, Burke, Caldwell, Cherokee, Clay, Davie, Forsyth, Graham,
Haywood, Henderson, Jackson, McDowell, Macon, Madison, Mitchell,
Polk, Rutherford, Stokes, Surry, Swain, Transylvania, Watauga, Wilkes,
Yadkin, and Yancey.
From somewhere in the state came, or reportedly (or possibly) came,
Margaret W. Allison; The Angelic Gospel Singers; the Rev. F. C. Barnes
(1980s); The Bell Tones; Ted Bogan (1929-to Chicago); Charles Boyer;
Irving "Skinny" Brown (1986); the Rev. Janice Brown (1980s); The
Carolina Blazers; The Carolina Carolers; The Carolina Cotton Pickers;
Carolina Slim (also as North Carolina Slim); Carolina Washboard Trio (a
Walter Taylor group); Alonzo Eubanks; Case Earl Gilmore (to Virginia);
Ella Mae Norris; Steele Smith; Tampa Kid; and "Tiny" (alto sax-to
Arkansas).
Alleghany County
Sparta (town). Residence of gospel singers Juanita Bryan and Carol

Choate (2000); and pianist Diane Bryan (2000).
Buncombe County
Birthplace of Roberta Flack (1937).

Asheville (city, 12,219 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Gus Gillum.
Place of death of Leslie Riddle (alias Esley Riddle) (1979). Residence of
Paul G. Babelay (2003). Location (2001) of Sycamore Temple COGIC
(Pastor, Samuel Payne).
Black Mountain (town, 471 blacks in 2000). Residence of Dave Foraker
(white blues fiddler) (2003).
Weaverville. Residence of Charles Malette Beattie (2003).
Burke County
Morganton (city, 2,208 black residents in 2000). Residence of Etta Reid

Baker (1940s-1997); Lee Baker (1956; died 1967); Cora Phillips (1992);
and Johnny Bristol.

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38 BMR Journal
Caldwell County
Collettsville. Birth
Elizabeth "Babe"
Morganton in 194
Phillips (also know
Gamewell. Reside
Phillips.
Johns River (township). Residence of Boone Reid (1930); Cora Reid; and
Etta Reid.
Lenoir (city, 2,470 black residents in 2000). Residence of Quincy A.
Phillips (age 20) and Theophalus Phillips (age 30) (also known as
Theopolis Phillips) (1930).
Forsyth County
Salem Chapel (south of, and adjacent to, Walnut Cove, Stokes County).
Residence of Preston Sylvester Fulp (1930).
Winston-Salem (city, 68,924 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Curtis
Hairston. Place of death of Willa Mae Buckner (2000); Prophet (1992); and
Preston Fulp (1993). Residence of Big Del (1972); Horace "The Carolina
Kid" Bridges; The Gospel Swans; Guitar Gabriel; Otis King (gospel);
Clarence Matthews; Luther "Captain Luke" Mayer (from 1940); Jahue
Rorie; James "Guitar Slim" Stephens (deceased); The Vibrations; Sherman
Williamson and The Rhapsolians; Dennis Williams (moved by 2003 to
Oklahoma); and Mighty Wonders of Winston-Salem. Location (2001) of
Greater Faith Chapel COGIC (Pastor, Supt. John C. McClurkin Sr.).
Henderson County
Hendersonville (1,307 black residents in 2000). Location (2001) of New

Life COGIC (Pastor, Myron Henderson Sr.).
Polk County
Residence of Philip Anderson (Library of Congress, 1935--compare

Phil Anderson, white, age 26, Johnston County, 1930); Robert Dennis
(recorded 1980; born ca. 1914 in Half Moon, Alachua County, Florida);
Willie Gillard (recorded 1980; born 1910 in Charleston, South Carolina).
Tryon (town, 370 blacks in 2000). Birthplace of Nina Simone.
Stokes County
Peters Creek. Residence of Posy Foddrell (1900).

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Pinnacle. Location of Music Maker Relief Foundation, Inc. (1994-2000 at

least) (Tim and Denise Duffy, and Mark Levinson).
Walnut Cove (town, 280 black residents in 2000). Residence of Arthur
Anderson (1937); the Bailey Brothers; Wheeler Baker; and Preston Fulp.
Surry County
Mt. Airy. Birthplace of Billy Lamont.
Transylvania County
Brevard (city, 783 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Jackie "Moms"

Mabley (born Loretta Mary Aiken) (1897). Location (2001) of Open Bible
COGIC (Pastor, Larry Harris).
Watauga County
Beaver Dam. Residence (1900) and presumed birthplace (1892) of David

A. "Dave" Thompson, an influence on Clarence Ashley and Frank
Proffitt.
Boone (town, 461 black residents in 2000). Residence of Pilgrim Singers
(1930s); and Prymrolle Quartet. Location of Boone Krimmer Brethern
Mennonite Church (Church St.).
Yancey County
Burnsville. Birthplace of Leslie Riddle (alias Lesley Riddle) (1905).

Residence (2000) of T-Bone (R&B group).
Ohio
Ohio has mainly been the scene of urban blues and gospel activity; it
has had a strong ragtime and jazz scene and relatively little blues and
gospel activity.
Cincinnati was the early nucleus of black life, even when most of the
population was rural. Hamilton County (around Cincinnati) had 3,600
free colored residents in 1850, followed by Ross County (Chillicothe) with
1,906, Franklin County (Columbus) with 1,607, and Gallia County
(Gallipolis) with 1,198. In 1850, there were 25,279 free colored residents in
the state, or just over 1 percent of the total population of 1,980,329. Only
in Gallia, Pike, and Ross counties did blacks comprise more than 5 per-
cent of the population. The counties of Belmont, Brown, Champaign,
Clinton, Fayette, Franklin, Greene, Hamilton, Highland, Jackson,

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40 BMR Journal
Jefferson, Lawrenc
2 percent or more b
Of the state's 185,2
been born in the s
Alabama (17,588 or
7%), Tennessee (12
Carolina (5,051 or
(3,246 or over 1%),
sources.
Counties falling with the purview of the App

Commission as of 2002 were Adams, Athens, Belmon
Clermont, Columbiana, Coshocton, Gallia, Guernsey, Harrison,
Highland, Hocking, Holmes, Jackson, Jefferson, Lawrence, Meigs,
Monroe, Morgan, Muskingum, Noble, Perry, Pike, Ross, Scioto,
Tuscarawas, Vinton, and Washington. As of 1850, the Appalachian coun-
ties had black (free colored) populations as follows: Adams (55), Athens
(106), Belmont (778), Brown (863), Carroll (52), Clermont (412),
Columbiana (182), Coshocton (44), Gallia (1,198), Guernsey (168),
Harrison (287), Highland (896), Hocking (117), Holmes (5), Jackson (391),
Jefferson (665), Lawrence (326), Meigs (52), Monroe (69), Morgan (90),
Muskingum (631), Noble (did not yet exist), Perry (29), Pike (618), Ross
(1,906), Scioto (211), Tuscarawas (89), Vinton (107), and Washington (390).
Ohio was the birthplace of Bob King (1906), Zenas "Daddy" Sears
(1913), Gay Crosse (1916), and the Rev. Elmore Morris Jr. (1933).
Jefferson County
The county had a black population of 2,063 in 1920; 4,726 in 1995.

Steubenville. Location (2001) of Emmanuel COGIC (Pastor, Supt. James
Harris).
Lawrence County

Ironton. Possible location of Max Bailey (1947).
Ross County

Chillicothe. Birthplace of Nancy Wilson (1937). Residence of Betty
Harris.

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Scioto County

Portsmouth. Birthplace of Stuff Smith (1909).
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania has been an especially important gospel state and an

interesting blues state. The state is celebrated in "Pennsylvania Woman
Blues," performed by Six Cylinder Smith (thought to be Blind Joel
Taggart). Bertha Idaho's "Down on Pennsylvania Avenue" refers to the
street of that name in Baltimore, Maryland. Leecan and Cooksey record-
ed "Broad Street Blues," which refers to the renowned street in
Philadelphia.
More than 81 percent of the state's area was within the ambit of the
Appalachian Regional Commission as of 2003, excluding only the south-
eastern comer of the state. The following counties fell within the purview
of the commission: Allegheny, Armstrong, Beaver, Bedford, Blair,
Bradford, Butler, Cambria, Cameron, Carbon, Centre, Clarion, Clearfield,
Clinton, Columbia, Crawford, Elk, Erie, Fayette, Forest, Fulton, Greene,
Huntingdon, Indiana, Jefferson, Juniata, Lackawanna, Lawrence,
Luzerne, Lycoming, McKean, Mercer, Mifflin, Monroe, Montour,
Northumberland, Perry, Pike, Potter, Schuylkill, Snyder, Somerset,
Sullivan, Susquehanna, Tioga, Union, Venango, Warren, Washington,
Wayne, Westmoreland, and Wyoming.
The counties covered by the Appalachian Regional Commission had
the following populations of black (free colored) persons as of 1850:
Allegheny (3,431), Armstrong (129), Beaver (245), Bedford (415), Blair
(260), Bradford (197), Butler (84), Cambria (128), Cameron (did not yet
exist), Carbon (30), Centre (243), Clarion (117), Clearfield (104), Clinton
(152), Columbia (103), Crawford (99), Elk (2), Erie (149), Fayette (1,669),
Forest (did not yet exist), Fulton (93), Greene (476), Huntingdon (335),
Indiana (254), Jefferson (94), Juniata (131), Lackawanna (did not yet exist),
Lawrence (132), Luzerne (373), Lycoming (367), McKean (36), Mercer
(291), Mifflin (410), Monroe (100), Montour (84), Northumberland (92),
Perry (135), Pike (189), Potter (6), Schuylkill (408), Snyder (did not yet
exist), Somerset (99), Sullivan (11), Susquehanna (160), Tioga (98), Union
(101), Venango (40), Warren (78), Washington (1,559), Wayne (49),
Westmoreland (446), and Wyoming (5).
The highest percentages of blacks in the population of the Appalachian
area in 1850 were in Fayette County (over 4%), Washington and Pike
counties (over 3%), Mifflin, Allegheny, and Greene counties (over 2%),

