Rasa Shāstra

by the same author

Jyotish
The Art of Vedic Astrology ISBN 978 1 84819 210 2
eISBN 978 0 85701 160 2

of related interest

Āyurvedic Medicine
The Principles of Traditional Practice Sebastian Pole
ISBN 978 1 84819 113 6
eISBN 978 0 85701 091 9

Āyurvedic Healing
Contemporary Maharishi Āyurveda Medicine and Science

2nd edition
Hari Sharma, MD and Christopher Clark, MD
ISBN 978 1 84819 069 6
eISBN 978 0 85701 063 6

Vital Healing
Energy, Mind and Spirit in Traditional Medicines of India,
Tibet and the Middle East – Middle Asia Marc S. Micozzi, MD, PhD
with Donald McCown and Mones Abu-Asab, PhD (Unani), Hakima Amri, PhD
(Unani), Kevin Ergil, MA, MS, LAc (Tibet), Howard Hall, PsyD, PhD (Sufi), Hari
Sharma, MD (Maharishi Āyurveda), Kenneth G. Zysk, Dphil, PhD (Āyurveda &
Siddha) ISBN 978 1 84819 045 0 (hardback)
ISBN 978 1 84819 156 3 (paperback)
eISBN 978 0 85701 025 4
Rasa Shāstra
The Hidden Art of Medical Alchemy

ANDREW MASON
Foreword by Vaidya Ātreya Smith

LONDON AND PHILADELPHIA

First published in 2014
by Singing Dragon
an imprint of Jessica Kingsley Publishers

73 Collier Street
London N1 9BE, UK
and
400 Market Street, Suite 400
Philadelphia, PA 19106, USA www.singingdragon.com

Copyright © Andrew Mason 2014

Foreword copyright © Vaidya Ātreya Smith 2014

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any

material form (including photocopying or storing it in any medium by electronic
means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this
publication) without the written permission of the copyright owner except in
accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988
or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd,
Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Applications for the
copyright owner’s written permission to reproduce any part of this publication
should be addressed to the publisher.

Warning: The doing of an unauthorised act in relation to a copyright work may

result in both a civil claim for damages and criminal prosecution.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Mason, Andrew

(Ayurvedic therapist), author.
Rasa shastra : the hidden art of medical alchemy / Andrew Mason ; foreword
by Vaidya Atreya Smith.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-84819-107-5 (alk. paper) I. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Alchemy. 2. Medicine, Ayurvedic. 3. Mercury Compounds--
therapeutic use.
4. Metals--
therapeutic use. 5. Minerals--therapeutic use. WB 55.A9]
R733
615.5’38--dc23
2013031852

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A CIP catalogue record for

this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 1 84819 107 5
eISBN 978 0 85701 088 9
Dedicated to my wife Atsuko and
daughter Himiko
 CONTENTS
Foreword by Vaidya Ātreya Smith

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

DISCLAIMER

Introduction: Sri Lanka

1 Introduction
2 Return to Sri Lanka
3 Practical
4 Journey to the Factory
5 Setting up Shop
6 Contents
7 Final Result
8 Return

NOTES

Part I: What is Rasa Shāstra?

Sagar Manthan (Churning of the Milky Ocean)

Section 1 Overview of Āyurveda

1.1 Ancient Technology
1.2 Origins
1.3 Rasa Shāstra
1.4 Health and Longevity in Āyurveda
1.5 Ṣaḍkiryakalas
1.6 Ojas and Sapta Dhātu
1.7 Actions of Taste
1.8 Ṣaḍupakarmas
1.9 Pañcakarma
1.10 Patients Unsuited for Saṁśodhana

Section 2 Metals and Metal-working

2.1 Metallurgy and Healing
2.2 Loha (Metal)
 2.3 Ariloha and Dhalana
2.4 Metallic Immune Booster

Section 3 Visha (Toxins)

3.1 Origins of Visha
3.2 Visha as Antidote
3.3 Signs of Visha
3.4 Visha as Medicine
3.5 Caste of Visha
3.6 Snake Venom

NOTES

Part II: Workshop, Equipment, Method and Apparatus

Section 4 Siting of Rasashala
4.1 Siting of the Workshop
4.2 Sarpa (Snakes)
4.3 Modern Interpretations
4.4 Celestial Considerations
4.5 Final Note

Section 5 Selection of Apprentices

5.1 Alchemist and Apprentice
5.2 Samudrik Shāstra
5.3 Hast Rekha Shāstra
5.4 Shodhana (Purification)

Section 6 Preparation of Medicines

6.1 Testing of Alchemical Preparations
6.2 Mercury (A Special Case)
6.3 Khalwa Yantra (Pestle and Mortar)
6.4 Automation (Man vs. Machine)
6.5 Mediums Used for Bhavana
6.6 Mārana (Calcination)
6.7 Puṭa Paka (Temperature)
6.8 Pisti (Anagnitapta Bhasma)
6.9 Anupāna: Vehicle of Delivery
 NOTES

Part III: Materials, Formula and Processing

Rasa Materials: Quick Reference Guide

Section 7 Mercury
7.1 Use of Mercury-based Medicines
7.2 Origins of Mercury and its Impurities
7.3 Transmutation of Base Metals
7.4 Extraction of Mercury from Cinnabar
7.5 Ancient Tibetan Sources of Mercury
7.6 Common Purification of Mercury
7.7 Kajjali (Black Sulphide of Mercury)
7.8 Rasa Parpati
7.9 Makara Dwaja (Mercuric Sulphide)
7.10 Mercury: Planet and Metal
7.11 Hiṅgula (Cinnabar)
7.12 Summing Up and Dangers of Mercury

Section 8 Minerals
8.1 Use of Mineral-based Medicines
8.2 Sulphur
8.3 Bitumen
8.4 Arsenic Trisulphide
8.5 Rasa Maanikya

Section 9 Metals
9.1 Use of Metal-based Medicines
9.2 Copper
9.3 Tin
9.4 Zinc

Section 10 Gemstones
10.1 Origins and Use of Gemstone-based Medicines
10.2 Diamond
10.3 Red Agate
10.4 Blue Sapphire
 Section 11 Animal Products
11.1 Use of Animal Products as Medicines
11.2 Deer Horn
11.3 Pearl
11.4 Peacock Feather

Section 12 Plants
12.1 Use of Plant-based Medicines
12.2 Dattura
12.3 Aconite
12.4 Bhallātaka (Bhilawan Nut)

Section 13 The Living Tradition of Herbo-Mineral Medicines

13.1 Rasa Formulae
13.2 Rasa Shāstra in Therapy: Memorial Herbal Immunotherapy Research
and Cancer Information Centre, Niripola, Hanwella, Sri Lanka
13.3 Research into Rasa
13.4 Rasa Shāstra in the Media
13.5 Contamination
13.6 Conclusion

NOTES

Part IV: Celestial Connections

Section 14 Introduction
14.1 Visit to a Sri Lankan Shaman
14.2 Jyotish: The Science of Light

Section 15 Ayanāṃśa
15.1 Ayanāṃśa: 0º Aries
15.2 Applying Ayanāṃśa

Section 16 Introduction to Medical Astrology

16.1 Story of the Kalapurusha (Medical Astrology)
16.2 Health in the Zodiac

Section 17 Signs of the Zodiac

17.1 Planet/Sign Rulership
17.2 Element, Dosha and Karma
17.3 Orientation, Strength and Disposition of Signs

Section 18 The Planets

18.1 Introduction to the Graha (Planets)
18.2 Surya (Sun)
18.3 Chandra (Moon)
18.4 Buddha (Mercury)
18.5 Kuja (Mars)
18.6 Shukra (Venus)
18.7 Guru (Jupiter)
18.8 Shani (Saturn)
18.9 Rahu and Ketu
18.1
0 Mandi (Upagraha)
18.1
1 Friendships, Enmity and Neutrality of Planets

Section 19 Pacifying the Graha

19.1 Propitiation
19.2 Planetary Gemstones
19.3 Nava Ratna
19.4 Yagyas and Yantras

Section 20 Houses and Signs

20.1 Introduction
20.2 The Signs
20.3 The Houses
20.4 Special Houses

Section 21 Nakshatra
21.1 The 27 Nakshatras
21.2 The Moon, Soma and Nakshatra
21.3 Nakshatrapurusha

Section 22 In Conclusion
22.1 Directing Outcomes: The Demon King of Lanka
 22.2 Jyotish and Rasa Shāstra
22.3 Summing Up

NOTES

APPENDIX 1: MISCELLANEOUS RASA INFORMATION

APPENDIX 2: CATALOGUE OF MATERIALS AND THEIR USE

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

BIBLIOGRAPHY

RESOURCES

INDEX
Foreword The book you are
now holding in your hands is a
gem. Desire is a necessary
ingredient to obtain any
precious stone; the gem you
hold is no exception. The
author had a burning desire to
devote his life to the pursuit of
ancient knowledge (guarded
to this day by a select few)
and to master this knowledge
to the point that it can be
shared with the general
population. This
understanding has been
purified slowly by the fire of
knowledge – born from
experience and hard knocks;
 true clarity of the ancient
science of alchemy has found
expression in these pages.

