Answers to Selected Problems

Exercises 1.1 and 1.2

1. (a) en!
(b) e3 n (n;i)
(c) een(n-l)
e
(c) -
n
2. (a) (e - 4) 2-n 4 +
(b) en- I + 2n- 1 (n - 1)(n + 2)
3. (a) n! (2n + e - 1)
en -1
(b) e + e_ 1
6. x(n + 1) = x(n) + 4n(n + 1) + 1
9. 38 payments + final payment $52.29
11. (a) A(n + 1) = (1 + r) A(n) + T
(b) $25,000 [(1.008)n - 1]
13. $136,283.
15. (a) r = 1 - (0.5)1/5700
(b) (b) 2,933 years

Exercises 1.3
ex -1
3. (a) -{3-
5. (b) J), = 3.3
7. (i) D(n) =
-p(n) + 15
S(n + 1) = 2p(n) + 3
396 Answers to Selected Problems

(iii) p* = 4, unstable
1
11. (a) pen + I) = -2 P2 (n) +1
(b) p* =
-1 + J3
(c) asymptotically stable
17. y2(t) = 4 - 3e- 1/ 2t

I
Exercises 1.4
0: asymptotically stable
1.
± 1 : unstable
3. 0: asymptotically stable
5. 0: unstable
7. 0: unstable
17. (a) from the left
(b) from the right

Exercises 1.5
5. {O, I}: asymptotically stable
7. Ib2 - 3abl < 1

9. {~, ~}
11. (b) unstable
13. f(x) =-x

I
Exercises 2.1
x3 = x(1) + 3x(2) + x(3)
13. X4 = x(1) + 7x(2) + 6x(3) + x(4)
= x(1) + 15x(2) + 25x(3) + lOx(4) + X(5)
x5

1 1
15. 2 n(n - 1) + n(n - I)(n - 2) + 4 n(n - I)(n - 2)(n - 3) + C

Exercises 2.2
1. (a) 0, linearly dependent
(b) 2(5 3n +3 ), linearly independent
(c) (_l)n+1 (27) 4n, linearly independent
(d) 0, linearly dependent
3. (a) CI + C2n + C3n2
(b) Cl cos c;) +c2sinC;)
(c) linearly dependent
(d) need one more solution
 Answers to Selected Problems 397

2n n-I r!
15 - , , -
. n! ~ 2,+1
,=0
16. (n + 1) I::
,=0
(-1)'
(r + 2)!

Exercises 2.3
1. (a) x(n + 2) - 7x(n + 1) + lOx(n) = 0
(c) x(n + 2) - 5..j2 x(n + 1) + 25x(n) = 0
(e) x(n + 4) - 4x(n + 3) + 6x(n + 2) - 4x(n + 1) + x(n) = 0
2. M(n + 2) = 2M(n + 1) + M(n)
3. CI 4 n + C2 (_4)n
mr . mr
5. CI 3 + C2n 3n + C3 2n cos 2"" + C4 2n sm 2""
n
n:rr . n:rr n:rr n:rr
7. CI 2n/2 cos - + C2 2n/ 2 sm - + C4 2n/2 n cos - + C5 2n / 2 n sin-
2 2 2 2
Tn: I,x, 2x 2 -I
11. (d)
Un: 1,2x,4x2-I

23. a n sin (n + 1)0 , () = cos -I (

-b )
sin e 2a

Exercises 2.4
1 5
1. Zn + 4
2. en j(e n + 8e + 12)
3. ~ n 4n + :i n - ~ n 2 + ~ n 3
12 54 18 9
5. ~ cosC;) - ~ ncosC;)
7.2-7N+8n 2
9. ~ (3n) - ~ cos (n:rr) + ~ sin (n:rr) + ~ n 3n
25 25 2 50 2 30
1 8
11. cI(-7)n + C2(-l)n + 27 n2n - 243 2n
15. y(2) = 1
y(3 + 4n) = y(4 + 4n) = 0
y(5 +
4n) = y(6 + 4n) = -1
n= 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
16. (d) yen) = ~ [Yl(r + 1) Y2~~r~:~r + 1) Yl(n)] g(r)

_n 2 3n 1 n
17. yen) = 10 + 50 - 125 + a + b(6 )

18. yen) = (~) 3n - (~) 2n - (~n) 2n

398 Answers to Selected Problems

Exercises 2.5
1. repelling, oscillatory
3. attracting, oscillatory
13. (i) oscillatory,
(ii) oscillate to 00,
(iii) solutions converge to y* = ac

Exercises 2.6
1. cl(3)n +C2(-l)n
2. c l 2n + c2(n - 1)!
3.1/(c-n)
5/6 + 2c( _6)n
4. - - - - - ; -
1 + c( _6)n+l
3(1 + c(2/3)n+l)
5. ----'--'--'--'-
1 + c(2/3)n
7. Xo e2"
9. sin2(c 2n)
11. e c(2"-') yeO)
13. 1- cot (c 2n)
15. sin(c 2n)