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
42 BMR Journal
and Bedford Count

centrated in 1850
flows north from
Washington, and A
(Little) Juniata and
Mountain section (M
dle Delaware River
County). As of 1850
state, and 15,163 (2
born in foreign cou
of birth. As of 1920
senting 3.26 percen
In 1920, of the 281,
100,500 (35.7%) had
23,771 in Maryland,
South Carolina, and
Delaware, 5,370 in F
Columbia, 3,445 in T
in Kentucky, 1,985
By 1990, there wer
11,881,643, or 9.17
1,224,612 black resi
of 12,281,054, or 9.
The Pennsylvania
the state.
Allegheny County
Braddock (borough
Calvary AME Churc
Clairton (city). Loc
Duquesne (city). Bir
Elizabeth (township
Fifth Ave.).
Homestead (boro
COGIC (Pastor, Bern
Tenth Ave.).
McKeesport (city).
St.; Pastor, Bishop
Rose St.); and Saint
North Braddock (
(609-611 Jones Ave.

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Pittsburgh (city). Celebrated in Martha Copeland's "Wylie Avenue

Blues" (1927). Birthplace of blues scholar Mack McCormick (1930).
Possible place of death of the Rev. Edward Clayborn (1978). Residence of
the Rev. Edward Clayborn (1920); George Benson; Harold Betters (1997);
The Blues Burners (1991); The Blues Orphans (1991); David Budway
(1991); Maureen Budway (1991); Alex Channey; Chismo Charles (1991);
Martha Copeland; Cryin' John; Willie Durant; Billy Eckstine; Chuck
Edwards (1960s); Clare Fisher; Lonnie Fisher; J. Gaitwood (of The
Smoothtones, 1955); Errol Garner (deceased); Big John Greer (1950s); Earl
Hines (deceased); Elder Nat Hollis; George Hornsby; Sam Hurt; Eddie
Jefferson (deceased); Nyles Jones (alias Robert Jones-to Carolina); Gertie
Long; Louisiana Red (to Germany); Stumpy Joe McAllister; Delsey
McKay (1992); Ezell Monk; Harry Parks; Jimmy Ponder (1991 and 1997);
Billy Price and the Swingtime Five (1991); Lloyd "Fat Man" Smith (1956);
The Smoothtones (1955); Sandy Staley (1991); Dakota Staton; Henry Tabb
(deceased); James "Blood" Ulmer (1960s); and Jon Walton. Location
(1998) of Get Hop Records and Distribution. Location (2001) of Bethany
COGIC (110 Wooster St.); Damascus COGIC (524 East North Ave.; Pastor,
Manuel Berry); Church of God in Christ (615 Taft Ave.); Faith Center
COGIC (44 Mayflower St.; Pastor, Elijah Thomas Jr.); First COGIC (2502
Center Ave.; Pastor, Bishop James Miles Foster); Grace Tabernacle COGIC
(Pastor, Clayton Walker Jr.); Greater Faith Tabernacle COGIC (550 North
Homewood Ave.; Pastor, Billy Terry); Greater Tabernacle COGIC (8304
Frankstown Ave.); Morningside COGIC (5173 Dearborn St.); Mt. Olive
COGIC (7239 Mount Carmel Rd.); Northside Institutional COGIC
(Pastor, Bishop Eugene M. Thorpe); Pentecostal Temple COGIC (6300
East Liberty); Refuge COGIC (167 Fortieth St.); (2001) Christ Missionary
Baptist Church (344 Hale St.); Rodman Street Missionary Baptist Church
(6111 Rodman St.; Pastor, Delano R. Paige); (2001) Allen Chapel AME
Church (1810 Fulton St.); Avery Memorial AME Church (3403 California
Ave.); Bethel AME Church (2720 Webster Ave.); Brown Chapel AME
Church (1400 Boyle St); Christian Chapel AME Church (10 Ridgeview
St.); Homewood AME Church (724 North Homewood Ave.); New Life
AME Church (8320 Frankstown Rd.); Saint Mark AME Church (1409
Montier St.); Saint Mark AME Zion Church (807 Ross Ave.); Trinity AME
Zion Church (3548 Centralia St.); Trinity AME Church (2528 Mahon St.);
Trinity AME Church (2700 Wylie Ave.); Wesley Center AME Zion Church
(2701 Centre Ave.); John Wesley AME Zion Church (594 Herron Ave.);
and West End AME. Zion Church (623 South Main St.). Pittsburgh's labels
included: Bogus Records (1998); and Jem (1955).
Sewickley (borough). Location (2001) of Saint Matthew's AME Zion
Church (345 Thorn St.).

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
44 BMR Journal
Beaver County
Aliquippa (city). Lo
Kiehl St.; Pastor, M
Holy Temple COGIC;
Armstead); Open Doo
Church (1210 Sheffi
Emmanuel AME Zion
Beaver. Location (200
Beaver Falls (city).
Angeles-deceased)
Ninth Ave.; Pastor,
Leetsdale. Location (
New Brighton (bor
Church (1120 Sixth A
Rochester (boroug
Midland, Washington
Blair County
Altoona (city). Locat

St.).
Centre County
State College (borough). Residence of the Triple A Blues Band (2001).

Location of Zeno's (club).
Crawford County
Meadville (city). Location of Say Mo' Music (1998).
Erie County
Erie (city). Residence of the Erie Harmonizers. Location (2001) of

Superior Emmanuel COGIC (826 West Eighteenth St.; Pastor, Willie
Damper).
Fayette County
Connellsville (city). Location (2003) of Payne AME Church.

McClellandsville. Location (2003) of Mallory Chapel AME Church.
Uniontown (city). Location (2001-2003) of Uniontown COGIC (55 Butler
St.; Pastor, Frank J. Jacobs); John Wesley AME Zion Church (349 East
Main St.); and Saint Paul AME Church (187 Morgantown St.).

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
Huntingdon County
Mount Union (borough). Residence (2001) of Diane McDaniel. Location

(2001) of Tabernacle Church of God (202 West Walnut St.); Mt. Hope
Missionary Baptist Church (3 West Chestnut St.); and Bethel AME Church
(16 West Grant St.).
Indiana County
Homer City. Location (2001) of Victory Baptist Church (139 East Wiley
St.).
Indiana (borough). Location (2001) of Faith Temple COGIC (625 Knox
St.; Pastor, Stanford A. Webb Jr.).
Lackawanna County
Clarks Summit. Residence (2001) of Teddy Young and The Aces.

Scranton. Location (1998) of Blues Street label. Location (2001) of Bethel
AME Church (716 North Washington Ave.).
Lawrence County
New Castle (city). Location (2001) of Bible Way COGIC (125 North
Crawford St.; Pastor, John Young III); Prayer Chapel COGIC (210 Pearson
St.); Bethel AME Church (312 Green St.); and Saint Luke AME Zion
Church (603 Harbor St.).
Luzerne County
Hazleton/West Hazleton. Location of Roads End (club) (2001).

North Wilkes-Barre. Location of Arco label (1950).
Pittston. Residence of Teddy Young and The Aces (2001).
Plains. Location of Riverstreet Jazz Caf6 (club) (2001).
Wilkes-Barre (city). Location (2001) of Bethel AME Church (500 South
Franklin St.).
Lycoming County
Hughesville. Location (1990 to at least 2001) of Billtown Blues

Association Inc. (http://www.billtownblues.org).
Mercer County
Farrell (city). Location (2001) of Greater Mount Zion COGIC (1825

Roemer).

