QUESTION NO 1:

Experiment:
To measure Electrical Conductivity by using two probe or four
probe method.
Introduction:
Electrical resistivity is a basic material property that quantifies a material’s opposition to
current flow; it is the reciprocal of conductivity. The resistivity of a material depends upon
several factors, including the material doping, processing, and environmental factors such as
temperature and humidity. The resistivity of the material can affect the characteristics of a
device of which it’s made, such as the series resistance, threshold voltage, capacitance, and
other parameters.
Determining the resistivity of a material is common in both research and fabrication
environments. There are many methods for determining the resistivity of a material, but the
technique may vary depending upon the type of material, magnitude of the resistance, shape,
and thickness of the material. One of the most common ways of measuring the resistivity of
some thin, flat materials, such as semiconductors or conductive coatings, uses a four-point
collinear probe.

Four probe method:

Four Probe method is one of the standard & most commonly used method for the accurate
measurement of resistivity. It overcomes the problem of contact resistance and also offer
several other advantages. Accurate resistivity measurement in samples having a variety of
shapes is possible by this method. The pressure contacts provided in the Four Point
Arrangement are especially useful for quick measurement. This setup can measure samples of
reasonably wide resistivity range (micro ohm to mega ohm).
Resistivity of Germanium (semiconductor) crystals or slices: In order to use this four probe
method in germanium crystals or slices it is necessary to assume that: The resistivity of the
material is uniform in the area of measurement and a non conducting boundary is produced
when the surface of the crystal is in contact with an insulator. The derivation of equations given
below are involved. For each case it is assumed that the probes are equally spaced (spacing =s).
Principle :
Ohm's law: If physical conditions (like temperature, mechanical stress) remains unchanged,
then potential difference across two ends of a conductor is proportional to current flowing
through it 𝑉 ∝ 𝐼, 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 The constant of proportionality, R, is called resistance of the conductor.

Resistivity: At a constant temperature, the resistance, R, of a conductor is (i) proportional to its

length and (ii) inversely proportional to its area of cross-section, R = ρ
The constant of proportionality, ρ , is called resistivity of material of the conductor. Resistivity
of a material is equal to the resistance offered by a wire of this material of unit length and unit
cross-sectional area. Unit of resistance is ohm (Ω), and unit of resistivity is ohm-meter ( Ω-m )

Apparatus: Four probe apparatus, sample (a Ge crystal in form of a chip), oven, thermometer
(260o ) constant power supply, oven power supply, panel meters for measurement of current
and voltage.

Procedure:
(1) The setting of 4-point probes on the semiconductor chip is a delicate process. So first
understand well the working of the apparatus. The semiconductor chip and probe set is costly.
(2) Note the values of probe spacing (S) and the thickness (W) of the semiconductor chip. Note
the type of semiconductor (germanium or something else).
(3) Make the circuit as shown in Fig.1. Put the sample in the oven (normally already placed by
lab instructor) at room temperature.
(4) Pass a milliampere range current (say 5 mA) in the sample using constant current power
supply.
 (5) The reading of the current through the sample is measured using milliammeter provided for
this purpose. The voltage is measured by a high impedance milli voltmeter connected to the
inner probes. The readings can be taken alternately on digital meter provided for this purpose.
(6) Note temperature of sample (oven) using thermometer inserted in the oven for this
purpose.
(7) The oven temperature is increased a little, and its temperature noted after reaching steady
state. Again the constant current reading (advised to be kept the same) and the corresponding
voltage readings are taken.
(8) Repeat the procedure for different temperatures. Note the data in the observation table.
(9) For each temperature, calculate the resistivity by using the relation.
𝜌0 2𝜋𝑆 𝑉
𝜌= 𝑤 = 𝑤
𝐺7 ( ) 𝐺7 ( ) 𝐼
𝑆 𝑆

In order to use the four-probe method, it is assumed that:

1. The resistivity of the material is uniform in the area of measurement.
2. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.
3. The four probes used for resistivity measurements are equally spaced and collinear.
4. The surfaces of the material may be either conducting or non-conducting.
A conducting boundary (such as copper) is one on which the sample is plated or placed. A non-
conducting boundary is produced when the surface of the sample is in contact with aninsulator.