Exercises 2.7
1. (a) sl(n + 2) - ayasl(n + 1) - a 2 y ,90 - a) sl(n) =0
(b) y :::: 50
3. (a) F(n + 2) = F(n + 1) + F(n)
(b) 2,3,5
5. (i) 0.88
(ii) 0.55
(iii) 0.51
7. p(n+3)+3p(n+2)-lOp(n+ 1)+6p(n) = 0, p(O) = 1, peN) = peN + 1) =
o
11. (a) Yen + 2) - a(1 +,9) Y(n + 1) + a,9Y(n) = (1.05)n
(1.05)n
(b) Y*=--
I-a
(c) 2- n/ 2 [c 1 cos n;] + 0.1025(1.05)n
12. (a) Yen + 2) - Cl Y(n + 1) - C2 Y(n) = nh + K + /(0)
(b) Y(n) = Ci ( ' +4.;s)" + C2 ( ' -4.;s)" + a + fin
13. (a) Yen + 2) - 2,9Y(n + 1) + ,9Y(n) = Vo
1
15. (b) 2
 Answers to Selected Problems 399

1 (n - 2) [ mr . mr]
17. (c) u(n) = "2 sex - 2 - (ex - 1) cos 2 +2fo sm 2
1 (n - 2) mf
V(n) =- sex - - (ex + 1) cos -
2 2 2
Exercises 3.1
[ 2"+' - 3" 3" - 2" ]
1.
2n+1 _ 2(3 n) 2(3 n) _ 2n
lIn
2n+1 _ 3n -2 + 2n+ 1 - - - 3
2 2
3.
(-2t + 3n 2 - 2n --l+I-n
3
2 2

Exercises 3.2
400 Answers to Selected Problems

Exercises 3.3

1. (2n;l. ~n4n)
~ [( _l)n+l + 6 n]
7

3. ~[3(-l)n +46n]
7
o

2
n/2 [
-C2 sin 4mf + C3 cos 4mf ]

9. 2n/2 [
-C2
mT
cos 4 - C3
. 4
sm mT]

nrr ]
Cl +2n/2 [ C2 cos 4mf +C3 sin 4

11. <aJ (~ n~:-I)

2n n2n- 1 n(n - 1)2n- 3 )

(b) ( 0 2n n2 n- 1

o 0 2n

( ~1 ~;)( ~ n~-I
:

(c)

U~1 :~:)
o o

(d)
o 0

o 0 o
 Answers to Selected Problems 401

c[2n(l - n/2) + C2 n2n + c3(3n 22n- 3 + 9n2n- 3) )

13. ( _c[n2 n- 2 + c22n(1 - n) - 3c3n(n - 1)2 n- 4

C3 2n

Exercises 3.5

50)
7. ( 1/2 )
1/2
0 1/3 0 0 0
2/3 0 1/3 0 0
9. 0 2/3 0 0 0 ( 1/5 )
4/5
1/3 0 0 1 0
0 0 2/3 0
11. 177.78; 272.22
13. 0

Exercises 4.1
1. (a) 3,3,3
3
(b) 6,4,34
(c) 6,7,5.21

Exercises 4.2
1. (a) unstable;
(b) asymptotically stable;
(c) asymptotically stable;
(d) stable
5. (a) uniformly stable;
(b) no conclusion;
(c) asymptotically stable;
(d) no conclusion

Exercises 4.4
1. (a) asymptotically stable,
(b) unstable,
(c) unstable,
(d) asymptotically stable
402 Answers to Selected Problems

3. unstable
5. stable, but not asymptotically stable.

Exercises 4.5

:::~nTsT1)
(b) unstable, unstable
5. unstable
7. lal < 1, Ibl < 1

Exercises 4.6
9. (i) a: a 2 ~ 1, b 2 ~ 1; b: a 2 < 1,
b:b2<lora2~1, b2~I,a2+b2i-2
(ii) {(x, 0), (0, y)lx, y E R}

Exercises 5.1
z(z-casw)
1. (a) Z2 _ 2z cos w + 1 ' Izl > 1
Z(Z2 - 1) sin 2
(b) (z2-2z cos2+1)2' Izl> 1

(c) (z ~ 1)2' Izl > 1

-z -a 2 +a
3. , Izl > lal
z(z - a)
(z + 1)2 z n-3
5.
zn - 1
1
9. 3
(z - a)

17. (a)
(z - a)(z2 - 2zcosw + 1)
Z2(Z - casw)
(b) (z _1)(Z2 - 2zcosw + 1)
Exercises 5.2
1. (a) 2/3[2- n - 1]
(b) -1/7(-2)n + 1/7n(-2)n + 6/7
2. (a) 0, 1, -4, 10, -28, ...
(b) x(n) = n e- na
3. (a) (_2)n-3 (3n 2 - n)
. (n -
(b) 2-n +1 + 2 sm - 2 -
1) 1r
)
 Answers to Selected Problems 403

5. ~[C+2J5r -C-2J5 )"]

1
7. "2 (n + 1)
11. 2-e
1- + (_1_)
e
2-e
(e _l)n

Exercises 5.3

1. x(n) =
1
"3 x(O)[1 + 2(4n)]
unstable
3. 1. unstable
2. unifonnly stable
5. unstable