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
46 BMR Journal
Sharon (city). Loc

Connelly).
Mifflin County
Lewistown (borough). Location (2001) of Bethel AME Church (23 Juniata

St.).
Monroe County
Saylorsburg. Location of Sprinkle label (1998).
Pike County
Milford. Location of No Mo Do Records (1998). Location of the Water

Wheel (club) (2001).
Snyder County
Selinsgrove (borough). Residence of Greg Burgess (2001).
Venango County
Franklin (city). Location of Process Music.
Washington County
Donora (borough, 14.8% black, in 2000). Location (2001) of Whole Truth

COGIC (1004 McKean Ave.; Pastor, Elder Maurice Bernard Wade Sr.-
began in 1953 at 544 Meldon Ave); and Quinn Chapel AME Church (317
First St.).
Lawrence. Location (1973) of St. John Baptist Church.
Midland. Location (2001) of Faith Temple COGIC (353 Midland Ave.;
Pastor, Oshea Vreen Sr.-see Rochester, Beaver County).
Westmoreland County
Derry. Location (2001) of Congregational COGIC (Pastor, A. B.

Johnson).
Monessen (city). Location (2001) of Gate of Heaven COGIC (644 Reed
Ave. or 688 McKee St.; Pastor, William C. Bass).
Trafford. Location (1960s-2001) of Mount Bethel Baptist Church (303
Brinton Ave.).

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South Carolina
South Carolina has been a most important state for both blues an
gospel music. The first English settlement was in 1670 at Albemarle Poin
which by 1680 had transferred to nearby Charleston. In contrast to the
mainly English settlement of the low country, people of Scottish and Iris
descent were the major white settlers in the upcountry areas.
As of 1850, the state had 668,507 people, of whom 384,984 (57.56%
were slaves and 8,960 (1.34%) were free colored. Charleston's population
was 42,985 in 1850, of whom 19,532 were slaves and 3,441 free colored.
The next largest town was Columbia, with 6,060 people, of whom 2,680
were slaves and 196 free colored. Greenville had 1,305, just under half o
whom were black, and Spartanburg had 1,176, with a black majority.
As of 1920, black populations in upcountry and fall line countie
included 27,392 in Spartanburg County, 26,312 in Anderson County, and
23,461 in Greenville County. By 2000, there were 1,200,901 black (or part
ly black) residents in the state, including 70,906 in Greenville County, an
53,651 in Spartanburg County.
Counties falling within the ambit of the Appalachian Regiona
Commission as of 2003 were Anderson, Cherokee, Greenville, Oconee,
Pickens, and Spartanburg. Oconee County was formed from Picken
County in 1868. Cherokee County was formed in 1897 from parts o
Spartanburg, Union, and York counties.
From somewhere in the state came, or reportedly (or possibly) came,
the following: Wilson Baker (Dixie Hummingbirds); Banks Bentley Blake
and Vosburg; Brooks Berry; Black Billy Sunday (Calvin P. Dixon-New
Orleans?); Bright Moon Quartet; Brown Brothers Jubilee Quartet; Jimm
Bryant (Dixie Hummingbirds); The Carolina Blazers; The Carolin
Cotton Pickers; Carolina Washboard Trio (a Walter Taylor group); Mary
Dixon; Uncle Joe Dobson; Eagle Jubilee Four; Eugene Foster (Detro
Piano Fats-born 1928); William Francis; Lacey Gibson (born 1936
Gospel Light Jubilee Singers; Griff; Robert Higgins; the Rev. A. G. Holly
James Jamerson (Funk Brothers); Hezekiah Jenkins (born ca. 1889); Bobby
King (born 1943) (with Terry Evans); Shelly Magee and Blues DeVille
Frank Martin (born ca. 1854); Earl McDonald (to Louisville, Kentucky, at
age 2); Warren Milton (promoter-born 1926); Sam Montgomery; Moor
Spiritual Singers; Palmetto Jazz Quartette (recorded 1921); Seven Star
Quartette; Brad Lee Sexton (born 1947; died New Paltz, New York, 1995)
Silvertone Jubilee Quartette; Tommy "Dr. Jive" Smalls (?); Albert Smith
(age 84 in 1997); Sonny Boy and Lonnie; The South Carolina Quartett
(1928); Richard Sowell (Kentucky?); Spark Plug Smith; Sweet Betty
Sweet Georgia Brown (born ca. 1948-to New York); Blind Joe Taggar

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
48 BMR Journal
(also Blind Percy?)

Gang-born 1953);
1900); Herbert "Kin
Jimmy Williams (
The state is celebra
ed 1930).
Anderson County
Anderson (city, 8
Anderson (but see S
of Bethel AME Chu
Denver Communi
Church.
Pendleton (town, 981 black residents in 2000). Location of Mt. Sinai
Baptist Church.
Starr. Birthplace of Kip Anderson (1945).
Williamston (town, 670 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Blue
Scotty (Milford Scott) (1937).
Cherokee County
Blacksburg (town, 443 black residents in 2000). Location of Hopewell

Presbyterian Church; (1995) All-Male Chorus of Blacksburg (gospel).
Draytonville Township. Residence of Sharon Goudlock (also spelled
Sharron Gowdlock) (1930).
Gaffney (city, 5,730 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of John Acey
(Goudelock) (1925).
Greenville County
Fountain Inn (city, 1,824 black residents in 2000--partly in Laurens

County). Birthplace of dancer Clayton "Peg Leg" Bates (1907).
Greenville (city, 19,008 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Roosevelt
"Baby" Brooks (1905); Josh White Sr. (1914); William "Cat" Anderson
(1916; died Norwalk, California, 1981); James Davis (1916) (Dixie
Hummingbirds); Mack Arnold; producer Chuck Jackson (1945) (of The
Independents fame); Moses Dillard (1946; died Nashville, Tennessee,
1993); Ann Sexton (1950); and Peabo Bryson (1951). Place of death of
George Walker (1928); Willie Walker (1895-1933); and dancer Clayton
"Peg Leg" Bates (1998). Residence of Will Bonds (1913); Roosevelt "Baby"
Brooks; Sam Brooks; Gary Davis (1913); George Walker (1911 onward);
Blind Joe Walker (1911 onward); Willie Walker (1911 to 1933); Baby Tate

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(ca. 1926); Gary Davis (1920) (207 Oscar St.); Roosevelt Brooks (1930) (109
Cagle St.); Samuel Brooks (103A Glover St.); Willie Walker (121 Glover
St.); Al Freeman and The Upsetters (1965); Tex-Town Display (1970s);
Cornell Blakely; Sister O. M. Terrell; Annie Griggs (1997); and Cootie
Stark. Location of Mount Sinai Baptist Church; (2003) Allen Temple AME
Church (109 Green Ave.); (2003) New Harvest Ministries COGIC (Pastor,
Carl McCluney); and New Jerusalem COGIC (Pastor, Troy Jarvis).
Greenville's music publishers included Rencoll Music (1974). Greenville's
record labels included Pioneer (?).
Greer (city). Black population mainly in Spartanburg County.
Paris Mountain (township). location (1920) and possible birthplace of
Luther Magby.
Oconee County
Oconee County. Birthplace of white "talking blues" exponent

Christopher Allen "Chris" Bouchillon (1893; died West Palm Beach,
Florida, 1968); and J. C. Staggers (to Georgia). Residence of Hansell
Staggers; and Jessie Godine.
Seneca (city; 2,584 black residents in 2000). Residence of J. D. Benson (at
least 1991 to 1998) (harmonica; born ca. 1915).
Walhalla (city, 263 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Steve Mancha
(1945); and Clyde Wilson (1945) (100 Proof Aged in Soul).
Pickens County
Clemson (city, 1,359 black residents in 2000). Residence of Sam Brooks.

Place of death of Sam Brooks (1966). Recording location of Phil Butler
(1939); William Grant (1939); Mary Lee (1939); Thomas Trimmer (1939);
and Brady Walker (1939). Location of Little John's Club (African-
American musical venue).
Easley (city, 2,096 black residents in 2000). Residence of the Jackson
Brothers (gospel) (1950s onward, to at least 1999).
Spartanburg County
Chesnee (city, 276 black residents in 2000). Location of Fairview

Christian Methodist Episcopal Church (2050 Little Africa Rd.).
Drayton. Burial place of Pink Anderson.
Moore. Place of death of Toy T. Caldwell Jr. (1993).
Spartanburg (city, 19,658 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Clara
Smith (ca. 1894) (Columbia label-died Detroit in 1935); Roland Martin
(ca. 1894); Blind Gussie Nesbitt (1906); Ted Bogan (1910); William Bobo

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
50 BMR Journal
(1915) (Dixie Humm