It is a difficult task to learn the fabled skills that most of

us believe to be nothing more than a myth. Equally difficult
were the cultural differences that the author struggled to
understand, adapt to, overcome and eventually embrace as
his own during his prolonged apprenticeship. True
knowledge of any subject is not easy to come by, and
reading this book shows me how fully the author has
imbibed the art and science of alchemy. This is exhibited by
his clear explanations of a methodology that is intentionally
kept in obscurity.
The origins of Indian history are obscured by time. Oral
tradition in India tells us that the basis of Indian culture is
presented in the Vedas. These are four groups of verses or
hymns and are named as Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda
and Atharva Veda. They are known as Apaurusheya,
meaning that they have not evolved from a human mind;
rather, they are conceived by the divine mind or Atman.
They are eternal and have no beginning or end. Together
they form what is called the Sanatana Dharma, or the
‘eternal truth’. Thus, the Veda cannot be limited historically
to any period of history or pre-history as understood by
historians who formed the history of India in the European
colonial era.
My teacher told me that the current Vedic era is more
than 40,000 years old. This is the Brahmin tradition. It is
important to understand that India is a culture based on
oral tradition – not on written tradition. The history of
Āyurveda, traditional Indian medicine, is shrouded in
mystery because ancient Indian culture felt that writing
was an inferior method of record keeping. Indians are well
known to be able to memorise 40,000 to 200,000 sutras
(verses or hymns) and recite them flawlessly with perfect
Sanskrit intonation and metre. A master of this art can not
only recite the verses perfectly, but can also recite them
backwards from the end of the text to the beginning
flawlessly!
Because of this particular view of learning and data
recording, very little has been written about ancient India
by the Indians themselves. Unfortunately, most Western
scholars try to date Indian and Āyurvedic texts by the style
of written Sanskrit. This is a major flaw when trying to
understand the historical origins of an oral tradition.
Writing is a relatively new development in India, and hence
it limits the Veda, Āyurveda and other traditional
knowledge to the last few thousand years. We do know a
great deal about ancient India from the Chinese and
Persians, who were great writers and historians. Thus,
most of what we have in recorded history about ancient
India and Āyurvedic medicine comes from foreign
merchants or scholars, not necessarily doctors. Judging
from the records of the Chinese we can surmise that
Āyurveda began to be formulated into public health care
prior to 3000 BC. This is supported by archeological
discoveries in the last decade that have found cities in the
Indus valley region more than 7000 years old that have
indoor plumbing, attached bathrooms and sewer systems to
evacuate waste.
The history of medicine is clear that the most important
discovery for the health of humanity has not been vaccines,
medicines or alchemy, but public sanitation. Therefore, it is
illogical to assume that the public health of large, ancient
cities was an arbitrary manifestation of luck. Moreover, it is
clearly stated in the oldest Āyurvedic text, the Caraka
Saṃhitā, that Āyurveda came into being from the concern
of the wise men (Rishi) of the period who saw the grouping
of people into city environments as a major concern for
general health and welfare due to disease epidemics.
Āyurveda developed from the physical and sociological
needs of humanity in that time and place.
The alchemical tradition in India’s Āyurvedic medicine is
called Rasa Shāstra. While there is a radical difference in
modern historians’ view of Āyurveda and that of the oral
tradition passed down over several thousand years, the
development of alchemy is historically well documented.
The author explains this beautifully, and the relations
between the ancient cultures is intriguing – bordering on
passionate. Rasa Shāstra takes undigestible substances,
such as metals and minerals, and transforms them into
substances that are easy for the human body to assimilate.
This is the first book to clearly present Rasa Shāstra to
Westerners. It is also one of the most enlightening books on
ancient alchemy ever published. This book will be of great
interest to students of Āyurveda. However, its interest is
not limited to those passionate about traditional medicine,
as it is an extremely interesting medical text regardless of
one’s orientation in medical practice. Additionally, the
general public will find this book a fascinating study of
history and a cultural journey worthy of the most
experienced antique traveller. I have thoroughly enjoyed
travelling through time while reading this book and
recommend it to everyone interested in the timeless
knowledge of alchemy.
Vaidya Ātreya Smith Director of several schools for
Āyurveda in Europe, and
author of six books on Āyurvedic medicine
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to extend his appreciation to the
following people, without whom this book could not have
been written.

My sincere thanks go to:

David Blackwell, Douglas Whyte, Udaya Dandunnage, Don
Gunasena Ranatunga, Priyanta Senanayake, Siddharth
Hooda, Steve Hubball, Andrew Kirk, Andrew Foss, Thomas
Kirschner, Philip Lawrence, Alex Florshultz, Dr
Ghanashyam Marda, Peter Hochmeier, Sebastian Hirsch,
Heiner Fruehauf, Andrew and Laura Shakeshaft, Danny
Cavanagh, Wynn Werner, Jonathan Edwards, Thomas
Mueller, Jane Adams, Andrew and Sara Cross, Mangesh
Tembhurne, Dr Yamini Bhusan, Wendy Graham, Fred
Hecktil and Biopharm (UK), Kate Andrew, Dr Pranit
Ambulkar, Takao Yamamoto, Kavirāja H.S. Sharma, Donna
Nunn, Sebastian Pole, Dominik and Dagmar Wujastyk and
all the staff at Mansuva Clinic (Colombo) and their factory
facility in Dompe (Sri Lanka 2004–2005).

With special thanks to:

Dr Janaki Perera, Dr Rukman Jayasinghe, Dr Mauroof
Athique, Dr Venkata Narayana Joshi, Ātreya Smith, Tamotsu
Sato, Dr Ben Hatai, Dr Partap Chauhan, Dr Claudia Welch,
Dr Robert Svoboda, Dr Palitha Serasinghe, Dr Gamage
Jayawardhane, Dr Arambepola Gishanti, Dr Chandralatha
Samarasekera, Philip Weeks, Salim Khan, Dr Tasnim
Munshi, Dr Kamal Serasinghe and Jessica Kingsley (Singing
Dragon).
DISCLAIMER

The material in this book is intended to be reference work

only; it is not intended to be used to treat, diagnose or
prescribe. The information contained herein must not be
considered a substitute for professional guidance or
consultations with a duly licensed health care professional.
 INTRODUCTION