Exercises 5.4
1. asymptotically stable
3. not asymptotically stable

Exercises 5.5
3. asymptotically stable
5. unifonnly stable

Exercises 5.6
404 Answers to Selected Problems

Exercises 6.1 and 6.2

1. W = [1-2] I
0 1 ' WI = 1 i- 0, the system is completely controllable

2. W = [ 2 -2] , IWI = -6 i- 0, the system is completely controllable

3 -6
3. Since A is diagonal and B has a row of zeros, then by inspection, the system
is not completely controllable.
4. rank(W) = 5, the system is completely controllable
5. rank(w[) 74 :1 ~~~~:y]stem is not completely controllable
10. W = , IWI = all -aI2+a21 -a22 i- 0 thus alJ +a2J i-
-1 a21 - a22
al2 + a22

II.W=[:
all + al2
Exercises 6.3

1. (a) V = [ ~ -2
2 ] V
,I I
=2 x
,0
= V-I [ yeO) ]
y(1)
=[ 1/4(a
1/2b
+ b) ]

(b) V = [~ ~ J, rank(V) = 1 < 2, the system is not observable

2. rank(V) = 3, the system is completely observable

3. W [ 1 a+bJ , IWI = -(a + b) + c + d i- O. Thus, for a system to

=
1 c+d
be completely controllable a + b i- c + d, and for a system to be completely

observable, V = [ 1 0] ,IVI
a b = b i- 0
.
4. rank(V) = 5, the system is completely observable
5. rank(V) = 4, the system is not completely observable

Exercises 6.4
1. K = [-0.1166 - 0.6982]
-1.7654 0.6282 -0.0664]
2. K= [
0.6830 0.4518 0.5889
3. K = [-1.8599 0.5293 2.8599]

Exercises 6.5
0.875 ]
1. E = [
-1.125
 Answers to Selected Problems 405

1.3125 ]
2. E =[ -1.0
3. unsolvable
1.2463
4. E = [ -1.1574
-0.0284
0.8105
J
0.2222 -0.5642

8. Lc =[ ~]
Exercises 7.1
5. Use Theorem 7.3
7. Consider the function f()...) = )...k+l - )...k + p and show that it attains its
minimum when)... = (k - 1)/ k

Exercises 7.2
3. Let x(n) = aey(n) and then use Theorem 7.9
4. Let x(n) = aey(n) and then apply Theorem 7.10
6. Let zen) = x(n)/x(n + 1), then mimic the proof of Theorem 7.9
7. Follow the hint in Problem 6

Exercises 7.3
8. Use Problem 7
9. Use Probelm 7
12. Use Theorem 7.21
14. Use Problem 13

Exercises 8.1
14. Use f(t) = (l + o(1»g(t)
16. (c) Show that It' t~,:tl dt :::: :~~
17. Use integration by parts
. n k _ n (n-l)"-l I
18. Wnte Lk=l k - n [1 + -n-"- + ... + i!"]

Exercises 8.2
9. Use Lemma 8.14
12. Notice first that log n7':-~o (1 + u(i» = L i = non-l log(1 + u(i»
13. (c) Use the mean value theorem
(e) Substitute (8.2.19) into (8.2.17)
(f) Solve (8.2.28) and then use Problem 12
15. xl(n) "-' n2, x2(n) "-' (n~2)!' n ~ 00
18. Hint: Let yen) = x(n + 1)/x(n).]
406 Answers to Selected Problems

Exercises 8.4

12. Letx(n) = (-!f (f1j:~oPI(j») (j)z(n)

Exercises 8.S
13. Use Problem 8 and then let A(n) = x2(n)~y(n) - ~x2(n)y(n) and B(n) =
~XI (n)y(n) - XI (n)~y(n), then mimic the proof of Problem 13

Exercises 9.3
11. (x, y) = (37,47) + m(48, 61)
12. Consider the continued fraction representation of ,.jl.
Then ,.jl = A(m-l)+A(m)~m+!
B(m-I)+B(m)~m+! '

show that
A(m)(A(m) - B(m)bo) - B(m)(B(m)£ - A(m)bo) = (_l)m-l,

or
A2(m) - £B2(m) = (_l)m-1

Conclude that x = A(m), y = B(m) is a solution of the Pell's equation if m

is odd, and if m is even, x = A(2m + 1), Y = B(2m+) is a solution
13. x = 8, Y = 3

Exercises 9.4 and 9.S

5. (n + I)P:+ I (x) = 2(v + n)xP:(x) - (2v + n - l)P:_ I (x»
6. (n + l)L~+1 (x) = (2n + Q' + 1 - x)L~(x) - (n + Q')L~_I (x»
7. Hn+I(X) = 2xHn(x) - 2nHn_l(x)
9. I n+l(Z) = (~)Jn(Z) - In-I(z)
12. Use (9.5.18) "and let u -+ x

Exercises 9.6
7 . U se the C auc hy 'mtegra IiiormuIa.. d" (1 2)n -- 2"i 0-(2)" d
1: (t-x)"+!
n' fc
dx" - X t
(t 2 - 1)nhn
8. (a) For sufficiently small lui, 2::0 +1 . I converges uniformly
2n nl(t-x)n+
for t E Y to 2"i(~_X){1 - ~~I~ll~}-l. Then use (9.6.7)
(b)