Ira Tucker (1925) (
Prysock (1924) (to
(1929) (of Sensatio
Alvin "Little Pink
(1961). Residence of
Pink Anderson (fro
(fiddle); Simeon "S
1945); Keg Shorty
"Chilly Willy" Wil
Blowers; Russ Fiske
Arthur Prysock;
(1930; age 35); Alvin
ing June Cheeks
Philadelphia); Cor
Brooks (1970); Sam
Julius "June" Chee
Tate (1926 onward)
New Legacy Duo (
Location of Mt. Sin
North Church St.).
Tennessee
Tennessee has had a range of prominent blues and gospel performer

but with an emphasis on the western and central parts of the state.
The state is mentioned in numerous titles, including "When I Dream o
Old Tennessee Blues" (Josie Miles, 1922); "Memphis, Tennessee" (Le
Wilson, 1922; and Ethel Ridley, 1923); "Tennessee Blues" (Viola Bartlett
1925); "State of Tennessee Blues" (Memphis Jug Band, 1927); "Tennesse
Blues" (Leroy Carr, 1928); "I'm Going Back to Tennessee" (Leroy Car
1929); "Down in Tennessee" (Lonnie Clark, 1929); "Tennessee Peache
(Peetie Wheatstraw, 1930); "Gonna Beat It Back to Tennessee" (Monk
Joe, 1935); "Nashville, Tennessee" (Washboard Sam, 1936); "Tenness
Dog" (Jimmie Strothers and Joe Lee, 1936); "Easin' Back to Tenness
(Sleepy John Estes, 1937); "Tennessee Woman Blues" (Johnny Shin
1946); and "Tennessee Woman" (Fenton Robinson, 1958).
The state has lent its name to performers such as "Tennessee" (possibl
Lee Crisp); another "Tennessee" (female); The Tennessee Chocol
Drops (Armstrong, Martin, Martin; also billed as The Tennessee Tr
The Tennessee Gabriel (a pseudonym for Brownie McGhee); T

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
Tennessee Shakers (possibly the Mississippi Blacksnakes); and The

Tennessee Trio (alias Tennessee Chocolate Drops).
In the 1850 Census, the state had a population of 1,002,717, of which
756,836 (75.5%) were white, 6,422 were free colored, and 239,459 were
slaves. There were 40,277 slaves in the Appalachian region, with the
biggest concentrations in Smith, Franklin, and Knox counties. In 1850,
Smith County was among the main tobacco-producing counties.
The only Appalachian counties growing more than two thousand bales
of cotton in 1919 were Bradley, McMinn, and Polk, each with less than 1
percent of the state's output. Sweet potato production in 1919 was sub-
stantial in Hamilton and Knox counties. Counties in which more than 70
percent of farmland was "improved" in 1919 included Greene, Hamblen
Jefferson, and Washington. Those Appalachian counties where tobac
was commercially significant (over 200,000 pounds produced) include
Clay, Cocke, Coffee, Franklin, Greene, Jackson, Macon, Monroe, Putnam
Smith, and Washington. Of these, Greene produced more than 5 million
pounds, Macon almost 5 million, Smith over 3 million, Washington over
2 million and Jackson 1 million pounds.
In 1920, there were 252,774 farms in the state, of which black farmers
operated 38,182 (15.1%). Of the black farmers, 28,289 (74.1%) were tenan
farmers. By contrast, only 35.2% of white farmers were tenants.
Of those 451,647 black residents of the state who gave their state of or
gin in 1920, 365,769 (81.0%) had been born in the state, 34,962 (7.7%) cam
from Mississippi, 12,660 (2.8%) from Alabama, and 12,225 (2.7%) from
Georgia. Kentucky and Arkansas each supplied about 1 percent of th
black population. Both the 1850 and 1920 figures support the notion tha
a distinctive musical style could have arisen in the state, augmented by
migrants from adjacent states.
By 1920, the main Appalachian counties with large black populations
were Hamilton County (27,120) and Knox County (13,310). By 1990, ther
were 54,477 black residents in Hamilton County and 29,603 in Knox
County.
Counties falling within the area of the Appalachian Regional
Commission as of 2003 were Anderson, Bledsoe, Blount, Bradley,
Campbell, Cannon, Carter, Claiborne, Clay, Cocke, Coffee, Cumberland,
De Kalb, Fentress, Franklin, Grainger, Greene, Grundy, Hamblen,
Hamilton, Hancock, Hawkins, Jackson, Jefferson, Johnson, Knox,
Loudon, Macon, Marion, McMinn, Meigs, Monroe, Morgan, Overton,
Pickett, Polk, Putnam, Rhea, Roane, Scott, Sequatchie, Sevier, Smith,
Sullivan, Unicoi, Union, Van Buren, Warren, Washington, and White.
People or groups who apparently hailed from Tennessee included King
Mutt and His Tennessee Thumpers (1929); Horace George; John "Black

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
52 BMR Journal
Sampson" Gibson; Ro
Joe Lee; Charles Tyu
born in the state in
Sahib Shihab (born E
Blount County
Maryville (city, 68
McGhee (1930s).
Bradley County
Charleston (city, 14
(Benjamin Lattimore
Cleveland (city, 2,60
(of The Southernaire
Campbell County
La Follette (43 black

(1920 and 1930).
Clay County
Free Hill (near Celin
Cocke County
Jonestown (a histo
referred to in both
Jug Stompers' "J
Jonestown in Giles
County, Mississippi.
Coffee County
Tullahoma (city, 1,2

American folksong s
Franklin County
Cowan (city, 167 bla

Band (2001) (http://
Location (2001) of N

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Decherd (city, 325 black residents in 2000). Location (2001) of House of

Prayer COGIC.
Winchester (city, 905 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of the Rev. F. W.
McGee (1890).
Hamblen County
Morristown (city, 1,870 black residents in 2000). Location (2001) of Faith

Temple Church of God in Christ (Pastor, Supt. Willie Allen).
Hamilton County
Brown's Ferry. Celebrated in "Brown's Ferry Blues" by The Delmore

Brothers and "Brown Ferry Blues" by Tin-Ear Tanner.
Chattanooga (city, 56,086 black residents in 2000). Celebrated in
"Chattanooga Blues" (performed by Mary H. Bradford, 1923, and Ida
Cox, 1923); in Judson Coleman's song, "Goin' to Chattanooga" (20th
Century 20-11, a "Kansas City Blues" variant); in Tin-Ear Tanner's
"Brown Ferry Blues" (Bel-Tone 276, recorded by early 1946, and dealing
with nearby Brown's Ferry); and by Clyde Bernhardt in "Chattanooga"
(Blue Note BN 1203, recorded on October 6, 1949). Birthplace of Lovie
Austin (Cora Calhoun) (1887); Bessie Smith (1894); Valaida Snow (1903);
Alvaida Snow; Bill Oldham (1909); Lovie Lee (Eddie Lee Watson) (1909);
Jimmy Blanton (1918); Bill Evans (alias Yusef Lateef) (1920; left in 1925);
Tiny Kennedy (1925); Wilfred Middlebrooks (to Los Angeles by 1973);
Arthur Brooks; Sam Gooden (1939); Richard Brooks (1940); Fred Cash
(1940); Clyde Stubblefield (1943); and Bennie Wallace (1946). Possible
birthplace of John T. Smith (ca. 1920); and Le Bron Scott. Residence of
Judson Coleman (before 1946) (to New York); Tommy Braden (before
1951) (to Chicago by 1951); Tiny Kennedy (1951); Joe Doucett (before
1972); Nat Willis (1969); Houston Harmony Aires (before 1972); and Ed
Huey ([email protected]) (2001). Possible location of Andrew Baxter
and Jim Baxter (from nearby Gordon County, Georgia); Billy Bird; and
Marie Pryce (Soul Beat). Location (2001) of Living Word Ministries
COGIC (Pastor, Darwin Randolph); McDowell Memorial COGIC (Pastor,
Supt. C. H. Douglas); Power House Ministries COGIC; Temple of Faith
COGIC (Pastor, Bishop Felton M. Smith Jr.); Temple of Faith COGIC; True
Light COGIC (Pastor, Willie Jefferson); United Tabernacle COGIC (Pastor,
Ronnie Z. Rowe Sr.); (2001) Warren Chapel AME Church (the Rev.
Charlene N. Boone); Bethel AME Church (the Rev. Michael Broadnax); St.
Paul AME Church (the Rev. George L. Byrd); Brown's Temple AME (the
Rev. Anthony Carter); Bethel AME Church (the Rev. Freeman Cooper);
Solomon Chapel AME Church (the Rev. Elvy D. Davis); Quinn Chapel

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
54 BMR Journal
AME Church (the R

Church (the Rev. E
Glenn); St. Paul (Agn
AME Church (the Re
Rev. Everett Hobso
Fred Houser); St. Joh
Chapel AME Church
Church (the Rev. Ear
C. Liggin); Campbel
Powell Chapel AM
Church (the Rev. Wi
Sanderfur); Mulberr
Friendship Chapel A
AME Church (the Re
Johnny R. Watson J
Bethel AME Church
Hawkins County
Rogersville (town,
Community Chapel
Jefferson County
Sourwood Mountain
referred to in Jo
Mountain" (Banne
County, Virginia; co
Knox County
Knox County is cele

County Stomp" (19
presumably refers to
Knoxville (city, 28,1
McGhee (1915); Gra
(1946). Place of death
Sara Duncan Jordan
Quartet (1929); Swa
Webb (1940s); Tina
Dallas); Julius King
The MacDaddies; T
Cheryl Renee's Blues

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
tion of Charlie Jordan; and Charlie Manson (possibly from Montgomery

County). Location (2001) of Children of God COGIC (Pastor, Phillip D.
Hamilton Sr.); Greater First COGIC (Pastor, Donald L. Derrickson Sr.);
Morning Star Baptist Church; Smith Chapel COGIC (Pastor, Willie Allen);
Trinity Tabernacle COGIC (Pastor, Billy F. Brooks); and Bethel AME
Church (2460 Parkview Ave.). Location (1940s to at least 1968) of radio
KBIR; Sassy Ann's (club) (2001); Wonderdog Records; and Knoxville
Blues Society (http://www.kormet.org/kbs).
McMinn County
Athens (city, 1,232 black residents in 2000). Residence of Howard

Armstrong.
Vonore. Residence of Brownie McGhee and Sticks McGhee (1928 to
1933).
Morgan County
Oakdale. Birthplace of King Pleasure (Clarence Beeks) (1922).
Overton County
Livingston (town, 21 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Roy Roberts

(1942).
Rhea County
Dayton (city, 325 black residents in 2000). Residence of Howard

Armstrong and family (before 1920).
Sullivan County
Bristol (city, 736 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Ulysses

Livingston (1912).
Kingsport (city, 1,897 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Cripple
Clarence Lofton (1887). Residence of Brownie McGhee and Sticks
McGhee (1920); Edward Martin (1930); Esley Riddle (alias Leslie Riddle);
and Steve Tarter. Location (2001) of Powerful New Life COGIC (Pastor,
Hugh A. Hale); and Bethel AME Zion Church (812 Maple St.).
Warren County
Campaign. Residence of Murphy Gribble (1940s); Albert Lusk; and John

York.