Sri Lanka
 1

Introduction
I awoke around 5am to the sounds of nearby activity at the
local mosque; Fajar (dawn prayer) was around 5.45.
Although it was still dark outside, the cacophony of the
early morning traffic was growing louder and seemingly
nearer. Traffic in Colombo never actually sleeps; it just
grows a little more subdued in the early hours, as if taking
a breath before starting a renewed roar of horns, clattering
and shouting. All of this hustle and bustle is intermixed
with Buddhist chants, on PA systems played at ear-splitting
volumes, adding to the background daily chaos. It probably
all sounds unbearable, but after a week you cease to hear
any of it.
In the dim light of the room I searched around for my
wrist watch and peered bleary-eyed at the dial. Yes, just
past 5am, so a little time to prepare myself for the trauma
of the coming day. Even at this hour the air temperature
was uncomfortably hot and oppressive, but was really just
limbering up for the high heat of midday.
I had arrived in late December 2004 and still
remembered how the blast of hot air hit me as I stepped off
the plane. I hadn’t even made it three steps forward before
I began to feel the sensation of swimming in humidity and
wondered if I would be able to withstand it for any
prolonged period.
It was now mid-2005, actually 2nd June, and up to this
point the whole plan had veered so wildly from its original
course that I no longer tried to navigate in any direction.
Sri Lanka is a country of unpredictability and extremes;
you really do go five steps forward and end up going half a
mile backward to get to where you need to be. It’s also a
country of great possibility, spectacular delays and
sometimes terrible disappointment but, on the whole, a
country worthy of exploration time.
Sitting in the relative comfort of home writing these
words, it’s easy to mentally dip into those days, recalling
the high points in minute detail. This particular day stood
out particularly during my time abroad – it was to be one of
my more memorable days, seeing the culmination of 12
weeks’ hard work, preparing one remedy I had read about
in books for a number of years, and was now about to
complete. The name of the preparation was Makara Dwaja,
an alchemical formulation favoured in Rasa Shāstra (Vedic
Alchemy). Getting to this point had been no easy ride, but it
was also a real experience, from inception to completion.
After arriving in December 2004 I began my studies with
a local doctor who specialised in Rasa Shāstra; I had met
her one year previously and watched her at work preparing
some remedies for the local Āyurvedic hospital. I was so
intrigued by her methods that I asked if she was prepared
to tutor me in this subject. Aside from giving me a quizzical
look, her reply was, ‘How much time can you give me?’ This
obviously implied that tuition could be lengthy or that I
looked like a student who might slow the pace after a few
days.
At that time I was about to return to the UK, so my brief
visit to Sri Lanka had only been a little reconnaissance, just
to see if I liked the place and could work with the people.
The UK-based Āyurveda college I was studying with offered
training in India (as part of the course), but somehow I
found myself asking for a short placement in Sri Lanka. The
first visit during Christmas 2003 went well and I had
covered a lot of ground in a two-week period, connecting
with some excellent doctors and seeing lots of interesting
possibilities. It was only a few days until my return and now
this new avenue opened before me and it just felt right. My
reply to her question was, ‘How long do you need?’
I left that day with a buzzing head, plans already starting
to take shape. I had earlier already made my mind up to
complete my Āyurveda training and perhaps quit my job
and take a year out (possibly in Sri Lanka or India). The
idea of taking time out was not such a concern, it was just
that the timing had come upon me unexpectedly. I had a
feeling that something would present itself to me while I
was in Sri Lanka, but had not figured it would reveal itself
in this manner. I found myself just saying ‘yes’ and
agreeing to come back before the end of the year and start
studying. Two weeks of getting the feel for a country and
then almost two days before I leave I find what I came for –
I guess that’s the way it goes.
Here I should briefly explain why I made this rash
decision, though I hope that as the book unfolds the
fascination of this medical system will become self-evident.
Āyurveda had been my primary introduction; India’s
traditional medical system going back at least several
thousand years (by Western chronology) had been my first
inroad into Asian healing systems and had immediately
intrigued me. As I immersed myself more deeply into this
study it quickly became apparent there was so much more
to this practice than met the eye. One of the most
interesting aspects of the work was its emphasis on the
implementation of daily routines, to avoid disease. This part
of the science was extremely well developed, laying
emphasis on the right thoughts, right action and right diet.
Āyurveda also notes the natural ageing process on the
body, seeking to limit its decline through a process known
as rasāyana, literally meaning to regenerate – to return to
the vigours of youth.
This use of rejuvenative medicines/techniques represents
only one of eight branches on the holistic tree of Āyurvedic
science, but it was on this branch that I discovered Rasa
Shāstra (Vedic Alchemy). After a little research this area of
Āyurveda started to look very interesting, for here was
something quite extraordinary, quietly tucked away in
amongst the other healing modalities. I knew at that point
that many remedies prepared as rasāyana contained some
mercurial component, but just kept telling myself it must
be a mistake. I wondered if it was just a synonym for
something else. I, like most would be, was bemused that a
dangerous substance like mercury could be allowed
anywhere near a pharmacy (unless packed into a
thermometer), and yet there it was, consistently mentioned
in formulation. I decided to pursue this and made a mental
note to ask about it on my travels to Sri Lanka.
After spending two weeks watching a number of
practitioners prepare medicated oils, herbal compounds
and other local brews, I had almost given up hope of
finding anything that resembled alchemy. During those first
two weeks I’d been lodging at a small private
hospital/pharmacy. This also had its own manufacturing
facility, but not locally, and so it required a little travelling
to witness the sight of medicines being hand-made, using
traditional methods. However, less than a mile from where
I was lodging was a large government-sponsored Āyurvedic
hospital, and it was to be here that I finally found what I
was looking for. While making a quick visit to the main
hospital my guide introduced me to the aforementioned
doctor, specialising in rasa medicines – so I had finally hit
the jackpot, a few days prior to departure. I left Sri Lanka
early in the New Year, talking about start dates in July.
We’d decided to keep the study arrangements flexible, but
after returning home I began to feel really positive about
committing to this adventure and almost immediately
began to execute my plans.
Once home I started buying any books I could lay my
hands on regarding Rasa Shāstra, spending many hours
picking my way through numerous accounts describing
outlandish procedures that made little or no sense. I got
the feeling it would be difficult to visualise much of this
work without the benefit of some practical experience
under the tutelage of an expert. Written information was all
well and good but there seemed to be so many questions
coming to mind whilst reading – things which were
probably self-evident to the author and so not included, but
were vital for the reader.
In amongst the many formulae, I came across two that,
although looking fairly similar, appeared to have different
applications. Both were essentially a form of mercuric
sulphide, heated at high temperature, eventually rendering
a red crystalline powder. One was called Rasa Sindoora1
and the other Makara Dwaja.2 The latter I remember
seeing mentioned in a book by Dr Robert Svoboda called
Āyurveda: Life, Health and Longevity,3 in which he’d given
a great introduction to the use of mineral- or metal-based
medicines. In one particular section called ‘Compounds of
Mercury and Sulphur’, he had outlined the basic
procedures of manufacture and their preferred uses.
I read and enjoyed the book in the late nineties, but back
then most of that information seemed too far removed from
the day-to-day practical remedies (in those days just
getting basic herbal compounds was a chore). However, it
stuck in the back of my mind as worthy material to return
to at some point, if and when resources became available.
With the prospects of return and study looking imminent, I
decided that when I began I should try to make these two
remedies a higher priority, perhaps obtaining the necessary
ingredients upon arrival, then work on them during my
study period.
 2

