MODULE 2

BEHAVIORAL

THEORIES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

After going through this lesson, the students are expected to:

1. explain the mechanics and principles involved in association learning and

conditioning;

2. compare classical and operant conditioning;

3. give classroom situations where classical and operant conditioning is used by the
teacher;

4. describe situations that illustrate the effects of reinforcement (positive and negative)
and punishment.

INTRODUCTION

Behaviorism (or behaviourism), is an approach to psychology that combines

elements of philosophy, methodology, and theory. It emerged in the early twentieth
century as a reaction to "mentalistic" psychology, which often had difficulty making
predictions that could be tested using rigorous experimental methods. The primary tenet
of behaviorism, as expressed in the writings of John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner, and others,
is that psychology should concern itself with the observable behavior of people and
animals, not with unobservable events that take place in their minds. The behaviorist
school of thought maintains that behaviors as such can be described scientifically without
recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as
thoughts and beliefs.

From early psychology in the 19th century, the behaviorist school of thought ran
concurrently and shared commonalities with the psychoanalytic and Gestalt movements
in psychology into the 20th century; but also differed from the mental philosophy of the
Gestalt psychologists in critical ways. Its main influences were Ivan Pavlov, who
investigated classical conditioning although he did not necessarily agree with
behaviorism or behaviorists, Edward Lee Thorndike, John B. Watson who rejected
introspective methods and sought to restrict psychology to experimental methods, and
B.F. Skinner who conducted research on operant conditioning.

In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a
result of the cognitive revolution. While behaviorism and cognitive schools of
psychological thought may not agree theoretically, they have complemented each other in
practical therapeutic applications, such as in cognitive–behavioral therapy that has
demonstrable utility in treating certain pathologies, such as simple phobias, PTSD, and
addiction. In addition, behaviorism sought to create a comprehensive model of the stream
of behavior from the birth of a human to their death (see Behavior analysis of child
development).

LESSON 2

CLSSICAL CONDITIONING

Behaviorist Advocates

1. John B. Watson (1878-1958)

• Watson believed that human
behavior resulted from specific
stimuli that elicited certain
responses.
• Watson's basic premise was that
conclusions about human
development should be based on
observation of overt behavior rather
than speculation about subconscious
motives or latent cognitive
processes. (Shaffer, 2000).

• Watson's view of learning was based in part on the studies of Ivan Pavlov (1849-
1936).

2. Ivan Petrovich Pavlov ( 1849-1936)

He was a Russian physiologist known
primarily for his work in classical conditioning.

Classical conditioning occurs when a person

forms a mental association between two stimuli so
that encountering one stimulus makes the person
think of the other stimulus. People tend to form these
mental connections between stimuli that occur
simultaneously or become closely together in time
and space.

In his experiments on digestion, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov noticed that the
dogs in his laboratory began to salivate just at the mere sight of the keeper, even before
they could see or smell the food to be given.
 His series of experiments led to the formulation of Classical Conditioning, which
won for Pavlov the Nobel Prize in 1904 (Tria, Limpingco and Jao (1998). Classical
conditioning is a type of learning wherein an organism learns to connect or associate
stimuli. A neutral stimulus (such as the sight of a person) becomes associated with a
meaningful stimulus (such as food) and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response
(Santrock 2001).

Classical conditioning involves two types of stimuli and two types of responses.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) is one that by itself “naturally” produces an

unconditioned response (UR) without any prior training or learning. In Pavlov’s
experiments, food or meat powder is the US. Salivation is an unconditioned response
(UR) because it is a natural or automatic reaction to food, especially for one who is
hungry. Thus, every time the food is presented, the dog salivates.

A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral one that eventually elicits a

conditioned response after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus (food). The
bell was a first a neutral stimulus and the dog did not salivate with the sound of the bell.
But with repeated pairing of the ringing of the bell with the food, the bell acquired the
characteristics of the food, that is eliciting salivation on the dog.

The bell became a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the dog’s salivation to the sound
of the bell is a conditioned response (CR). According to Santrock, (2001) conditioned
response is a learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after the US-CS
pairing.

This type of learning by conditioning is illustrated as follows:

Before Conditioning

Neutral Stimulus (bell) ----------------- Response (no salivation)

U S (food) --------------------- U R (dog salivates)

During Conditioning

Neutral Stimulus (bell) + U S (food) ------------ U R (dog salivates)

After Conditioning

C S (bell) --------------------- C R (dog salivates)

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning involves four main processes: acquisition, generalization,

discrimination, and extinction.

1. Acquisition

This involves the initial learning of the conditioned response. For example, the
dog learning to salivate at the sound of the bell. Two important factors that can affect the
speed of conditioning during the acquisition phase are the order and timing of the stimuli.
Conditioning occurs most quickly when the conditioned response (bell) precedes the
unconditioned stimulus (food) by about half a second. If the time interval is quite long or
if the food is presented first before the bell, conditioning is less likely to occur.
2. Generalization

It involves the tendency of a new stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to
produce a similar response. In the experiment of John Watson on the baby named Albert,
the fear of white rat that was developed in Albert was generalized to other white and
furry animals. In like manner, a student who developed fear in a male teacher after an
embarrassing incident may later fear all male teachers.