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56 BMR Journal
Washington County
Johnson City (city,

Garland (1953). Last
Greater Love COGIC
White County
Sparta (city, 243 bl

"Tom" Armstrong
other Armstrong fam
Virginia
Virginia has been much neglected by students of African-American

music. The state was the cradle for the plantation system of agriculture
that had spread throughout the southern states of the United States by
the time of the Civil War and of the institutionalized slavery of Africans.
By 1660, blacks made up 11.5 percent of the colony's population. The first
law permitting slavery in the colony was passed in 1661, giving legal
recognition to the de facto situation.
In 1763, the colony of Virginia had about 60,000 blacks, about the same
number as the white population. After the end of the French wars, with
Virginia attracting many white settlers, the slave trade dramatically
increased. Probably about 100,000 slaves were landed in Virginia in the
next fifteen years. Although Virginia banned the African slave trade in
1778, it did not abolish slavery within its own borders. The number of
blacks in the state had increased to 305,493 by the 1790 Census, when
Virginia included about 40 percent of the black population of the United
States (757,208 slaves). Virginia's black population was almost three times
as large as that of each of Maryland, South Carolina, and North Carolina,
which had the next largest black populations. Virginia's blacks also com-
prised about 40 percent of Virginia's population.
With the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793, the
demand for slaves began to spread far beyond the dedicated tobacco-
growing areas and beyond South Carolina's rice-growing coast.
Indications are that almost 140,000 blacks were moved out of Virginia in
the peak decade from 1830 to 1840 to serve as slaves on cotton or tobacco
plantations, often to Missouri, Kentucky, or Tennessee.
It is logical that musicians from Virginia would have had an influence
on musical traditions in the areas settled by slaves from Virginia. For
example, although he was born much later than the movement being dis-
cussed, Luke Jordan's minstrel-influenced music echoes in that of per-

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
formers like Ralph Willis and Geeshie Wiley. These echoes may derive
from those performers having heard his records, but on the other hand,
they may demonstrate the widespread influence of Virginia music during
the nineteenth century.
By 1850, there were 894,800 whites, 54,333 free colored, and 472,528
slaves in the state (which still included what became West Virginia). Of
the 894,800 whites in the state in 1850, 813,891 (91%) had been born in the
state. Of the 54,333 free colored population, no fewer than 53,800 (99%)
had been born in the state. No figures for slaves were published.
The 1860 Census was the last taken during the slavery era. The extract-
ed statistics do not record the state of origin of the slaves, but the states
of origin of free colored Americans are shown. In 1860, of the 1,401,410
free persons counted who had been born in Virginia (which then still
included West Virginia), over 71 percent still resided in the State. Ohio
(5.4%), Missouri (3.9%), Kentucky (3.2%), Indiana (2.6%), and Tennessee
(2.6%), Illinois (2.4%), and Iowa (1.3%) had absorbed the largest numbers
of Virginia-born freemen.
It is significant that the larger numbers of free Virginia-born expatriates
were moving west to prospective tobacco-growing areas, and presum-
ably their slaves would also be in demand in those areas, having had
experience with tobacco growing. It should be expected that early
Virginian musical traditions would have had strong impact in Missouri,
Kentucky, and Tennessee but less impact in the states of the Deep South.
In 1870, the black population of Virginia was 512,841, of whom 72,248
were classified as mulatto. Despite the continued substantial emigration
of blacks from the state, its African-American population by 1910 was still
671,096, of whom 222,910 were self-classified as mulatto. As late as 1910,
the urban black population of the state was only 158,218, compared with
512,878 rural dwellers.
After emancipation and cessation of hostilities (1865), the pattern of
emigration changed markedly. Figures from the 1920 Census show that
about 70 percent of the 883,140 blacks who had been born in Virginia still
resided in the state. As of 1920, the largest numbers of Virginia-born emi-
grant blacks were resident in Pennsylvania (7%), New York (3.5%), West
Virginia (3.5%), the District of Columbia (3.5%), Maryland (3%), New
Jersey (2.5%), Ohio (2%), and North Carolina (1%). The number of emi-
grants counted roughly equaled the number of blacks who had left the
state in the previous four decades, indicating that the new emigration
pattern had been operating at least since about 1880; the change presum-
ably dates from soon after 1865. The changed pattern suggests that
Virginia-born black musicians would have had little direct influence over

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
58 BMR Journal
other southern bla

have had substantial influence in the North Atlantic states.
By 1920, only 689,361 black residents lived in Virginia, and (among
blacks still living then) 193,779 more had left the state than had moved
into it. Of those blacks living in Virginia as of 1920, almost 90 percent had
been born in Virginia, while almost 7 percent had been born in North
Carolina, 1 percent in South Carolina, and almost 1 percent in Alabama.
Apart from musicians from nearby North Carolina, and apart from
recordings and traveling shows, there would have been minimal local
direct influence by other black musicians on black Virginia-born musi-
cians. This suggests that the blues approaches that developed in Virginia
and North Carolina were largely nurtured in the area, rather than having
been imported from elsewhere.
The state has been commemorated in the following song titles:
"Virginia Blues" (recorded by Lizzie Miles); "(There's a Blue Ridge in My
Heart) Virginia" (recorded by Eva Taylor); "Sweet Virginia Blues"
(recorded by Mamie Smith); "I'm Coming, Virginia" (recorded by The
Variety Four); "Goin' to Virginia" (recorded by Ralph Willis); and "Down
in Virginia" (recorded by Jimmy Reed). Compare the "hillbilly" song,
"The Virginian Strike of '23" (by Earl Shirkey and Roy Harper). The state
lent its name to the "Virginian" train, which was the subject of "hillbilly"
songs such as "The Wreck of the Virginian" (recorded by Blind Alfred
Reed); and "The Wreck of the Virginian no. 3" (recorded by Roy Harvey).
As of 1990, there were reportedly 373,756 black Baptist Church adher-
ents in the state (6.04% of the state's population), compared with 32,114
adherents to the African Methodist Episcopal Zion church (0.52%). By
2000, there were 1,441,207 black residents in the state.
Counties falling within the purview of the Appalachian Regional
Commission as of 2003 were Alleghany, Bath, Bland, Botetourt,
Buchanan, Carroll, Craig, Dickenson, Floyd, Giles, Grayson, Highland,
Lee, Montgomery, Pulaski, Rockbridge, Russell, Scott, Smyth, Tazewell,
Washington, Wise, and Wythe. Independent cities in Virginia within the
Appalachian region were Bristol, Buena Vista, Covington, Galax,
Lexington, Norton, and Radford.
Counties formerly within the commission's definition of Appalachia
("Foothills") are: Albemarle, Amherst, Augusta, Bedford, Clarke,
Culpeper, Fauquier, Franklin, Frederick, Greene, Loudoun, Madison,
Nelson, Page, Patrick, Rappahannock, Roanoke, Rockingham,
Shenandoah, and Warren. Independent cities in this region, which gener-
ally occupies the foothills between the Blue Ridge and the Piedmont
proper or in the Ridge and Valley section, are Bedford, Charlottesville,

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
Clifton Forge, Harrisonburg, Lynchburg, Roanoke, Salem, Staunton,