Return to Sri Lanka

The next 11 months turned out to be a complete nightmare

– escaping the clutches of the UK was not as easy as I had
anticipated. Wrapping up affairs at home, negotiating a
student visa, making Embassy trips and extricating myself
from a business partnership all proved much more
frustrating and time-consuming than I had imagined. Then,
just when it seemed like escape was impossible, doors
miraculously opened and insurmountable problems
vanished. Visas arrived and money moved, papers got
signed and there I was sitting on a plane at Heathrow
about to take off – unbelievable!
In a dream-like state I arrived on 24th December,
unpacked, made some phone calls and quickly got settled
into the same accommodation in Colombo. I spent the next
day in pretty much the same stupor trying to get my head
around what I had just done, before 26th December
brought a Tsunami that hit the south-eastern coastline of
the island, throwing the country into turmoil and a national
emergency. Luckily the capital remained largely unaffected,
most of the actual damage occurring on the southerly
coastlines. It was something of a shock to say the least, as
this event just added to the chaos and uncertainty.
Undaunted, I set about trying to track down my contacts
and pick up where we left off while trying to fend off
concerned phone calls advising I take the next flight home.
However, none of this was an option now – hastily
retreating from home had meant I’d burnt my bridges and
was here for a while, for better or worse.
After a week or so, the island seemed to calm slightly and
things began to feel more relaxed. I eventually tracked
down my previous tutor and almost immediately things
began to go awry. I should mention here that Sri Lanka is a
place where yes can mean no, and no can mean maybe. It
then appeared that what I had taken to be a yes ten months
earlier had in fact been a maybe, as the doctor concerned
now no longer seemed to be sure about the original
arrangement. This new revelation called for some
extremely fast thinking and skilful negotiation as I tried to
salvage a ship that was quickly sinking. I managed to speak
with another doctor there whom I’d spent a little time with
the previous December; I quickly explained my
predicament, which was that my new tutor had agreed to
teach theory and practical, but she was now no longer in a
position to teach the latter. As I explained to my contact,
without practical teaching I felt that the study would not be
worthwhile. He considered the problem and asked for a
little time to see what could be arranged. Having worked
with him before, I knew he would come up with something
and relaxed a little, but still felt anxious about my next
move.
The next day he called back and said he might have an
answer; he talked about a trip we’d made in December
2003 to a research institute and of one of the doctors I’d
met there. Of course my mind was blank, but I stuck with
the conversation. He mentioned a female doctor whom I
had spoken with there. He explained that she specialised in
Āyurvedic Surgery4 and Rasa Shāstra. After I spoke with
her at some length, she agreed to meet me to discuss what
might be done to remedy my predicament. He told me she
would drop by the next day around lunchtime, and to be
ready to meet her. I hung up and stood for a while thinking
over what he’d just told me – could I really be this lucky?
The next day, as arranged, she arrived. I vaguely
recognised her, and after we spoke she reminded me of the
visit I had made to the research institute the previous year.
Thinking back, I could not remember what I had been
doing at that time, but was amazed I’d not tuned into her
and her connection to Rasa Shāstra. Looking back, I just
see the whole thing as bizarre synchronicity, as if events
were already being set in motion a year before I’d even
made a decision to return and study.
Having the good fortune to cross her path again and in an
hour of need, I asked if she might consider instructing me,
if she was able to find the time. To my complete amazement
she not only agreed but asked if I wanted to start right
then! Like I said, Sri Lanka is a country of extremes – for
long periods nothing seems to happen, then it’s all over in
one afternoon.
And so, just like that, we began. I spent about an hour
going over what I hoped to achieve and writing down a
long shopping list of what I’d need to make it all work. The
private hospital where I lodged agreed to give me a room
upstairs to work, with access to a courtyard for practical
‘open air’ work. As long as I was sticking to basic stuff I
had no restrictions, but if I wanted to work on anything
more (shall we say toxic), then I had access to their
production facility outside the city. This was a good
arrangement as it allowed a lot of flexibility in my
programme. The only downside was the rather harrowing
journey to get to the outskirts of the capital, as and when
more difficult operations were required. All that set aside,
it was a great trade-off; I got to my practicals and had
found a place where I wouldn’t get disturbed.
My new tutor was a woman of few words, and to be
honest her English was a little limited, but practical was
practical. My instruction became a case of ‘I do, you
watch’, then ‘You do and I watch.’ She herself was busy
each day and could not commit to see me regularly, so she
suggested a compromise. Each time we met she would give
instruction on what to do next, often with a practical
demonstration first. Sometimes (particularly at weekends)
she would take time to almost complete a preparation and
have me repeat it. Due to the time taken to prepare each
material (in some cases, days) we would arrange to meet
when I had reached a particular stage of the work, and
from here she would inspect and assess. If things had gone
well we could move to the next stage; if things had gone
awry, I’d have to scrap the batch and start again. If I
wanted to double-check anything I could call in the
evenings. In hindsight it seems like a rather odd tutorial
set-up, but in our case it worked rather well.
Concurrently, twice a week (four hours), I’d also take
theory lessons with the original tutor. This was a great
chance to fill the gaps (and there were many), allowing me
to raise questions about any current practical projects. All
in all it was a good combination and worked well. Studies
now totally filling my day helped my mind to focus, as in
the extreme heat the body’s automatic tendency is to drop
to a low gear and coast. This is one of the biggest
nightmares to overcome as everything starts to become an
effort – just going to the local shop to buy bread or milk can
seem like an assault on a mountain with dust blown in your
face and everything that moves trying to assault you!
 3

Practical

Every day I felt the pace begin to quicken, and although I

was not being chased time-wise, the days easily slipped
away. The days in Sri Lanka are roughly of equal length all
year round due to the island’s position relative to the
equator, so by 6pm the light was fading, plunging me back
into low-energy fluorescent flickering and the nightly forays
of local mosquito gangs eager for my blood. Sunset brought
large numbers of fruit bats flying overhead and a light
evening breeze on the rooftop of the hospital. After dark it
was back to my room to hide under my mosquito net with a
rather unreliable laptop, some CDs and screen-savers from
another life.
My accommodation was just off a busy main road in the
centre of the city; the building itself was originally
residential but had been converted into an Āyurvedic
hospital/clinic/pharmacy. The privately owned
establishment was owned and run by a dedicated team of
doctors, each specialising in their various areas of
expertise, ranging from GPs to ENT (Ear, Nose and Throat),
and from Gynaecology to Āyurvedic Surgery. One unique
aspect of the hospital was its manufacturing facility and
with it direct access to freshly prepared medicines. From
their dispensary they were able to issue their own medicine
directly to patients, as well as over-the-counter trade with
the general public. This obvious bonus was partly the
reason I had returned here after my ten-month absence.
The hospital was also of special interest because of its
independence from government suppliers and its
reputation for producing high-quality medicines. Having
some access to their production facility was to be of great
advantage in the coming months.
On more than one occasion I got pretty sick acclimatising
to life in Sri Lanka and was extremely glad to have a
dispensing pharmacy about 25 feet from my room! Tucked
away on the top floor I would spend each day working
away, preparing materials. The top floor had its
disadvantages (making it very hot), but it was also
relatively quiet and not often frequented by staff. Starting
at sun-up, armed with only a pestle and mortar and copious
amounts of drinking water, I stood for many an hour,
sweating away the days – hammering away on my personal
science project. The daily breaks in the monotony were
lunch and tea-time (tea being an essential), until at last
darkness descended and the lack of light finally stopped
play.
 4

Journey to the Factory

It was now 5.45am, and after collecting my thoughts, and

more importantly my materials, I left the safety of my
workroom and made for the local bus stop. I’d made this
journey many times, but knowing the routine didn’t make it
any easier. Picking your way on the dimly lit pavement,
avoiding pot-holes, sleeping people and unknown obstacles,
often made walking on the road more desirable. Many
street traders don’t move their wares come nightfall,
instead preferring to cover them with a dusty tarpaulin and
curling up inside the makeshift nest until morning light.
Waiting by the nearest bus stop I strained to see any
signs of my ride (usually a dilapidated 909 Tata bus,
number 177 heading to Rajagiriya, Malabe and finally
Kaduwela). Slowing emerging out of the darkness the dim
headlight of the bus appeared, and what had minutes
before been a deserted bus stop now miraculously swarmed
with people who appeared from nowhere. Even clambering
aboard with speed I’d usually find all the seats taken, and
so took a few moments to arrange my backpack and
assorted boxes in an effort to take up less space. After ten
minutes of standing and waiting, the atmosphere on the
bus began to settle, but this was just the eye of the storm
as the best was yet to come. Just when his captive audience
was suitably lulled, an official from the bus company leaped
up from the front, jumped out of the half-opened door and
began running up and down the pavement howling at the
top of his voice for more passengers to make their way onto
the already full bus! As incredible as it sounds, he would
actually try to pack-em, stack-em and rack-em, till not one
more human body could be squeezed into the micro-spaces
that remained.
After a lot of groaning, squeezing and cursing and the
collective weight of the vehicle doubling, the bus finally
lurched toward its next port of call. Incidentally, it’s always
a given that the one person who now finds themselves
squished in the centre aisle wants to get off at the very next
stop (usually about half a mile), and the moment the bus
moves off they will start to fight their way toward the
nearest exit point. I tried not to think about these
excursions to Dompe (my final destination) in any great
detail as it really became quite depressing and, needless to
say, it always seemed to take an eternity travelling Kotte
Road until a change of bus at Kaduwela. This junction point
some seven miles out at last saw a reduction in passenger
numbers, partly due to density of population and also
because we were moving inexorably away from the city
toward an environment that allows you to breathe again!
Leaping aboard the number 143 bus at Kaduwela
heralded the final part of the journey, just a few miles along
Avissawella Road, winding around a country lane at hair-
raising speeds, waiting for the driver to cry ‘Ranala
Junction’. I had travelled this road enough now to spot one
or two familiar landmarks, a shop or bus shelter, perhaps
even the odd house. Getting off at the right stop was
critical – even if these country roads were quieter, they still
carried heavy traffic and they had no pavements.
After 7am it is light enough to locate a familiar local store
and an old dirt track by the roadside that leads down to the
Kelani Ganga River and the final leg of the journey – a short
hop over the river rapids and I am there! The distance from
Rajagiriya to Ranala Junction is probably no more than 14
miles in total. By European standards this would be a
laughable distance, but in actuality it was a fairly gruelling
trip, taking over an hour and a half and, if wrongly timed,
almost double that.
This last part of the journey was generally the least
troublesome part of the excursion and involved taking a
ferry ride across the river. The ferry itself was a large
floating pontoon with a canoe attached to one side. Its
propulsion was provided by one lone ferryman who
feverishly paddled its occupants across the 250-foot
expanse of the fast-flowing river. Not an easy feat by any
stretch of the imagination.
He was starting to get used to me arriving with boxes
and bundles in the early morning, taking up extra space,
and so I always tried to pay a little extra to balance his lost
trade due to my consumption of his square footage on the
pontoon. The ferryman liked to make each crossing count,
so if I arrived alone he’d usually wait on the other bank
until enough passengers showed up. If no passengers
showed up he’d eventually paddle over to take me across as
a sole passenger, although this was rare. On this particular
morning my timing was excellent and the river seemed
calm; I crossed within minutes of arrival and without any
hassle. This was not always the case; if the spring rains
were heavy the banks of the Kelani would quickly burst,
with the river effectively becoming one-third wider.
I jumped from the pontoon, paid my passage and walked
the final half mile to my destination, a hidden factory set
amongst dense foliage, well back from the main road. The
last 200 yards was a steep driveway snaking up into the
property. Finally I dropped my boxes and backpack on the
ground before taking a long drink and reminding myself
why I was doing this and how it would some day be worth
it!
 5