Model for the four probe resistivity measurement

 Circuit used for resistivity measurement

Observations:

1. Semiconductor chip material = Germanium

2. Spacing (distance) between the probes, s = 2.0 mm = ......... m.
3. Thickness of the sample, w =0.5 mm = ............ m.
Current ( I ) = ……mA
Calculations:
Explanation of Graph-2
The resistivity of a Germanium crystal as a function of inverse temperature. For this sample
when T < T’ 0K i.e. region (1), conduction is mainly due to the impurity carriers ( extrinsic
region ). For T > T’ 0K conduction is due to electrons transferred to the conduction band
and the corresponding holes created in the valence band (this is the intrinsic region).
Resistivity and Conductivity

The resistivity of a material is the opposing force a material exerts to prevent flow of current when
voltage is applied across it and conductivity depends upon the number of free carriers (electrons) and their
mobility. If the resistivity of a material is known, the resistance of a rectangular block of material is determined
by
R=pL/wt=pL/A
Where R is the resistance of the material measured in ohms, ρ is the resistivity of material (ohm.cm), L =
length of the material from contact to contact, w = width, t = thickness, A = wt = cross- sectional area.
The resistivity can be derived by using following formula:

p=RA/L
The conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity.

Result:
The temperature dependence of the resistivity of semiconductor (germanium) chip is as shown
in the graph (2) . The resistivity decreases exponentially with the increase in T. That is as at low
temperatures resistivity is more and at high temperatures the resistivity is less.
While the conductivity and resistivity are reciprocal.As resistivity decreases with an increase in
temperature ,the conductivity will also increase as temperature increases .

Two probe method:

Model for measurement of resistivity by two probe

Introduction:
The Two Probe Method is one of the standard and most commonly used method for the measurement
of resistivity of very high resistivity samples like sheets/films of polymers. The resistivity measurement
of such samples is beyond the range of Four Probe Method.

Descripton of experimental set up:

1. Two Probes Arrangement
It has two spring load contact probes. These probes move in a pipe and are insulated by Teflon
washers. This probes arrangement is mounted in suitable stand, which also hold the sample
plate and RTD sensor. The stand also serves as the lid of PID controlled Oven. Teflon coated
leads are provide for connecting with High Voltage Power Supply EHT-11 and Digital
Picoammeter DPM-111. With the set-up assuming max. voltage = 1500V; current 100x10-12 A
(max) and thickness of sample 1mm. The resistivity of the sample could be measured upto 1014
ohm.cm.
2. PID Controlled Oven
This is a high quality temperature controlled oven suitable for Four Probe Set-up. The oven has
been designed for fast heating and cooling rates, which enhances the effectiveness of the
controller. While the basic design of the controller is around the PID configuration for its
obvious advantages, wastage of power is avoided by using a Pulse Width Modulated (PMW)
switch. This combination has the advantages of both on-off controller and linear PID controller.
The result is a good stable and accurate temperature control.

Two Probe Method For Resistivity Measurement of Near Insulators at Different Temperatures
(Ambient to 200oC)
Platinum RTD has been used for sensing the temperature. A wheatstone bridge and an
instrumentation amplifier are used for signal conditioning. Feedback circuit ensures offset and
linearity trimming to a great degree of accuracy. The set and measured temperature are
displayed on 3½ digit DPM through selector switch.
Procedure: This is the simplest method of measuring resistivity and is illustrated in fig In this
method, voltage drop V across the sample and current through the sample I are measured.
Then the resistivity is given as :
𝑉𝐴
𝜌= 𝐼𝐿

This method is useful when the sample has large resistance.