Waynesboro, and Winchester.
Historically, there were greater numbers of blacks in some parts of the
Appalachian and Foothills regions than at present. In the Appalachian
region of the state, there were twelve slaves for each free colored person
in 1850. The same ratio applied overall in the Foothills region, but with
extremes from eighty-seven slaves to each free colored person in Franklin
County to less than three to one in Frederick County. The slave popula-
tions in 1850 of counties falling in the Appalachian Regional
Commission's area were Alleghany (694, about 20%), Bath (947, almost
28%), Bland (did not yet exist), Botetourt (3,736, 25%), Buchanan (did not
yet exist), Carroll (154), Craig (did not yet exist), Dickenson (did not yet
exist), Floyd (443), Giles (657, 10%), Grayson (409), Highland (364), Lee
(787), Montgomery (1,471, 17%), Pulaski (1,471, almost 29%), Rockbridge
(4,197, 26%), Russell (982), Scott (473), Smyth (1,064, 13%), Tazewell
(1,060, 10%), Washington (2,131, 14%), Wise/Norton (did not yet exist),
and Wythe (2,185, 18%). Only Lexington (1850 slave population of 552,
Rockbridge County) and Christiansburg (Montgomery County, 156
slaves) were significant black Appalachian towns as of 1850.
In the former Appalachian Regional Commission cities and counties,
Charlottesville (Albemarle County, 840 slaves), Front Royal (Warren
County, 168), Leesburg (Loudoun County, 452), Lynchburg (Campbell
County, 3,424), Scottsville (Albemarle County, 206), and Winchester
(Frederick County, 377) were significant slave towns as of 1850. The 1850
slave populations for now-excluded counties were Albemarle (13,368),
Amherst (5,953), Augusta (5,053), Bedford (10,061), Clarke (3,614),
Culpeper (6,683), Fauquier (10,350), Franklin (5,726), Frederick (2,294),
Greene (1,699), Loudoun (5,641), Madison (4,724), Nelson (6,142), Page
(957), Patrick (2,324), Rappahannock (3,844), Roanoke (2,510),
Rockingham (2,331), Shenandoah (911), and Warren (1,748).
Black populations in 2000 for counties within the Appalachian
Regional Commission area were Alleghany (317), Bath (317), Bland (288),
Botetourt (1,073), Buchanan (708), Carroll (129), Craig (10), Dickenson
(58), Floyd (277), Giles (263), Grayson (1,217), Highland (2), Lee (103),
Montgomery (3,055), Pulaski (1,957), Rockbridge (617), Russell (934),
Scott (139), Smyth (619), Tazewell (1,020), Washington (676), Wise (713),
and Wythe (791). The 2000 black populations of independent cities with-
in the Appalachian region were Bristol (967), Buena Vista (305),
Covington (828), Galax (428), Lexington (713), Norton (240), and Radford
(1,284). The other main centers of black population in the Appalachian
region in 2000 were: Blacksburg (town, 1,738), Troutdale (town, 834),
Christiansburg (town, 819), Pulaski (town, 734), Wytheville (town, 561),

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
60 BMR Journal
Tazewell (town, 39
Bluefield (town, 247)
Dublin (town, 196).
Black 2000 populatio
(7,650), Amherst (6,3
Culpeper (6,220), Fa
Greene (983), Loud
(501), Patrick (1,203)
(924), Shenandoah (41
of independent ci
Charlottesville (10,
Lynchburg (19,962)
Waynesboro (1,945),
Based on the the Mance Index, racial conditions in 1850 in the
Appalachian region were apparently harshest, in descending order, in
Pulaski, Washington, Montgomery, Bath, Lee, and Floyd counties.
Applying the Mance Index to the excluded counties suggests that racial
conditions in 1850 in the counties of Albermarle, Bedford, Franklin,
Nelson, Fauquier, Madison, Clarke, Amherst, Culpeper, Greene, and
Patrick were worse even than in Pulaski County. It is in those counties
where the development of distinctively black Appalachian blues or
gospel music might have been expected to occur. However, those are also
the Appalachian counties most likely to lose black population by outmi-
gration.
Performers who reputedly or possibly came from (or were based in)
Virginia (without more specific information available) include John Acea
(U.S. Army service, 1940s); Ted Bogan (before 1987--died in Detroit);
Leonard Bowles (1978); James Cole; Yvonne Fair (died in Las Vegas,
1994); The Golden Gate Jubilee Quartet; Ruby Gowdy; The Harmonizing
Four; Jeanette Price Harris (to Chicago); Clayton Horsley; Ellis Johnson
(of The Harmonizing Four); Cora Perkins (born ca. 1887); Poor Jim
(Brealon?-ca. 1950s); Cam label (ca. 1950s); Herbert Richardson; William
Richardson; Julius Rose; Walter Taylor; Viola Gertrude Wells Underhill
(Miss Rhapsody, born Virginia, 1902); and Dan Womack. The Southern
Negro Quartet (Arthur Banks, George Berry, Joseph Bowe, Johnny
Johnson, and Lemuel Turner), active in 1921, may have been from
Virginia. The Virginia Female Jubilee Singers (Okeh, 1921) and the
Virginia Male Quartet (Okeh, 1929) presumably hailed from Virginia.
Compare the Virginia Four, possibly from Lynchburg. The Virginia State
Ensemble, Weis label, presumably hailed from Virginia. L. E. Tucker and
Roger Cox were apparently associated with Virginia. Herbert Halpert (of
New York) conducted field recordings in the state in 1939.

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
Amherst County
Birthplace of Brown Pollard (1897). Residence of James Lowry (1970s).

Amherst (town, 667 black residents in 2000). Location of Jump Street
(2001).
Augusta County
Fishersville (Census Designated Place, 199 black residents in 2000).

Location of the Shenandoah Valley Blues Society (2001).
Bedford City
Bedford. Location of Roadhouse (2001).
Bedford County
Peaksville. Residence of Richard Wright.
Bland County
Rocky Gap. Location (2001) of Tynes Chapel AME Zion Church (Pastor,
Rev. Andrew Montgomery).
Botetourt County
Buchanan (town). Location (2001) of First COGIC (Pastor, Elder Randall

W. Jackson).
Bristol City
Bristol. Birthplace of Kenny Ballard (1925); and Moses Pelham (1934).

Location of the famed Victor recordings in the late 1920s.
Charlottesville City
Residence of "Tippy" Rhodes; Hopper Grass [sic]; Danny (Gatton) and

The Fatboys; The Fulltones (2001); and the Ian Gilliam Trio. Location
(2001) of Bethel COGIC (Pastor, William Nard Jr.); and Loving COGIC
(Pastor, Supt. William Coles).
Culpeper County
Birthplace of Cliff Jackson (1902; died in New York, 1970). Residence of

George Goram (1936-on chain gang).

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
62 BMR Journal
Culpeper (town, 2,2

(2001 and 2002) (nep
Dickenson County
Clinchco. Residence
Fauquier County
Bealeton. Location
Broad Run 20137.
publisher for the l
Warrenton (town,
William Moore (195
death in 1951.
Floyd County
Floyd. Residence of Scott Perry and Rich Rittenhouse (2001); and The
Rhythm Kings.
Franklin County
Bonbrook. Residence of Frank Martin (1920), father of Carl and Roland

Martin.
Chestnut Mountain (near Snow Creek). Birthplace of John Tinsley.

Rocky Mount (town, 905 blacks in 2000). Birthplace of Lewis A. "Rabbit"
Muse (1908). Location (2001) of Bethel AME Church. Possible location of
the Outlet label.
Union Hall (Census Designated Place, 36 blacks in 2000). Birthplace of
Archie Edwards (1918) and presumed birthplace of his brothers Willie
and James. Residence of Archie Edwards (1930); James Edwards; Roy
Edwards; and Willie Edwards.
Harrisonburg City
Harrisonburg. Residence of The Shadowcasters (2001). Location (2001)

of Bethel AME Church.
Loudoun County
Possible location of The Hurricane Johnson Blues Band (2001).
Aldie. Birthplace of Al Grey.
Ashburn 20147. Residence of Wilson Pickett (2003).
Sterling. Location of Chris Polk Band and Show (2001).

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
Lynchburg City (19,382 black residents in 2000). Formerly part of

Campbell County. Birthplace of Steve Gibson (1914); James Henry Diggs
(1917) (to Roanoke); producer Creed Taylor (1929). Residence of Luke
Jordan (321 Polk St.); Carl Anderson; Steve Gibson and the Basin Street
Boys; producer Creed Taylor; Otis Sheldon; Grover West (1960s); and
Gary "Bear" Gilbert (2001). Possible location of the Virginia Four (1929);
Noel Brown (1960s); Norris Brown (1960s); Percy Brown (1960s) (born
1916); and Robert Brown (1960s). Location of the Ellington Playhouse
(2001); and the James River Blues Society (http://www.geocities.com/
sunsetstrip/basement/2101). Location (2001) of Bountiful Blessings
COGIC; Good Samaritan COGIC (Pastor, Anthony Hammond); and
Prayer of Faith Temple COGIC (Pastor, Bishop Norton B. Wilder).
Madison County
Keeling. Birthplace of Daniel K. Womack (1904; died Peabody,

Massachusetts, 1996).
Montgomery County
Blacksburg. Place of death of Turner Foddrell (1995). Location of Four-

Eyed Mo (2001).
Patrick County
Mayo River (township). Residence of the Fodrell [sic] family (1930),

including Posy L. (indexed as Pasy L.; age 30), Allie S. (age 30; compare
Ellie), Elizabeth A. (age 11), Posy L. (indexed as Pasy L.; age 9), Sarah M.
(age 7), Malvin R. (age 5, compare Marvin), Elva S. (age 3 years, 10
months), and Turner L. (age 1 year, 10 months).
Stuart (town, 145 blacks in 2000). Birthplace of Turner Foddrell (1928;
died Blacksburg, 1995). Residence of Ellie Foddrell; Lloyd Foddrell; Lynn
Foddrell (born 1956, son of Turner and Barbara); Marvin Foddrell (born
ca. 1924; died 1986); Posey Foddrell (born in Stokes County, North
Carolina, 1898); Roger Foddrell; Theo Foddrell; Van Buren Foddrell; and
Willie Foddrell.
Pulaski County
Dublin (town). Birthplace of Banjo Ikey Robinson (1904).