Setting up Shop

By 8am the factory workers had begun to appear. The

foreman had already long opened up for them, having his
property built on a small piece of land right next to the
main factory. He lived with his wife and daughter and two
cows. When he saw me, he waved and motioned toward
another pile of stuff I had left a few days before. I had
already started to amass equipment, stockpiling essentials
on the factory grounds. After the journey to get there, you
can understand why it was wise to travel light and at the
same time make the most of each trip.
Though early, the temperature was building and time was
wasting. It’s always wise to move fast and avoid
procrastination. Time in Sri Lanka has a mind of its own;
hours will seem to go slowly, then suddenly gain speed,
whisking away the remaining hours of daylight to unleash
the sunset mosquitoes and subsequent frustrations.
Walking over to the main complex, I began setting up my
work station. The largest piece of equipment was a four-
ring gas burner that was a two-man lift. I’d already
positioned this a few days before, so it only remained to
remove its protective tarpaulin and connect up the gas
lines. Three 15kg Lanka Gas bottles stood close by ready
for a 10–12-hour burn, with an emergency half-bottle that I
had scrounged should it be required.
With all heating equipment accounted for, I scouted
around for the large earthen pot I’d purchased a week
before. These monsters are easily available in Sri Lanka
and used for all manner of things. Highly durable, sturdy
and made from a locally sourced terracotta-coloured clay,
these vessels could be anywhere from 18 to 22 inches in
diameter and weighed a ton!
Once the pot was positioned on the gas burner, I filled it
with fine sand to serve as a sand-bath (technically called
vālukā yantra). The sole purpose of this apparatus was to
allow an evenly heated interior into which a green Vat 695
bottle, heavily embalmed with mud-coated cloth, was to be
buried. The bottle had been prepared over a week ago,
wrapped in seven successive layers and dried between
each application of cloth and clay. Finally, the outer layer
had been smoothed with one final application of fine wet
clay. A bottle prepared in this manner is called Kūpī.
 6

Contents

I’ve already explained my prior selection of two remedies

(Rasa Sindoora and Makara Dwaja), so now seems an
opportune moment to explain why I was heating a glass
bottle and what was going into it and how I had arrived at
this point.
Both preparations are essentially mercuric sulphide, one
differentiated by the inclusion of a thin gold sheet, first
forming an amalgam with its mercury content. After
stringent purification practices involving its mercury
content, a 24-carat gold sheet is added to one sample and
triturated until a gold-amalgam is formed. When this step is
complete, both batches of purified mercury are then
combined with purified sulphur and again triturated until a
fine black powder is formed. This black sulphide of mercury
is called Kajjali (see Part III for more details).
These processes are extremely time-consuming and
labour-intensive. As I opted to produce Kajjali the good old-
fashioned way (by hand), each operation in a long
succession of steps required a minimum period of nine
hours, something approaching 40 hours of manual labour in
total for each sample. After the preparation was complete,
the resultant powder was collected and placed into the
bottom of the two glass bottles, which were then
temporarily plugged. These fruits of labour were then to be
buried neck deep in a sand-bath and their contents heated
to temperatures of around 450–500ºC, for a period of 12–14
hours. After that it was really make-or-break time, as once
the heating had begun there was not much one could do
except sit back and watch. Eventually, after cooling, the
contents could be retrieved and examined, but once
committed to the flames, there was nothing to do except
cross one’s fingers. Naturally there were recognised signs
to look for – marker points that confirmed things were on
schedule. If seen, these would be a welcome sight;
however, failure to spot these markers might indicate
trouble brewing and the possibility that all of your work
could literally be going up in smoke – a terrifying thought! I
nervously ran over one last checklist and lit the gas burner
and stood back, preparing for a very long day.
 7