Advantage of four probe method over two probe method

Four point probe is preferred than two-point probe as the contact and spreading resistances in
two point probe are large and the true resistivity cannot be actually separated from measured
resistivity. In the four probe method, contact and spreading resistances are very low with
voltage probes and hence accuracy in measurement is usually very high. To measure very low
resistance values, four probe method is used. The resistance of probe will be not be added to
that of sample being tested. It uses two wires to inject current in the resistance and another
two wires to measure the drop against the resistance.

Question no:2
Experiment :
Characteristics of GM counter and study of fluctuations in
random process.
Introduction:
Geiger-Müller (GM) counters were invented by H. Geiger and E.W. Müller in 1928, and are
used to detect radioactive particles.
 A typical GM Counter consists of a GM tube having a thin end window (e.g. made of mica), a
high voltage supply for the tube, a scalar to record the number of particles detected by the
tube, and a timer which will stop the action of the scalar At the end of a preset interval.
DEFINITION:
A Geiger counter (Geiger-Muller tube) is a device used for the detection and measurement of
all types of radiation: alpha, beta and gamma radiation. Basically it consists of a pair of
electrodes surrounded by a gas. The electrodes have a high voltage across them. The gas used
is usually Helium or Argon. When radiation enters the tube it can ionize the gas. The ions (and
electrons) are attracted to the electrodes and an electric current is produced. A scaler counts
the current pulses, and one obtains a ”count” whenever radiation ionizes the gas.

Construction of GM counter:
• CYLINDER:It is a sealed glass tube of radius 2-3cm enclosing a coaxial metal cylinder
serving as a cathode.
• Thin metal wire: it is Stretched along the axis of cylinder and serves as anode.The free
end of anode is covered with glass bead.
 • THIN window: made of mica or other materials provided for counting less penetrating
radiation like alpha or beta rays.
• INERT GAS like argon is filled in glass tube with vapours of some volatile compound like
ethyl alcohol(quenching vapour )in ratio 10: 1 is added to it .In some counters neon gas
mixed with traces of halogen (e.g Bromine as a quenching vapour) is used.
• The gases must be free from electro negative impurities such as carbondioxide and
oxygen which will tend to form negative ions and initiate secondary avalanche.

Geiger counter principle:

The apparatus consists of two parts, the tube and the (counter
+ power supply). The Geiger-Mueller tube is usually cylindrical, with a wire down the center.
The (counter + power supply) have voltage controls and timer options. A high voltage is
established across the cylinder and the wire as shown on the page of figures. When ionizing
radiation such as an alpha, beta or gamma particle enters the tube, it can ionize some of the
gas molecules in the tube. From these ionized atoms, an electron is knocked out of the atom,
and the remaining atom is positively charged. The high voltage in the tube produces an electric
field inside the tube. The electrons that were knocked out of the atom are attracted to the
positive electrode, and the positively charged ions are attracted to the negative electrode. This
produces a pulse of current in the wires connecting the electrodes, and this pulse is counted.
After the pulse is counted, the charged ions become neutralized, and the Geiger counter is
ready to record another pulse. In order for the Geiger counter tube to restore itself quickly to
its original state after radiation has entered, a gas is added to the tube.
READOUT:
There are two types of radiation readout.
• Count PER SECOND :- The counts display is the smallest and is the number of ionizing
events displayed either as count rate ,commonly “counts per rate”,or as a total over a
 set time period .The counts read out are normally used when alpha or beta particles are
detected.
• RADIATION DOSE: More complex to achieve display of radiation dose per rate.
• It is displayed in a unit such as the “SIEVERT” which is normally used for measuring
gamma or X-RAY dose rates.
QUENCHING:
Elimination of positive sheath around central wire is quenching .

 EXTERNAL QUENCHNG: is achieved by using external load resistence in series with the
tube.
 INTERNAL QUENCHING: is achieved using gases either polyatomic or halogen.