Pulaski (town). Birthplace of James Swanson (1910).

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
64 BMR Journal
Rappahannock County
Birthplace of John
1960s).
Woodville. Residence of John Jackson (1960s onward).
Roanoke (City)
Place of death of Josh Thomas (1970s). Residence of Durrell Coleman
(1955 and 1960s); James Henry "Crip" Diggs; Don Pullen; Daniel
Womack; Marie Artis; Fat Daddy; Kingfish and The Bluecats. Location of
Tru-Bleu Productions. Location (2001) of Bethel AME Church; Mount
Zion AME Church (Pastor, the Rev. Gilbert Harper Sr.); Garden of Prayer
#6 COGIC (Pastor, Joseph Mayo); Garden of Prayer #7 COGIC; Holiness
Is the Way COGIC; and Holy COGIC.
Roanoke County
Vinton (town, 261 blacks in 2000). Residence of Tommy Smith (2001).
Russell County
Clinchfield. Residence of Brownie McGhee (1920s).
Salem (City)
Birthplace of Nat Reese (1924) (to Princeton, West Virginia). Location of

Doc label (1970s); and Neilor Music.
Scott County
Gate City. Birthplace of Harry Gay (1904).
Smyth County
Flat Top. Possible site mentioned by Sam Collins, 1930s, in his unre-
leased song "Flat Top Blues," which may instead refer to his guitar or to
Flat Top prison, Alabama.
Staunton (City)
Residence of Barbara Martin (Dockery) (2001).
Tazewell County
Bluefield (town). Possible birthplace of Maceo Pinkard (ca. 1874).

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
Possible location of Dave Dickerson (compare adjacent Bluefield, West

Virginia).
Richlands. Residence of talent scout W. E. Myer (1920s). Possible loca-
tion of Blind Willie Davis (1920s).
Tip Top. Birthplace of Dave Dickerson (1913).
Warren County
Front Royal (town, 1,180 black residents in 2000). Residence of Catfish

Hodge (2001).
Washington County
Emory (now Emory-Meadow View; Census Designated Place).

Birthplace of trumpet player Frankie Newton (1906).
Waynesboro (City)
Location (2001) of Christ Tabernacle COGIC (Pastor, Supt. Clyde

Brown).
Wise County
Big Stone Gap. Birthplace of Carl Martin (1906); Roy Hall (1922; died
Nashville, 1984).
Wise. Location of G. W. Blevins (1939).
West Virginia
West Virginia has had a significant although small black population

since colonial times. There were about 5,000 black slaves in what became
West Virginia in 1790, reaching a peak of about 20,000 in 1840 and 1850.
As of 1850, there were several counties (in what became West Virginia)
with substantial slave populations, notably, Jefferson (4,341), Kanawha
(3,140), Berkeley (1,956), Hampshire (1,433, including modem Mineral
County), Greenbrier (1,317), Hardy (1,260, including modem Grant
County), and Monroe (1,061). The highest percentages of slaves in the
population were found in Jefferson County (28.3%), Kanawha (20.5%),
Berkeley (16.6%), Hardy (13.2%), Greenbrier (13.1%), Putnam (11.8%),
Monroe (10.4%), and Hampshire (10.2%).
The slave counties were mainly located in the fertile river valleys. In
the northeast of the state, these included the Conococheague Opequon,
(lower) Shenandoah, and North Branch Potomac watersheds; and, in the

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
66 BMR Journal
south, the Greenb

Upper Kanawha, an
The western town
(now spelled Charl
Shepherdstown (249
Wheeling (44), Park
Bolivar had more free colored residents than slaves.
In 1870, the black population was 17,980. In contrast to Virginia, which
suffered net black outmigration until the decade commencing in 1980,
West Virginia attracted net black immigration in each decade until 1930,
when its black population reached 114,893. Many blacks were attracted to
work in the state's coal mines. Compare "Coal Camp Blues" (recorded by
Taylor's Weatherbirds) and "Poor Coal Loader" and "Poor Coal Passer"
(both recorded by Frank "Springback" James). Compare also the Stripling
Brothers' hillbilly songs, "Coal Mine Blues," "Coal Tipple Blues," and
"Coal Valley." Most coal came from Boone, Logan, McDowell, and Mingo
counties, all in the south of the state, as well as in Monongala County, in
the Monongahelia Valley.
By 1920, most blacks in the state lived in McDowell County (18,157),
followed by Fayette (9,636), Kanawha (8,929), Mercer (6,427), and Raleigh
(6,393), all (except Kanawha) in the New River/Greenbrier Valley area, in
the far south of the state.
In 1920, of 86,218 black citizens in the state, only 38 percent had been
born there, while another 34 percent had been born in Virginia, almost 8
percent in North Carolina, almost 6 percent in Alabama, 2 percent in
Tennessee, 2 percent in Georgia, almost 2 percent in each of Kentucky and
Ohio, and over 1 percent in South Carolina.
Conversely, of the 45,117 blacks born in West Virginia as of 1920, almost
74 percent still resided there, 7 percent had moved to Ohio, 6 percent to
Pennsylvania, less than 3 percent to Virginia, almost 2 percent to
Maryland, and 1 percent each to the District of Columbia and to New
York.
The state has been commemorated in the song titles "West Virginia
Blues" (recorded by George Williams and Bessie Brown); and "West
Virginia Blues" (recorded by Edward Thompson). Compare the "hillbil-
ly" songs "The West Virginia Rag" (recorded by Frank Hutchison); "West
Virginia Special" (recorded by The Kessinger Brothers); "West Virginia
Gals" (recorded by The Hill Billies); and "We Have Moonshine in the
West Virginia Hills" (recorded by Roy Harvey).
The state lent its name to the spiritual group The West Virginia
Collegiate Singers.
After 1930, the state's fortunes declined, and there was continual black

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
outmigration until about 1990. By 1990, the black population had

declined to 56,295. In 1990, most blacks lived in Kanawha County
(13,792), followed by Raleigh (5,883), McDowell (4,754), Mercer (4,133),
Cabell (3,807), Fayette (3,017), Jefferson (2,631), Berkeley (2,277), and
Monongalia (1,685) counties. As of 2000, the black (or partly black) pop-
ulation had increased to 62,817, including 15,133 in Kanawha County,
7,017 in Raleigh County, 4,593 in Cabell County, 4,006 in Berkeley County,
3,810 in Mercer County, 3,330 in McDowell County, 3,142 in Monongalia
County, 2,813 in Jefferson County, and 2,797 in Fayette County.
The song "Salt Pork, West Virginia" was written by William J.
Tennyson Jr. and is published by Rytvoc (ASCAP). Referring to a local
recipe, but implying a remote, rustic place, the song was popularized by
Louis Jordan in 1945 and later recorded by Dr. Horse, Jessie Austin, Bob
Dylan, Gatemouth Brown, Ramblin' Jack Elliott, and others.
Details of West Virginia's blues and gospel performers include the fol-
lowing. It is the probable birth state of Roscoe Castle (1901) (of the
Southern Gospel Singers); and Tamiko Jones. It is the location of Claud
Jeter (1930s) and possible location of Charlie (Dad) Nelson (1920s) (en
route from South Carolina to Chicago); Edward Thompson (1928);
Edward Evans (1929); and Marie Grinter (1929). It is the reported home
state of "Socks"; and Aashid Himons (to Nashville, Tennessee).
Berkeley County
Martinsburg. Birthplace of Garland Wilson (1909).
Cabell County
Huntington. Birthplace of Revella Hughes (1895); Goldia Haynes (1918);

Rusty Bryant (1929; died Ohio, 1991); and Mary Smith "Diamond Teeth"
McClain. Residence of John Byrd (1920s); Rev. Emmett Dickenson; Mae
Glover; promoter W. R. Calaway (1927) (later in Florida); and the
Carpenter Arts (2001). Possible residence of Sam Collins.
Fayette County
Residence of Ethel Caffie-Austin (born in Alabama).

Montgomery. Birthplace of Willie John Ellison. Location (2001) of Mt.
Zion Missionary Baptist Church; and St. John Missionary Baptist Church.
Greenbrier County
Alderson. Birthplace of Ada Smith ("Bricktop") (1894), who found fame

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
68 BMR Journal
in France. Location
served time.
Hardy County
Durgon. Birthplace of Clarence Tross (1884). Residence of Andy Tross

(1880s) (born ca. 1850; died ca. 1910); and Moses Tross.
Harrison County
Clarksburg. Birthplace of Bumps Meyers (1912); Johnnie Johnson (1924)

(but see Fairmont, Marion County); and Taylor H. Cox (1926).
Jefferson County
Leetown. Birthplace of Nathen Page (1937).