Final Result

A buried Kūpī jar should be thermally regulated in a sand-

bath, shielded from the higher temperatures at the base of
the pot. From here the heat is dissipated and percolates up
through the sand content. It is hoped that this thermal
regulation will eliminate hot spots which might shatter the
glass of the bottle. As the internal temperature continues to
climb, Kajjali will liquefy and burn, venting sulphur dioxide
(SO2 ). A strong odour of sulphur accompanied by yellow
fumes will be seen at the mouth of the bottle, indicating
that an internal temperature of around 250ºC has been
achieved. The mercury content of the Kajjali will vaporise
at 357ºC, being partially evacuated from the heated bottle
as mercury vapour (HgO) along with sulphur dioxide.
Needless to say, being at close proximity to the exiting gas
is pretty hazardous for any prolonged period.
Due to the constrictive nature of the bottle neck and its
cooler temperature, vaporised material will condense and
form stabile mercury crystals, carbon and a number of
other trace elements (see Part III). It is these silvery black
crystals that are ultimately harvested and ground to
produce the finished remedy. Over the 10–12 hours of
heating, most of the Kajjali is vaporised, leaving only a
blackened crust in the base of the bottle. Ironically this
residue contains the original gold6 in the sample of Makara
Dwaja. Sadly this residue is discarded after the operation,
although there are some that try to reclaim the metal. This
practice is not recommended due to the essence of gold
having already been digested and assimilated by the
mercury during the amalgam process. Reclamation at this
point would recover a lifeless form of the gold, unable to be
used in further operations; however, I suppose the gold
would retain its intrinsic value.
During the heat process the temperature of the sand-bath
will continually rise, eventually igniting the remaining
sulphur deposits around the entrance to the bottle. This
will display itself as a burst of bluish smoke and flame,
fading to a heavy orange vapour. This is a sign of critical
importance, signifying that the required level of heating
has been achieved. Once seen, heating should be
discontinued and the entrance to the bottle covered with a
piece of ceramic material. Most commentaries on Kūpī and
mercuric sulphide talk about peacock-blue emissions of
smoke, signalling an end to all heating – that’s the theory,
anyhow!
As I stood nervously looking at the opening to the Kūpī I
started to wonder if the bottle would endure the slow
heating, and remain intact! It’s always possible that the
heat-regulating sand, cloth and clay embalming and
painstaking work are not enough and your silence is broken
by a shrill ‘chink’ of cracking glass – announcing game
over! It was now 8.30am, and the thought of hanging
around for the next 12 hours looking at a gas burner and
buried bottle neck was a little disconcerting.
Because of work commitments my tutor could not be
present for this part of the preparation; however, she felt
all would be well and promised to call later in the day. We’d
spent a few hours beforehand going over the whole
scenario, the dos and don’ts. The factory had a portable
pyrometer handy, and so I periodically checked the
temperature of the sand-bath. Finding this a little lower
than expected I arranged some additional sheets of
corrugated iron to act as a wind break, helping the burner
to intensify its heat. These afterthoughts worked well, as
temperatures started to spiral upward toward the optimum
400/500ºC range.
The strategy for Kūpī heating is often advised to be in
three stages. The initial stage (low level) is designed to
bring the whole apparatus to an even temperature,
protecting any sensitive parts from thermal shocking. The
second stage (liquefaction) allows the contents of the Kūpī
to liquefy and boil, eventually burning. The third and final
stage (vaporisation) brings the contents to temperatures
above 450°C, finally igniting any remaining sulphur residue
around the top lip of the bottle. When heating is complete
all equipment is left to cool for 24 hours; nothing is to be
disturbed.
Around noon the first visual sign of sulphur fumes began
to appear from the submerged bottle. I’d smelt it some time
beforehand but could not detect any yellow vapour. By 1pm
sulphur was almost belching forth from the mouth of the
bottle. I knew from my tutor’s notes that these heavy
vapours would eventually block at its neck, clogging its
exit. For processing to continue, this obstruction must be
cleared, something that is best done with the use of a long
iron rod carefully lowered into the bottle until reaching its
base. The rod is then gently rotated, stirring the contents of
the bottle whilst simultaneously clearing the neck of any
blockages. The iron rod is then slowly retracted, giving any
liquid time to drip back into the bottle before its removal.
As soon as this operation was complete the emissions of
sulphur returned. Around this time the first gas bottle
emptied and I hurriedly swapped bottles before any
noticeable drop in temperature could occur.
Occasionally I’d glance up from my work, distracted by
voices or a familiar melody broadcast from a small
crackling transistor radio on site. Although this was a
relatively small factory obscured by copious amounts of
foliage, they produced a good variety of herbo-mineral-
based medicines, having a good reputation in the city.
During my stay I’d had the opportunity more than once to
speak to a number of Āyurvedic practitioners who’d had
their own medicinal resources; however, many still bought
products from this particular company because of their
overall quality.
One thing I liked about this environment was its
abundance of raw materials; it was never more than 15 feet
in any direction to find wild herbs. Five minutes north
landed you in an abandoned coconut plantation, overgrown
but very fertile. I remember a few times running low on
herbs when processing, only to have the foreman drop a
bunch of fresh herbs on my lap, not to mention a fresh
supply of urine, dung and milk from his cows – a valuable
resource indeed.
It was now 4.30pm and again the bottle neck clogged,
requiring an additional stir, but soon after all sulphur
activity just seemed to cease, together with the expiration
of the second gas bottle. By this point the heat had
intensified, making gas consumption higher. Peeking
carefully over the exposed bottle neck and using a Maglite
on focused beam, I peered down into the opening. This of
course is highly unadvised, but curiosity got the better of
me. At its base, illuminated by torchlight, I could see a red
emulsified mass of boiling sulphur and mercury confined in
a glassy prison – quite an amazing sight, it resembled
coagulated blood.
At 5pm the factory began to empty and quieten down.
The doors to the outbuildings were being locked up for
another day. I’d long missed my quiet ride back to the city
(mid-afternoon buses were relatively empty). I knew this
would be an all-day and early evening job and even now
started to prepare myself for an over-packed late bus ride
back. I should mention here that I’d checked in with my
tutor and gone over the events of the day; however, she
seemed very relaxed about the whole thing and told me to
keep going, saying she had not anticipated any problems
and that all would be well.
At 7.30pm, and after a day of staring at the bottle neck, it
finally dawned on my conscious mind that the Kūpī had just
erupted in a plume of blue smoke. It took a few seconds for
me to react, but leaping forward I killed the gas supply and
watched the blue smoke wither to a blue flame and finally a
deep orange flame before being swiftly retracted into the
bottle neck. Hunting around, I located the small piece of
ceramic tile I had saved and placed it carefully over the
entrance to the bottle. Eleven hours, give or take. A last-
minute pyrometer check showed the temperature of the
sand to be well over 450°C and the third and final full gas
bottle was about to give up the ghost. It was late, it was
dark and I was exhausted! Scrambling around in the half-
light I packed up as much as possible and headed for the
factory office. By the time I reached the building, the
foreman was just waiting for me to finish. I waved and
motioned toward my stuff and gave the thumbs up.
Racing down the drive trying to fasten my backpack, I
started to wonder what time the ferryman usually quit. I’d
been told about 8.30pm – but you never know. It would be a
complete nightmare to get stranded on this side of the
river, this late! Luckily by the time I reached the crossing
the ferry was still running. Now the fun could really begin –
just a case of back-tracking my original steps from
morning. As usual it was a pretty stressful return journey,
protracted by darkness. By the time I found my way back to
base-camp it was well after 10pm.
 8

Return

The next day I awoke with a kind of dread and excitement

about what might lie ahead. Now it was time to head back
and retrieve the efforts of the previous day. A few hours
later I was back at the factory and it was zero hour. I
looked down at the equipment, cold and lifeless after the
previous day. This was it – now or never! I cautiously
retrieved the bottle from the sand-bath and examined its
exterior – no cracks! Considering its prolonged exposure to
high heat the exterior was relatively unscathed – a few
scorches in places, but overall it was intact.
Using a heavy metal spatula I slowly peeled off the
remains of its lagging. Although the outer layers were
devoid of cloth, the innermost section retained some
support from the residual cloth. Using a pruning knife, the
last of the cloth was painstakingly peeled away and
discarded, all the time checking for fracture lines. A
shattering of glass now would be a disaster.
Freed from its wrappings the green bottle showed a
darkened rim around its neck. If all had gone according to
plan this should be the place where the finished crystals
would collect. The fact that this area had darkened was a
positive first sign. Peering down into the neck of the bottle
I could detect a faint shimmering about the curved walls.
The task of cleaving the bottle proved to be an
interesting experience; following my tutor’s instruction on
a sample bottle, a piece of paraffin-soaked twine was tied
about its waist and ignited. After a moment of burning a
pre-soaked cotton cloth was wrapped about it, dousing the
flames. Following this action there was a short ‘click’ and
the deed was done. The bottle broke perfectly about its
circumference. Once the bottle was parted it became easy
to inspect the inner results. The now upturned bottle
displayed a dark red/silvery cluster of crystals just below
the curvature of its neck. It seemed all the hard work had
paid off; however, these crystals still needed to be
dislodged and ground before I would know if all had been
successful. Although the crystals seemed to resemble the
descriptions given to me, I decided to pack up and return to
the city to finish any final analysis.
Having arrived back at my accommodation I unpacked
the bottle neck and set to work removing its precious
cargo. It was now mid-afternoon and already another day
had almost gone. Using a fine blade I proceeded to dislodge
the crystals from the inner glass wall. Having them drop
down into the neck was a convenient way to collect the
pieces in a small heap. I’d already stood the rim of the
bottle neck on a sheet of white paper, so all I had to do was
lift the bottle and the contents would just drop out.
After prising the last few crystals from their resting
position the remains of the bottle were lifted and the last of
its contents were tapped onto the sheet of paper. Not a bad
haul – the total weight of the cache was 25g, a fairly
respectable amount considering the low dosage required.7
All that now remained was to grind the material. As each
crystal disintegrated in the mortar, it quickly reduced to a
fine red powder. Working slowly, I collected the precious
material and transferred it into an airtight glass jar,
securing its lid. One down and one to go, I now turned my
attention to the second batch of Kajjali I’d prepared. I
would now repeat the procedure to produce a similar
quantity of Rasa Sindoora.
 Later that evening my tutor arrived and examined the
contents of the small glass jar, turning the sample over in
her hands whilst holding it up to the light. Opening the lid,
she put a little of the powder onto her index finger and
circulated it between her finger and thumb, studying the
powder closely. She then replaced the lid and smiled.
‘Good,’ she said.
I asked if she was happy with its colour and texture, not
quite sure if I’d actually managed to pull it off. Again, she
just smiled, tilted her head (in the affirmative) and said
‘Good.’ Rummaging through her bag, she finally produced
some paperwork wrapped in a heavy folder. Finding a
grouped section of pages, she placed it on the table.
‘These,’ she said, ‘are my personal files, other preparations
for you to do. You can do them, if you’re quick.’
Grabbing a pen and paper I scanned down the list of
items, quizzing her about each one and what it might
involve. Obtaining some materials might be a problem, but
not insurmountable, plus there was always some
consideration of equipment needed. It seemed like there
was maybe too much here to accomplish in the time I had
left, but after my success I felt a lot more confident about
tackling new projects. All told, I was able to purify and
prepare just over 40 materials during my stay, many of
these being base ingredients for more complex
formulations. Most of the work was to be the conversion of
base materials into bhasma8 or pisti.9 This, however, was
not its final destination, merely a stepping stone toward
other more complex formulations – often involving a
number of other ingredients, including minerals, metals,
gemstones and herbs. This is essentially Rasa Shāstra: its
complexity seems to grow and grow, but its principles are
fairly straightforward. The key to its success is potentiating
by purification and reduction. Its ultimate combination with
organic and non-organic elements makes this system of
medicine unique and an ageless and untapped resource!