1
G(x, u) = - -
ni
1y ut 2 - 2t
dt
+ (2x - u)
1 { dt
=- hni Jy (t - tl)(t - t2)'
 Answers to Selected Problems 407

where
tl = {I - (1 - 2xu + U2)1/2}jU,
t2 = {I + (1 - 2xu + U2)1/2}ju

Clearly, if u -+ 0, then tl -+ x and It21 -+ 00. Hence, for sufficiently

small lui, y contains tl but not t2. By the residue theorem (see (9.2.8),
(9.2.9),
211
G(x u) = - - - - = ----~=
, U tl - t2 (1 - 2xu + u 2)1/2
Maple Programs

(I) Solution of scalar difference equations and systems of difference equations

using rsolve
> rsolve({x(n+1)-x(n)/(n+1)=1/(n+1)!.x(O)=1}.x);

n+1
r(n + 1)
> rsolve({x(n+1)=2*x(n)+y(n).y(n+l)=2*y(n).x(O)=a.y(O)=b}.{x.y});

1
{yen) = b2 n , x(n) = 2b2n + 2na}
> rsolve(x(n+2)-5*x(n+1)+6*x(n)=O.x);

-(2x(O) - x(1»3 n - (-3x(O) + x(1»2n

410 Answers to Selected Problems

Cobweb Program
>#Cobweb Program
>#Call as: cobweb(F, n, s, 1, u)
>#Where: F: The one parameter function
># n: The number of iterations to be performed
># s: The initial value of x with which to start
># 1: The lower bound value for x and y
># u: The upper bound value for x and y
>cobweb: =proc (function, iterations, initial, lowerbound,
upper bound)
>local F, n, s, u, i, y, G, 1;
>F:=function;
>n:=iterations;
>s:=initial;
>l:=lowerbound;
>u:=upperbound;
>with(plottools)
>y:=eval(subs(x=s,F));
>G:=[line([l,l], [u,u]), line([s,O], [s,y]),
plot(F,x=l .. u,color=black)];
>for i from 1 to n do
> G:=[op(G), line([s,y], [y,y]))];
> 8:=y;
> y:=evalf(subs(x=s,F));
> G:=[op(G), line([s,s], [s,y])];
>od
>plots[display] (G,tickmarks=[O,O]);
>end

>a:=cobweb(3.5*x*(1-x), 13, .1, 0, 1):

b:=plot([[.714,0],[.714,.714]],color=black, linestyle=2):
c:=textplot([[.l,O, 'x'], [.714,0,'x*']] ,align=BELDW),
textplot([.15,-.07,'0'] ,align=BELDW,font=HELVETICA,7]):
display(a,b,c);
 Answers to Selected Problems 411

Bifurcation Diagram Program

>#Bifurcation Diagram Program
>#Call as: bifur(F, 1, r, N, T, d, s, b, t)
>#
>#Where:
># F:The one parameter function (n terms of x and c)
># l:The left bound on the graph
># r:The right bound on the graph
># N:The number of iterations to perform
># T:The number of iterations to discard
># d:The step size of c
># s:The value of x
># b:The bottom bound on the graph
># t:The top bound on the graph
>#
>bifur:=proc(function, left, right, iterations, discard, step,
start, bottom, top)
>local F, 1, r, N, T, d, s, t, i, p, b, j, k, G;
>F:=function'
>l:=left;
>r:=right;
>N:=iterations;
>T:=discard;
>d:=step;
>s:=start;
>t:=top;
>b:=bottom;
>G:=[] ;
>with(plottools):
>for i from 1 by d*(r-l) to r do
> p:=s;
> for j to T do
> p:=evalf(subs(x=p, c=i, F));
> od;
> for k to N do
> p:=evalf(subs(s=p, c=i, F));
> G:=[op(G), pointe [i,p])] ;
> od;
>od;
>plots[display] (G,axes=boxed,symbol=POINT,view=[l .. r,b .. t]);
>end:

>bifur(c*x*(l-x), 3.57, 4, 100, 50, .01, .5, 0, 1);

 Appendices C and D
Appendix C: Classical Orthogonal Polynomials
This is a list of some classical orthogonal polynomials QII(X), their defini-
tions, the corresponding intervals of orthogonality (a, b), and difference equations
QII+1(X) - (All X + BII)QII(x) + CIIQII-I(X) = 0
Name Definition (a,b) Difference Equation
1. Jacobi: p;:,fJ(x) (see (9.4.5)) (-1,1) see (9.5.12), (9.5.15), (9.5.16)
2. Gegenbauer: P;(x) (see (9.4.10)) (-1, 1) An = 2 ~:~ , Bn = 0,
(ultra-spherical) C = 2"+n-1
3. Legendre: Pn(x) = p~o.O) (see (9.4.9)) (-1,1) An
n

Cn = n~1
n+1
= 2n":i ' Bn = °
4. Chebyshev: Tn(x) = cos nO, (-1,1) An = 2, Bn = 0, Cn = 1
(First kind) 0= COS-I (x)
5. Chebyshev: U (x) = sin(?+ 1)6
n 5108 '
(-1, 1) An = 2, Bn = 0, C n = 1
0= COS-I(X)
(Second kind)
6. Hermite: Hn(x) (see (9.4.15)) (-00,00) An = 2, Bn = 0, Cn = 2n
7. Laguerre: L:(x) (see (9.4.13)) (0,00) A = 2n+a+l-x
n n+1
Bn = 0, Cn = ::~
8. Charlier: c~a)(x) (see (9.5.17)) (0,00) An = 1,
Bn = -n -a,
Cn =an