Characteristics of GM counter:
• The rate of counting is recorded as function of voltage.A graph between voltage and
rate of counting is called characteristic curve of counter.
• When voltage is low counter operates in ionization chamber region where there is no
gas amplification.The voltage pulse will be small and no counts will be recorded unless
the voltage exceeds Vs the threshold VOLTAGE.
• As voltage increases over Vs ,counting rate increases as gas amplification sets in and
output pulse size increases.this is region of PROPORTIONAL COUNTER where more and
more low enegetic particles are counted until point C is reached .From this point
ownwards counting rate become constant .The flat region CD is called Plateau of
counter.
AVALNCHE EFFECT(Townsend avalanche):
 Townsend avalanche is a gas ionization process where free electrons are accelerated by
an electric field ,collide with gas molecules ,and consequently free additional electrons.
 Those electrons are in turn accelerated and free additional electrons .The result is an
avalanche multiliplication that permits electrical conduction through the gas.The
discharge requires a source of free electrons and a significant ELECTRIC FIELD :without
both the phenomenon does not occur.
DEAD TIME:It is the time during which counter is completely insensitive.The dead time is
usually 200-400 𝜇𝑠.

Recovery time: it is the time after which the originl pilse level is restored.
Efficiency of counting: The ratio of the number of counts observed per unit time to the
number of ionizing particle which pass through the counter during the time (N) is called
efficiency of counting .
𝑛
𝜂=
𝑁
APPARATUS:
• Set-up for ST-350 Counter
• GM Tube and stand
• shelf stand, serial cable, and a source holder
• Radioactive Source (e.g., Cs-137, Sr-90, or Co-60)

PROCEDURE:
1. After setting up the GM tube and electronics we can start our experiment. Place the source
at a distance of around 6 mm. One can set up a starting voltage say around 650 V with a step
voltage of say 20 V. Set the preset time of 30 s.
2. Initially no counts will be registered. Around 750 V, there will be sudden increase in the
counts, which would saturate around 800V. Though a small increase in counts will be registered
through the experiment.
3. Stop the experiment at around 1200 V or before.
4. As we know that there are background counts in the laboratory. So, whatever counts we
have registered, have to be corrected for background counts. One can repeat the steps 1-3,
without a source. The process should be repeated twice or thrice and average of the same
should be taken to be the background at each voltage. Make sure that no source lies nearby
otherwise that might contribute to the background count.
5. Subtract the corresponding background count from each reading and register the correct
counts vs voltage in table1.
6. A demo labeled plot of Counts vs Voltage is shown in Fig.4. You should plot Corrected Count
Rate vs Voltage.

Observation and Calculation:

CONCLUSION:
GEIGER MULLER COUNTERS ARE REGARDED AS ONE OF THE WORLDS best radiation detection
instruments and is used widely and prominently as a hand-held radiation survey
instrument.THIS device is very popular due to robust sensing element and relatively low
cost.However there are limitations in measuring high radiation rates and energy of incident
radiation.
Geiger –Muller counters are used in numerous fields and it is even regarded as an indispensable
tool for the detection and measurement of ionizing radiation.
ADVANTAGES:
a) Very useful for detecting nuclear particles like alpha ,beta,phonons and charged
particles.
b) Very sensitive even for production of single ion pair
c) Pulse height is independent of nature and energy of incident particle or radiation.
d) Height of pulse is almost constant over a wide range of applied voltage.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. These detectors have low efficiency of counting Gamma rays.
2. These detectors lack information of detected particles.
3. Detector cannot detect uncharged particle like neutrons.
4. GM tube has limited life because of quenching gases.
APPLICATIONS:
• For the detection of alpha and Beta particles.
• To detect radioactive rocks and minerals in the course of mineral prospecting or as a
mineral collector
• To check for environmental levels of radioactivity.
• For Fire and Police responders to a analysis for making an initial determination of
radiation risk.
PRECAUTIONS:
 Do not let anything touch the window. It is very fragile .
 Do not ever apply a high voltage beyond the plateau region, as the tube will be
damaged.
 Count rates of more than 100000/min will likely be subject to some coincidence error