NOTES

1. Rasa = mercury and Sindoora = red (mercuric oxide).

2. Makara is depicted as a mythical creature fashioned from the head and
body of a crocodile and the tail of a fish. Crocodiles are creatures of
extreme longevity, often portrayed wallowing in primordial waters (see
Indian Alchemy or Rasāyana by S. Mahdihassan). The Ramayana describes
Makara Dwaja as a fusion of both hominid and reptile, guarding the gates
of Patalatala (the Nāga underworld).
3. Svoboda, R.E. (1992) Āyurveda: Life, Health and Longevity. London:
Penguin Arkana.
4. Shalya Tantra.
5. The general consensus seems to be that this particular shape of bottle
delivers a high yield of finished material.
6. The melting point of gold is 1064ºC, significantly lower than the
temperature of vālukā yantra.
7. 30–40mg.
8. Alchemical ash (see Part III).
9. Finely ground powder (see Part III).
 PART I

What is Rasa Shāstra?

Sagar Manthan
(Churning of the Milky Ocean)
 Churning of the ocean (reproduced by kind permission of Alex Florshultz)

To set the scene, we introduce a story called the ‘Churning of the

Milky Ocean’. This fantastic tale, set in another world-age, is
studded with priceless gems from which one can derive a thousand
meanings. Indirectly, many elements from this particular story find
their way into various sections of this book, its images and concepts
hopefully coming to mind as the reader progresses.
This particular story is a great place to explore Rasa Shāstra, the
concept of visha/poison (explored in more detail in Section 3 at the
end of this part) and Jyotish, encoding much information relevant to
these subjects in its rich symbolism. Stories have always been an
efficient way to commit complex information to memory, and this
one is no different. In this skilfully woven tale of gods, demons,
damsels and magic we are introduced to the origins of immortality,
Āyurveda, astrology, herbs, purification techniques, auspicious
gemstones, the Rahu–Ketu myth and of course the origins of visha
and its ultimate transmutation into amrita (divine nectar).
In the Vishnu Purana1 it is said that back in the most ancient of
times the gods (devas) battled endlessly with demons (asuras), each
seeking immortality and victory over the other. And although their
lives were of great length, none were immune from the ravages of
time and ageing.
Finally, in desperation, the devas sought an audience with Lord
Vishnu – ‘preserver of the universe’ – to pose their question of
immortality. Vishnu was to be found reclining in the coils of a giant
serpent awaiting the end of time (here he would eventually sleep
and the world would again fade into nothingness until his re-
awakening).
Lord Vishnu listened with great patience to their concerns and
finally suggested that the gods call a truce with their enemies.
Settle your differences and join forces in an effort to collectively
churn the ocean of milk, he said. Only by working together can your
combined strengths release the great bounties of the ocean,
amongst them being amrita, the nectar of immortality, for that is
what you seek.
The gods returned and henceforth negotiated a meeting with the
demons, expounding their plans and describing in great detail the
benefits of this project. The devas already knew the greedy asuras
would not be able to resist the chance of gaining immortality and
would of course comply. They knew also that it would be
unthinkable to allow these demons to ever drink a single drop of
amrita, as this would greatly confound their plans to defeat them –
but for now they were needed and so a truce was declared.
After much discussion it was decided that churning the waters
would require nothing less than a mountain, about which a gigantic
snake would be required to wrap its girth. Pulling upon the body of
this snake like a rope, the backward and forward motion would
slowly turn the great mountain and eventually whip the sea up into
great waves. This, it was hoped, would allow the ocean to give up
its treasures.
And so it was that devas and asuras laboured together to break
Mount Mandara from its resting place and position it in the sea,
forming a gigantic rod that would stir the waters. The demons then
sequestered the help of Vasuki,2 a snake of gigantic proportions, to
coil himself about the partially submerged mountain, allowing both
parties in turn to pull upon his head and tail. Lord Vishnu, wishing
to aid them in their noble endeavours, incarnated as a giant turtle
named Kurma. Swimming to the ocean’s depths he placed his shell
between the floor of the ocean and the cap of the mountain. Resting
upon this turtle shell the mountain could turn effortlessly in the
water, allowing mighty waves to form.
Back on the land some infighting had broken out about who was
to pull Vasuki’s head and who his tail. The venomous fangs of the
enormous snake were quite unbearable for the devas, who insisted
the asuras were infinitely more eligible to be assigned this end of
the great beast. Finally it was agreed that the devas would take the
serpent’s tail and the asuras its head, the latter deciding that close
proximity to the poison was an excellent excuse to collect it for
future use against their enemies the devas!
At last all was ready and it was time to start pulling on the
snake’s body. Slowly the great mountain turned and the waves
began to rise. As their efforts grew stronger the waves grew higher.
With each pull the thought of reward stirred the assembled, heaving
with ever greater intensity until finally the ocean’s waters changed
to a milky consistency. The waters grew dark and something stirred
just below its surface. All of a sudden, blackness broke from
beneath the waves and rose to the surface. This was visha3 (poison),
and its emergence now threatened death to all, as its toxicity could
drain life from anything it touched.
In an act of selfless compassion, Lord Shiva cupped his hands and
collected the black venom from the surface of the waves,
swallowing it. Although visha had been taken inside the god, he
arrested its motion in his throat, hoping to transmute its deadly
power. As this material lay suspended, his throat became peacock
blue4 in colour, slowly spreading outward to the rest of his skin.
Eventually this poison was transmuted into nectar and slowly
dissipated; however, his skin remained saturated with the blue
colour from that time onward.5
When the darkness had passed from the writhing waters there
appeared now Kamadhenu, the mother of all cows6 and the source
of all nourishment. Next appeared the Kalpataru, a magical tree,
fulfilling all desires, followed by the Kaustubha Jewel, a magical
gemstone that radiated an intense glow brighter than the Sun and
Moon combined. These treasures were quickly taken from the
waters as more were seen rising from below the waves.7
Next appeared the Goddess Lakshmi8 (goddess of fortune)
accompanied by her sister Alakshmi (goddess of misfortune),
closely followed by Apsaras (heavenly nymphs). Finally a figure
arose from the waves holding a vessel full of amrita (the nectar of
immortality) – this was Dhanvantari, the healing god of Āyurveda.9
With the object of their desire in sight the gods and demons
stopped their churning and triumphantly wrested their prize from
the sea and onto the land. In honour of their hard work and efforts
they decided a great banquet should be held, during which each of
the assembled could each drink from the vessel containing the
nectar of immortality.
While they made ready for the celebrations, some of the devas
gathered together to discuss the coming celebrations, realising they
needed some kind of distraction to avert the eyes of the asuras from
the amrita. After ascending from the depths Lord Vishnu again
assumed human form and stood among the assembly; it was then
that the devas explained their new plan in regard to the distribution
of the amrita.
If, explained the devas, the demons drank amrita, it would mean
an eternity of fighting as there would be no end to the battles. As
both adversaries would be immortal, each side would be without
losses; fallen warriors would simply regenerate and live to fight
another day. Vishnu listened to their concerns and then walked
toward the celebrating asuras. Looking back toward the devas he
said: ‘Have your celebration – leave the demons to me.’
With the festivities well under way each of the devas began
drinking from the vessel of amrita, savouring its wonders as they
drank and each having immortality conferred on them. The asuras
watched with blazing red eyes, angry at the gods for choosing
themselves to start the consumption of the sacred nectar. They
began to shout and rose to their feet, advancing upon the newly
intoxicated gods. All began to quickly sour and conflict seemed
inevitable – the demons drew their weapons and prepared to attack.
At that very moment, as the first sword was drawn, a wondrous
light and gentle cooling breeze wafted over those assembled.
Before the asuras stood a vision of breathtaking beauty; this was
Mohini,10 the enchantress. As she moved about the demons, strange
music played at their ears and their eyes became transfixed on this
heavenly sight. As her figure swayed she gestured to them, singing
so sweetly they completely forgot about their quarrel with the devas
and found themselves totally transfixed on the vision of loveliness.
As the asuras fell under the bewitchment of Mohini the devas
continued to devour amrita until finally the vessel was drained.
 One lone serpent in the demon camp watching from a distance
saw through Lord Vishnu’s deception (Mohini was no other than
Vishnu in disguise). This serpent, being rather quick-thinking,
transformed himself into a deva, surreptitiously mingling with their
entourage. Lifting the vessel of amrita he spied one last drop at the
bottom, but the nectar being so sweet and sticky refused to budge
from its resting place at the bottom of the vessel.
Rahu,11 for this was the name of the sly asura, looked quickly
about him and – satisfied that no-one was watching – shot out his
long serpent tongue and licked the final drop of nectar remaining.
Watching this act in horror both Surya (the Sun) and Chandra (the
Moon) raised the alarm, alerting the others to the imposter in their
ranks. The razor-sharp cakrika (discus) of Vishnu flashed through
the air, decapitating Rahu’s head from his body. As the headless
corpse fell to the ground it transformed back into the writhing coils
of the serpent, revealing the deception to all.
Rahu’s tail lay writhing, desperately trying to reconnect with his
head. To the horror of all, both remained alive and conscious. The
nectar passing the lips of the serpent had brought everlasting life to
both. The head was still Rahu, but the tail had become Ketu12 –
through the power of the amrita one asura had now become two
demons. Even a single drop of amrita could infer immortality, and
now Rahu and Ketu had joined the ranks of the everlasting. The
devas tried in vain to capture the pieces of the former demon, but
as they grasped at the head and body they became like shadows.
Standing there powerless, they watched both head and tail ascend
into the heavens and take up position between the stars. The blood
emitted from Rahu’s wounds miraculously fertilised the ground and
from these darkened patches unknown shoots sprang forth with
pungent odours, growing tall into onion13 and garlic plants.
In his eternal enmity toward the luminaries (Sun and Moon),
Rahu became the northern node devouring the Moon during his
eclipse. Ketu became the southern node and likewise devoured the
Sun during his eclipse. Luckily for both Sun and Moon the former
asura had no substance and was only able to temporarily obscure
their light. The 18-year passage of the nodes about the heavens
frequently brings them into close proximity with all nine graha
(planets), causing much foreboding and distress to each in turn. The
nodes, as they are known in Vedic Astrology, are 180º in opposition
across the heavens and continually in retrograde motion. Both
nodes are studied in a horoscope to determine an individual’s
movement through successive re-births. Rahu, it is said, illuminates
your future lives; whilst Ketu grants you access to the past.
Although the nodes are considered malefic in nature, they also offer
salvation from successive incarnations and are both ultimately
liberating (moksha).
 SECTION 1