Appendix D: Identities and Formulas

Leibniz' Formula
Bibliography

[1] Adams, C.R., On the irregular cases of linear ordinary difference equations, Trans.
Amer. Math. Soc. 30(1928), 507-541.
[2] Agarwal, R.P., Difference Equations and Inequalities, Marcel Dekker, New York,
1992.
[3] Ahlbrandt, c., and A. Peterson, Discrete Hamiltonian Systems, Kluwer 1996.
[4] Asplund, E. and L. Bungart, A First Course in Integration, Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
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[5] S. Barnett, Introduction to Mathematical Control Theory, Clarendon, Oxford 1975.
[6] Beddington, J.R., c.A. Free, and 1.H. Lawton, Dynamic complexity in predator-prey
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[7] Bender, E., and S.A. Orszag, Advanced Mathematical Methods for Scientists and
Engineers, McGraw-Hili, New York 1978.
[8] Benzaid, Z., and D.A. Lutz, Asymptotic Representation of Solutions of Perturbed
Systems of Linear Difference Equations, Studies Appl. Math. 77 (1987), 195-221.
[9] Birkhoff, G.D., General theory of linear difference equations, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc.
12(1911), 243-284.
[10] Birkhoff, G.D., Formal theory of irregular linear difference equations, Acta Math.
54( 1930), 205-246, (1930), 205-246.
[11] Birkhoff, G.D. and W. 1. Trjitzinsky, Analytic theory of Singular difference equations,
Acta Math. 60(1932),1-89.
[12] Brauer, A., Limits for the Characteristic Roots of a Matrix, II, Duke Math. J., 14
(1947),21-26.
[13] Cadzow, lA., Discrete Time Systems, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1973.
[14] Carlson, D.C., The Stability of Finite Difference Equations, master's thesis, University
of Colorado, Colorado Springs, 1989.
 416 Bibliography

[15] Carvalho, L.AY., On a Method to Investigate Bifurcation of Periodic Solutions in

Retarded Differential Equations, Journal of Difference Equations and Applications,
4(1) 1-94 (1998), 17-27.
[16] Chihara, T.S., An Introduction to Orthogonal Polynomials, Gordon and Breach, New
York 1978.
[17] Churchill, R. V., and J. W. Brown, Complex Variables and Applications, McGraw-Hili,
New York, 1990.
[18] Coffman, C.V., Asymptotic Behavior of Solutions of Ordinary Difference Equations,
Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 110 (1964), 22-51.
[19] Cooke, K.L., and L.A. Ladeira, Applying Carvalho's method to find periodic solutions
of difference equations, 1 of Difference Equations and Appl., 2( 1996), 105-115.
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Amer. Math. Soc. Monthly 102, No.4, 1995,337-344.
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Index

~,315 asymptotically stable fixed point, 36, 39

Abel's formula, 114 asymptotically stable focus, 179
Abel's lemma, 57 asymptotically stable node, 176, 177
Abel's Summation Formula, 51 attracting, 10
absorbing markov chains, 144 attracting 3-cyc\e, 40
Ackermann's formula, 286 attractive, 157, 160
Actual saddle, 182 attractive but not stable equilibrium, 161
Actual unstable focus, 183 autonomous, 2, 156
algebraic multiplicity, 127 autonomous time-invariant systems, 105
Algorithm for An, 107
amortization, 5 Baker's function, 34
An Epidemic Model, 242 Basic Theory, 112
analytic, 233 bifurcation, 35
annihilator, 73 bifurcation diagram, 40, 42
Annual plant model, 100 Binomial Sums, 358
antidifference operator, 51 biological species, 14
Apery sequence, 356 Birkhoff's theorem, 354
applications, 207 Birkhoff-Adams, 355
asymptotic, 317 block diagram, 253
asymptotically constant system, 338 bounded, 157
asymptotically diagonal systems, 330
asymptotically stable, 82, 157, 167 Canonical saddle, 181
asymptotically stable attracting, 22 canonical unstable focus, 183
asymptotically stable attractor periodic capacity of the channel, 99
orbit, 42 carbon dating, 8
asymptotically stable equilibrium point, Carvalho's Lemma, 45, 46
11 Casoratian, 56, 58
422 Index