Harpers Ferry. Storer College, attended by King Perry (1930s-died
Bakersfield, California).
Kanawha County
Alum Creek. Location (2001) of Hopewell Missionary Baptist Church.

Charleston. Birthplace of George Thomas (ca. 1900) (jazz-blues singer);
Tommy Benford (1895 or 1905); Keg Purnell (1915); and Terry Timmons
(1927). Possible birthplace of Bill Benford. Place of death of C. C.
Richardson (1984). Residence of C. C. Richardson (1970s) and location of
his Richardson label (410-C Morris St.); Michael Lassiter, of the John
Henry Memorial Committee; Ethel Caffie-Austin; and Swan Silvertones.
Location (2001) of Charleston COGIC (Pastor, Bobby Thomas); Rimson
Memorial COGIC (Pastor, Supt. Bruce E. Hogan); St. Paul AME Church;
Bethlehem Missionary Baptist Church; and Mt. Pisgah Missionary Baptist
Church.
Coal River. Presumably the river mentioned by Blind Percy (1920s).
Compare the historical site, Coal River Marshes Post Office, Raleigh
County.
Dunbar. Birthplace of Blind Joe Hill (1937).
Institute. Chappie Willett attended West Virginia State College
(cofounded by Byrd Prillerman) at Institute. Compare the West Virginia
Collegiate Singers. Location of the 11th Annual Black Sacred Music
Festival (February 2001).
Malden. Residence (1865-1872) of Booker T. Washington.
St. Albans. Location (2001) of Crossroads Fellowship COGIC.

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Logan County
Logan County. Residence of Pete Hill (1920s).

West Logan. Location of Deneba Music.
Marion County
Barrackville. Residence of United Four Quartet.
Fairmont. Birthplace of Johnnie Johnson (1924) (but see Clarksburg,
Harrison County-moved to St. Louis, Missouri). Recording location of
United Four Quartet of Barrackville, West Virginia (1940).
McDowell County
Birth county of "Big Sweet" Lewis Hairston (1929) (to Martinsville,

Virginia).
Ashland. Residence of Fanny Mimms (1937). Birthplace of Fanny
Mimms' son, Garnet Mimms (1937) (Ashton, Mason County?).
Coalwood. Residence of John H. Myles of the Swan Silvertones (1938).
Cucumber. Reported place of death of Dave Thompson.
Elkhorn. Birthplace of Clarence "Fuzzy" Haskins (1941) (of
Funkadelics).
Gary. Residence of James Swanson (1937); and Sam Montgomery
(1937).
Keystone. Location of the Cider Bottom ghetto.
Maybeury. Location (2001) of Mt. Moriah Missionary Baptist Church.
Vivian. Birthplace of Bob Gaddy (1924) (to New York City).
Welch. Residence of The Kings of Harmony (early 1930s). Location
(2001) of St. James Missionary Baptist Church. Recording location of
Rising Star Quartet of Caples, West Virginia and Evening Breeze(s) Sextet
(1940).
Mercer County
Bluefield. Birthplace of Maceo Pinkard (1897); Teddy Weatherford

(1903); McKinley "Kinney" Ellis (ca.1916); and Zeke Carey (1933).
Residence of Dave Dickerson. Location (2001) of First AME Zion Church.
Flat Top. Possibly mentioned by Sam Collins in his "Flat Top Blues," as
Flat Top was a major coal mine that operated from 1883 onward.
Princeton. Place of death of Uncle Homer Walker (1980). Residence of
Nat Reese (at least from 1936 to 1997) (born Salem, Virginia, 1924); and
Mitchell Gordon (1936).

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
70 BMR Journal
Mineral County
Piedmont. Birthplac
African America Hen
Mingo County
Williamson. Birthplace of Lucius Johnson, also known as Jimmy Slim

and West Virginia Slim.
Monongalia County
Morgantown. Location (2001) of St. Paul AME Church.
Ohio County
Wheeling. Birthplace of Leon "Chu" Berry (1908). Residence of Brother

Aberton (1931). Residence (1966-2000) and place of death (2000) of David
J. Mattis, initial owner of Duke label. Location of the Heritage Blues
Music Festival (August 2001).
Pocahontas County
Snowshoe. Location of the Colors of Fall Blues Festival (September

2001).
Preston County
Mount Vernon. Place of death of Tommy Benford (1994).
Putnam County
Hurricane. Location of Alta Music; and Thorn and Brown Publishers.
Raleigh County
Beckley. Birthplace of Andy Story; and Calvin Simon (1942) (of

Funkadelics). Possible location of John Arbaugh (1973); Adrienne
Belafonte (1973); Steve Belew (1973); Lee Berry (1973); Phyllis Boyens
(1973); John Davis (1974); Larry Dixon (1973); Joe D. Harrison (1973); Ann
Hopkins (1973); Charles Hunter and Myra Hunter (1974); Dan Smith
(1974); and Francis Taylor (1973). Location (2001) of St. Matthew AME
Church.
Coal River Marshes. Possible site mentioned by Blind Percy (1920s)-see
also Coal River, flowing into Kanawha County.
Slab Fork. Birthplace of Bill Withers (1938).

161.45.205.103 on Sun, 04 Apr 2021 12:17:28 UTC
Randolph County
Elkins. Residence of Deacon Ray Bowman (1985). Location of the

Augusta Heritage Center (1987); the Augusta Heritage Cajun/Creole
Week (August 2001).
Summers County
County of birth of Uncle Homer Walker (1898 or 1904) (to Glen Lyn,
Virginia).
Big Bend Tunnels. Reported site of John Henry's competition with the
steam hammer (1873)-later research suggests this took place in
Alabama.
Meadow Creek. Residence of Elva Johnson (male) (1972 onward).
Pipestem. Pipestem Festival (2000) featured The One-Eyed Cats; N
Reese.
Talcott. Reported place of death of John Henry (1873)-later research

suggests this took place in Alabama.
Wood County
Parkersburg. Birthplace of Billy Moore (1917). Location (2001) of Bethel

AME Church (1103 Laird Ave.).
Wyoming County
Itmann. Childhood location of Nat Reese (1928).

Coal Mountain. Possible site and subject of Sonny Scott's "Coal
Mountain Blues" (ARC, 1933). Compare Coal Mountain, a summit nea
Odenville, St. Clair County, Alabama.
The "Directory of African-Appalachian Musicians" is the Appalachian subset of, and

preview for, the forthcoming Encyclopedia of Blues and Gospel Music. I wish to applaud th
contributions made by Fred J. Hay, especially for the Stephens County, Georgia, listings.
They demonstrate how much more can be elicited by someone with a particular interest i
a specific area.

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Directory of African-Appalachian Musicians

Author(s): Bob Eagle

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4145499

This content downloaded from

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the region by the

The directory is presented alphabetically by state, then by county,

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Calhoun (42.6% urb

Willie Guy Rainey w

Leighton (city, 468 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Percy Sledge.

Hanceville. Birthplace of Candi Staton.

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Fyffe. The Alabama Sacred Harp Singers, possibly a white group,

Santuck. Location (2002) of Sweetwater Baptist Church.

Gadsden (city, 13,252 black residents in 2000). Residence (and birthplace

Fayette (city, 1,151 black residents in 2000). Residence (2002) of Elston

Slickrock Ford [sic] may be a location referred to by Lucille Bogan in

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Newbern (178 black

Scottsboro (city, 788

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Bama label. Tiger R

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Hitters of Birmingham; Leo Manley's Heavenly Gospel Singers, alias

Millport (town, 394 black residents in 2000). George "Bullet" Williams

Florence (city, 6,963 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of W. C. Handy

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Ardmore. Birthplace of Aaron Wilburn (1950).

Notasulga (town, 297 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Geor

Birthplace of Augusta James (1955).

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New Haven. Location (2002) of Inspirational Zion COGIC (Pastor,

Hamilton (city, 515 black residents in 2000). Possible location of Harry

Decatur (city, 10,548 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Earl Gaines

Aliceville (city, 1,708 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Joe McCoy

Montevallo (city, 1,249 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of James

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Jasper (city, 1,965 black residents in 2000). Location (2002) of New

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In 2003, the Appalachian Regional Commission had jurisdiction over

Carrollton (6,184 blacks in 2000). Birthplace of Margie Alexander (1948).

Macedonia. Likely location of Jesse Fuller (1908-1912).

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Elberton (2,039 black

Rome (9,677 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of Albert Washington.

Martin. See Stephens County.

Calhoun. Residence (1930) of Andrew and Jim Baxter.

Probable county of death of Henry Dink (1987, age 58).

Cornelia (city, 350 black residents in 2000). Residence of Affrilachian

Gainesville (city, 4,023 black residents in 2000). Birthplace of doris dav-

Reported location of Arthur Gunter (Excello label recording artist).

Birthplace of Roy Lee Johnson (1938).

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Dahlonega (city). Location (2003) of Hickory Grove CME Church.

Hiram (city, 201 black residents in 2000). Residence of white hillbilly