3. Discrimination

In contrast to generalization, in discrimination, an individual learns to produce a

conditioned response to one stimulus but not to another stimulus that is similar. For
example, a child may show a fear response to large black dogs roaming in the yard, but
not to dogs that are in a cage.

4. Extinction

A conditioned response (salivation) can be eliminated or weakened by repeatedly

presenting the conditioned stimulus (bell), without the unconditioned stimulus (food).
Thus, the bell loses its capacity to elicit a conditioned response (salivation).

5. Spontaneous Recovery

A response that had been learned and then extinguished can reappear spontaneously when
the conditioned stimulus is again presented. Spontaneous recovery indicates that learning
is not permanently lost.

Applications and Contributions of Classical Conditioning

1. It helps us understand some concepts of learning better than others. It excels in

explaining how neutral stimuli become associated with unlearned involuntary
responses.

2. It aids in explaining many emotional responses such as happiness, excitement, anger

and anxiety- that people have for certain stimuli.

3. It helps explain the underlying cause of some phobias – which are irrational or
excessive fears of specific objects or situations.

4. Classical conditioning procedures are likewise used to treat phobias and other
unwanted behaviors such as alcoholism and addictions.
 LESSON 3
OPERANT CONDITIONING

3. B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

Skinner developed a more

comprehensive view of conditioning,
known as operant conditioning

Operant Conditioning\

Burrhus Freferick Skinner used to term “operant conditioning” because he

described the organism as “operating” on and influenced by the environment. Whereas
classical conditioning illustrates S-R pattern, operant conditioning is often viewed as R-S
learning. It is the consequence that follows the response that influences whether the
response will be repeated.

In the famous Skinner’s box, there is a lever or bar that operates to dispense
pellets or food. A hungry rat was placed inside the box. As the rat moves around and
explores the box, it accidentally pressed the lever that dispensed the food. Later, the rat
was conditioned to “intentionally” press the lever to get the food.
Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior
produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur (Santrock 2001). These
consequences of behavior are reinforcement and punishment

Reinforcement (reward) is a consequence that increases the probability that a behavior

will occur, while punishment is a consequence that decreases the possibility for the
occurrence of a behavior. Reinforcement can be positive or negative. In positive
reinforcement, a behavior increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus (such
as a praise). In negative reinforcement, a behavior increases because the consequence is a
removal of an unpleasant stimulus. The result in both is reinforced behavior. Examples of
Reinforcement and Punishment are as follows:

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE FUTURE BEHAVIOR

Student gives a good Teacher praises the student. Student give more
answer to teacher’s good answers
questions.

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE FUTURE BEHAVIOR

Student submits Teacher stops Student increasingly

Homework on time criticizing student. submits homework
on time.

PUNISHMENT
BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCE FUTURE BEHAVIOR
Student makes noise Teacher verbally Student stops
in class reprimands the student. making noise in class

Schedules of Reinforcement

Skinner developed schedules of reinforcement which are important to determine

when a response will be reinforced.

1. Continuous Reinforcement - the behavior is followed by a consequence each time it

occurs. For example, every time the student volunteers to erase the blackboard, the
teacher gives praises.
2. Intermittent Reinforcement – this is based either on the passage of time (interval
schedule) or the number of correct responses emitted (ratio schedule). It consist of
four types:
a. Fixed ratio – a behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses. This
schedule is recommended for learning a new behavior.
Examples: a weekly quiz; a candy for every 5 correct words spelled.

b. Variable ratio – a behavior is reinforced after an average number of times which

changes on an unpredictable basis. This schedule is best for maintaining
behavior. For example a reward is given after the 2nd correct response, after 8
more correct responses, then after the next 5 more correct responses.

c. Fixed-interval – the first appropriate response after a fixed amount of time is

reinforced. For example, a praise is given to a correct response after every 2
minutes have elapsed.

d. Variable- interval – a response is reinforced after a variable amount of time has

elapsed. For example, the teacher might praise a student after 5 minutes, then
after 8 minutes, then after 15 minutes have gone by.

Implications of Pavlov’s Theory to Classroom Situations

1. The theory believed that one must be able to practice and master a task effectively
before embarking on another one. This means that a student needs to be able to
respond to a particular stimulus (information) before he/she can be associated with a
new one.
2. Teachers should know how to motivate their students to learn. They should be
versatile with various strategies that can enhance effective participation of the
students in the teaching learning activities.
3. Most of the emotional responses can be learned through classical conditioning. A
negative or positive response comes through the stimulus being paired with. For
example, providing the necessary school material for primary school pupils will
develop good feelings about school and learning in them, while, punishment will
discourage them from attending the school.

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