Casoration W(n), 62 convolution, 220

Cauchy integral formula, 228 Criterion for asymptotic stability, 22, 44
Cauchy product, 383 current-controlled DC, 254
Cayley-Hamilton theorem, 107 cycles, 29
center (stable), 180
channel capacity, 103 De Moivre theorem, 66
chaos, 31 deadbeat response, 286
characteristic equation, 64, 106 degenerate node, 178
characteristic roots, 64 Design via Pole Placement, 277
Chebyshev polynomials, 69, 380, 386 diagonalizable, 120
Classical Orthogonal Polynomials, 379 diagonalizable matrices, 121
closed-loop system, 278 dichotomy, 331
closure, 188 difference calculus, 47
Cobweb Phenomenon, 16 difference equation, 1
Cobweb theorem of economics, 18 difference operator, 47
Coffman, 341 Diophantine equation, 378
Coffman's Theorem, 342 discrete dynamical system, 1
companion matrix, 118 discrete equivalents for continuous
competitive species, 105 systems, 253
complementary solution, 72 discrete Gronwall inequality, 199
complete controllability, 257, 273 discrete Taylor formula, 51
complete observability, 273 diverge, 366
completely controllable, 254, 255, 257, dominant, 143,347
264,272,281,282 dominant characteristic root, 78
completely observable, 268, 269, 272, dominant solution, 78
288 drunkard's walk, 144, 145
completely observable and controllable duality principle, 272
system, 271 dyadic rational, 21
complex characteristic roots, 66
complex eigenvalues, 125 Eigenvalue, 106
complex poles, 227 eigenvalue separation theorem, 288, 289
conservation of momentum, 103 eigenvector, 121
consistent, 171 electric circuits, 230
constant solution, 8 equation of motion, 259
constructibility, 272, 273 equation with delay, 187
constructible, 272 equations of Riccati type, 85
Continued Fractions, 365, 387 equilibrium point, 10, 156
Continued fractions and Infinite Series, equilibrium points, 8, 35
375 equilibrium price, 17
control, 71, 251 Erbe and Zhang, 302
controllability, 254, 255 Euclidean norm 12, 155
controllability canonical forms, 261 Euler identity, 218
controllability matrix, 255 Euler's algorithm, 13
controllable canonical form, 264 Euler's method, 12
controllable to the origin, 257 eventually k-periodic, 29
controlled system, 251, 252 eventually equilibrium point, 9
converge, 366 eventually negative, 296
Convergence of Continued Fractions, eventually negative solution, 298
368 eventually positive, 296
 Index 423

eventually positive solution, 298 globally attracting unstable fixed point,

Evgrafov, 341 44
exponentially stable, 157 globally attractive, 44
external,71 golden mean, 68
Gronwall inequality, 199
Factorial polynomials, 49 Gyori and Ladas, 300
Favard's theorem, 384
Feigenbaum, 40 Hartman, 309
Feigenbaum number, 40 Hartman-Grobman theorem, 154, 206
Fibonacci, 66 heat equation, 149, 151
Fibonacci sequence, 66 heat transfer, 150
Final value theorem, 219 Henrici, 389
first iterate, I hereditary, 232
Fixed points of T2, 32 Hermite polynomials, 383
Fixed points of T 3 , 34 heteroclinic, 207
Floquet exponents, 138, 170 high-order difference equations, 338
Floquet multiplier, 139 homoclinic, 207
Floquet multipliers, 138, 140, 170 homogeneous first-order equation, 2
forcing term, 71 homogeneous linear difference system,
fundamental, 65 112
fundamental matrix, 113,246 Hooker and Patula, 296
fundamental recurrence formula, 365, Host-Parasitoid Systems, 210
366 hybrid,143
Fundamental Recurrence Formula for hyperbolic, 23
Orthogonal Polynomials, 383 hypergeometric function, 390
fundamental set, 59
fundamental set of solutions, 56 Ideal sampler, 253
fundamental theorem of calculus, 48, 61 Infinite Products, 324
information theory, 99
Gain state, 277 initial and final-value, 219
gambler's ruin, 94 initial value problem, 116
gamma function, 7 initial value theorem, 219
Gauss-Seidel iterative, 173 inners of a matrix, 163
Gegenbauer polynomials, 382 input, 71
general Riccati type, 87 input-output system, 267
general solution, 61, 64, 122 inventory analysis, 102
Generalization of Poincare-Perron inverse Z-transform, 223
Theorem, 349 inversion integral method, 224
generalized eigenvectors, 129 iterative methods, 171
Generalized Gronwall's inequality, 353
generalized zero, 309 Jacobi iterative method, 171, 173
generalized zeros, 309 Jacobi polynomials, 381
Generating functions, 392 Jacobian matrix, 198, 199
generations, I Jordan block, 127, 129
genetic inheritance, 143 Jordan Canonical Form, 127
geometric multiplicity, 127 Jordan chain, 129
Global Stability, 44 Jordan form, 120,128
globally asymptotically stable, II
globally attracting, 10 k x k controllability matrix, 262
424 Index

k-dimensional observer, 287 linear nonhomogeneous equations

k-periodic point, 29 method of undetermined
Kalman, R.E., 254 coefficients, 70
Kocic & Ladas, 243 linear periodic system, 136
Kreuser, 349 linearity, 48, 219
Kronecker delta, 218 linearization, 198
kth-order linear homogeneous linearized equation, 306
difference, 55 linearly dependent, 55
logistic equation, 14
Lucas numbers, 69
100 norm, 233
11 norm, 155,233
Marginal propensities, 147
12 or Euclidean norm, 233 Markov, 141, 142
Ladas, 296 Markov chains, 141
ladder network, 230 Markov matrices, 142
Lagrange identity, 173 Markov matrix, 156
Laguerre polynomials, 357, 382 maximal invariant subset, 188
LaSalle's invariance principle, 188 Meschkowski, 324
Laurent series, 228 method of successive approximation,
leading principal minors, 194 332
left-shifting, 219 method of undetermined coefficients, 72
Legendre function, 390 method of variation of constants
Legendre Polynomials, 382 parameter, 77
Leonardo di Pisa, 66 midpoint method, 103
level curves, 186 minimal polynomial, 266
Levinson's theorem, 334 minimal solutions, 387
Liapunov, A.M., 154, 184, 198 minimal subdominant recessive, 347
Liapunov equation, 195 minors, 194
Liapunov function, 184, 185 Mobius transformations, 368, 373, 377
Liapunov functional, 238, 241 moments, 380
monic, 380
Liapunov stability theorem, 185
minors, 194
Liapunov theory, 154
monodromy matrix, 138
Liapunov's direct, or second, method,
/1-00,40
184
multiple poles, 229
limit inferior, 297
limit point, 188
National Income, 96
limit set, 188
Neidinger, R.D., 420
limit superior, 297 Neumann's expansion, 148
limiting behavior, 78 Newton's method, 19
linear approximations, 198 Newton's theorem, 52
linear combination, 55 Newton-Raphson method, 23
linear difference equations, 47 Newton-Puiseux diagram, 350
linear first -order difference equations, 2 Nicholson-Bailey Model, 211
linear homogeneous equations constant nilpotent matrix, 129
coefficients, 63 node points, 13
linear homogeneous first-order non-self-adjoint, 310
equation, 2 nonautonomous, 2, 106
linear independence, 56 nonhomogeneous equation, 2
 Index 425

nonhomogeneous linear differences periodic system, 136, 154, 170

equation, 54 Perron, 0., 154, 198,320,349
nonlinear difference equations, 302, 359 Perron's Example, 324
nonlinear equations, 85 Perron's Theorem, 142,323
nonnegative, 142 perturbation, 198
nonobservable system, 268 perturbations of Chebyshev
nonoscillatory, 296 polynomials, 390
non-self-adjoint, 308 perturbed diagonal system, 330
norm, 155 phase space analysis, 174
normal, 126 phase space portrait, 157
norms of vectors and matrices, 155 Pielou logistic delay equation, 86, 203,
nth approximant, 366 306
nth iterate, 1 Pielou's logistic equation, 20
numerical solutions, 12 Pincherle, 370
numerical solutions of differential Pochhammer symbol, 390
equations, 12 Poincare's theorem, 320, 323
Poincare type, 323
0,315 Poincare-Perron, 324
0,315 polynomial operator, 73
observability, 267 population, 14
observability canonical forms, 273, 274 population dynamics, 47
observability matrix, 274 population with a propensity, 45
observer, 287 positive definite, 185, 194
observers, 287 positive definite symmetric matrix, 195
one species with two age classes, 207 positive innerwise, 164
open-loop system, 277 positive limit set, 188
time-invariant control system, 277 positive orbit, 1
operator norm, 155, 156 positively invariant, 188
orbit, 1 power series method, 224
ordinary dichotomy, 331 power shift, 49
Orthogonal polynomials, 387 probability, 141
oscillates, 79, 80, 296 probability vector, 142
oscillating, 79 product, 50
oscillation theory, 296 Product Rule, 51
oscillatory, 296, 311 projection matrix, 337,359
oscillatory solution, 310 propagation of annual plants, 91
properties of the Z-transform, 219
Partial denominator, 366 Putzer algorithm, 106, 108
partial fraction method, 224, 225
partial numerator, 366 Quadratic Liapunov function, 186
particular solution, 72 quotient rules, 50, 51
Patula, 296
PeWs equation, 379 Rabbit problem, 66
period 3 implies chaos, 42 radius of convergence, 216
periodic, 29,156 recessive, 143
periodic attractor, 42 region of convergence, 216
periodic orbit, 29 regular continued fractions, 376
periodic points, 14, 29 regular Markov chain, 143
periodic solution, 139 relation, 317
 426 Index

repeated poles, 226 stabilization of nonlinear systems by

repelling point, 22 feedback, 284
Riccati equation, 85 stable, 10, 157, 167
Riccati transformations, 310 stable economy, 148
Riccati type, 86 Stable manifold theorem, 154,207
Riemann zeta function, 376 Stair Step Cobweb, 14
right-shifting, 219 state feedback, 277
Rodrigues' formula, 392 state transition matrix, 113
Rouche's theorem, 165,236 step size, 13
Routh stability criterion, 250 Stirling numbers, 53
Stirling's formula, 3 I 8
Saddle (unstable), 177 Sturm separation theorem, 309
Scalar equations, 163 summation by parts formula, 52
Schafti's integral, 392 superposition principle, 61
Schur-Cohn criterion, 163, 164, 170 Sylvester's criterion, 194
Schwarzian derivative, 42 symbol 0,315,317
second-order difference equations, 346 symbol 0, 317
second-order linear autonomous symmetric matrices, 126
(time-invariant) systems, 174
T2,31
Sedaghat, 44
T3,31
self-adjoint, 308
table, 250
self-adjoint .second-order equations, 308
tent function, 30
semiasympt~tically stable, 29, 36
tent map, 10
semisimple, 127, 169
3-cycle,31
semisimple eigenvalue, 128
three-term difference equations, 296
semi stability, 24, 25, 29
time domain, 215
Sharkovsky, 44
time-invariant, 2, 106
shift operator, 47
time-variant, 2
shifting, 219
Toeplitz matrix, 150
similar, 120 trade model, 147
similarity transformation, 262 transform method, 2 I 5
simple, 127 transient, 144
simple eigenvalue, 142 transition matrix, 142
simple poles, 225 transmission of information, 97
skew symmetric matrices, 127 tridiagonal Toeplitz, 150
solution, 3, 55 2-cycles, 33, 36
spectral radius, 142 22-cycles, 39
stability, 10 23 -cycle, 39
stability by linear approximation, 198
stability of a k-periodic point, 32 Ultraspherical polynomials, 382
stability of linear systems, 166 uncontrolled system, 251, 252
stability of periodic points, 32 undetermined coefficients, 72
stability of the 2 Cycle, 39 uniform attractivity, 157, 167
stability of Volterra equations, 236 uniformly asymptotically stable, 157,
stability theory, 154 167,169,235,240
stabilizability, 282 uniformly attractive, 157
stabilizable, 282, 283 uniformly stable, 157, 167, 168
stabilization by state feedback, 277 unique solution, 2, 55
 Index 427

uniqueness, 55 Volterra difference equation, 235

unit impulse sequence, 218 of convolution type, 232
unitary matrices, 127 Volterra integrodifferential equation,
unstable, 10, 157 232
unstable fixed point, 36 Volterra Systems, 240
unstable focus, 178, 180
unstable limit cycle, 191 Weierstrass M-test, 333
unstable node, 176 Wimp, 389

Vandermonde determinant, 64, 70 Z -Transform Versus Laplace Transform,

variation of constants formula, 116, 248
245,332 Z-transform, 215
variation of constants parameters, 76 Z-transform pairs, 250
variation of V, 185 zero solution, 158, 169
vector space, 62 zero-order hold, 253
Zhang, 296
Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics
(continuedjrompage ii)

James: Topological and Uniform PeressinilSullivanlUbl: The Mathematics

Spaces. of Nonlinear Programming.
Jiinich: Linear Algebra. PrenowitzlJantosciak: Join Geometries.
Jiinich: Topology. Priestley: Calculus: A Liberal Art.
Kemeny/Snell: Finite Markov Chains. Second edition.
Kinsey: Topology of Surfaces. ProtterlMorrey: A First Course in Real
K1ambauer: Aspects of Calculus. Analysis. Second edition.
Lang: A First Course in Calculus. Fifth ProtterlMorrey: Intermediate Calculus.
edition. Second edition.
Lang: Calculus of Several Variables. Roman: An Introduction to Coding and
Third edition. Information Theory.
Lang: Introduction to Linear Algebra. Ross: Elementary Analysis: The Theory
Second edition. of Calculus.
Lang: Linear Algebra. Third edition. Samuel: Projective Geometry.
Lang: Undergraduate Algebra. Second Readings in Mathematics.
edition. ScharlaulOpolka: From Fermat to
Lang: Undergraduate Analysis. Minkowski.
LaxlBursteinILax: Calculus with SchilT: The Laplace Transform: Theory
Applications and Computing. and Applications.
Volume 1. Sethuraman: Rings, Fields, and Vector
LeCuyer: College Mathematics with Spaces: An Approach to Geometric
APL. Constructability.
LidllPilz: Applied Abstract Algebra. Sigler: Algebra.
Second edition. Silvermanffate: Rational Points on
Logan: Applied Partial Differential Elliptic Curves.
Equations. Simmonds: A Brief on Tensor Analysis.
Macki-Strauss: Introduction to Optimal Second edition.
Control Theory. Singer: Geometry: Plane and Fancy.
MaUtz: Introduction to Mathematical Singerffhorpe: Lecture Notes on
Logic. Elementary Topology and
MarsdenIWeinstein: Calculus I, II, Ill. Geometry.
Second edition. Smith: Linear Algebra. Third edition.
Martin: The Foundations of Geometry Smith: Primer of Modem Analysis.
and the Non-Euclidean Plane. Second edition.
Martin: Geometric Constructions. StantonlWhite: Constructive
Martin: Transformation Geometry: An Combinatorics.
Introduction to Symmetry. Stillwell: Elements of Algebra:
MillmanIParker: Geometry: A Metric Geometry, Numbers, Equations.
Approach with Models. Second Stillwell: Mathematics and Its History.
edition. Stillwell: Numbers and Geometry.
Moschovakis: Notes on Set Theory. Readings in Mathematics.
Owen: A First Course in the Strayer: Linear Programming and Its
Mathematical Foundations of Applications.
Thermodynamics. Thorpe: Elementary Topics in
Palka: An Introduction to Complex Differential Geometry.
Function Theory. Toth: Glimpses of Algebra and
Pedrick: A First Course in Analysis. Geometry.
Readings in Mathematics.
Troutman: Variational Calculus and WhyburnlDuda: Dynamic Topology.
Optimal Control. Second edition. Wilson: Much Ado About Calculus.
Valenza: Linear Algebra: An Introduction
to Abstract Mathematics.