OVERVIEW OF ĀYURVEDA

1.1
Ancient Technology

‘Surya (the Sun) evaporates the waters of Bhumi (Earth) for

eight months in each year. This water evaporated then rains
down for four months, nourishing the soils, producing different
kinds of cereals for the nourishment of all. Evaporated water
also nourishes Chandra (the Moon).
Chandra himself does not consume that water, instead he
returns this water to the clouds. During the winter season, this
water is released by Chandra to fall upon the earth as dew and
the snows. Surya draws its water from Akasha Ganga (Milky
Way), also causing it to rain upon the earth. This water is
sacred; its mere touch will destroy all disease and wash away
sin. Rains that fall during Chandra’s transit of the Nakshatras
Krittika, Rohini and Ardra come straight from the waters of
Akasha Ganga.’
Garuda Purana

Much of what we would call pseudo-science or ancient superstition

was in the past a form of technology; there literally were
necromancers, rain makers, oracles, geomancers, black
magicians, 14 medicine-men, shamans and astrologers who were
intimately connected to the world about them, ever watchful for its
signs. It was hoped that by gaining nature’s trust they might obtain
insight into future events. Some of these disciplines survived into
our present century, while others were lost or forgotten. Alchemy
was one such discipline, although modern perceptions of this art
have become greatly distorted. Its origins were probably a fusion of
many practices including metal-working, herbalism, astrology and
geomancy.
This book seeks to re-introduce a form of ancient technology, one
which has persisted, quietly working away in the background,
battling to improve life, the quality of life, and in some cases even
help to extend it. Although heavily aligned with a larger system of
medicine known as Āyurveda,15 Rasa Shāstra (or Vedic Alchemy)
developed a new approach to the healing arts by its introduction of
herbo-metallic-mineral formulations. Not only were these remedies
at the disposal of the sick and dying, but were also made available
to the strong and healthy who wished to extend their lives.
Eventually, after experimentation and refinement, this system found
itself diverging into altogether new territory, that of empowered
elixirs. These new elixirs no longer sought to heal or regenerate,
but to make the body impervious to the ravages of time – for all
time, thus setting the ancients upon a new quest, the search for
immortality.

Nāgārjuna
One such famed character to emerge in the wake of this new
interest in life-extending elixirs was the Buddhist Ãrchãrya
Nāgārjuna (160 BCE16). Portraits of this enlightened being most
commonly depict him deep in contemplation seated upon the coils
of an enormous multi-headed serpent with a countenance of
extreme serenity. Though surviving materials relating to his deeds
still paint an uncertain picture of his chronology, the name of
Nāgārjuna is almost always synonymous with magic, medicine and
alchemical endeavours.
Whether in the guise of early philosopher,17 later redactor of the
Susrutha Saṃhitā18 or Tantric rasasiddha,19 there are a number of
commonalities associated with him, namely communion with
Nāga,20 advanced metallurgical knowledge, semi-supernatural
powers and the use of medicinal compounds. Though works directly
depicting his skills as a physician tend to be more few and far
between, there are enough references21 to perhaps add these
talents to his already impressive list of accomplishments. One such
classical work entitled Rasendra Man˙galam22 details the following
aspects of alchemical works:

1. The treatment of Pārada (mercury).

2. Mercurials, along with other minerals.
3. Metals, herbs (plants) and animal products.
4. Incineration and the melting of various minerals.
5. The fixing or holding of Pārada.
6. The manufacture of pills.
7. The treatment of disease caused through the vitiation of dosha.
8. The preparation of fine powders (bhasma).
9. Detoxification of the body through purgation, enema and netra
tarpana,23 etc.

Nāgārjuna’s connection to elixirs/rasāyana drugs and alchemy

ultimately seems to have fed back into tales of his own miraculous
longevity24 and thaumaturgical performances, making him the
subject of many colourful writings by Buddhists, Jains and Hindus
alike.
 Principally the information contained herein is embedded firmly
in the science of Rasa Shāstra; however, the pathway of alchemical
medicine is not solely rooted in India. Contemporary cultures also
boast a wealth of knowledge in their respective literatures and
treatises. Technical skills and innovations often crossed over
borders, intermixing with ideas and successes of nations on the
same course. As discussed frequently in this book, the cross-
pollination of this science was not only limited to information and
application – the supply of materials to fellow experimenters and
competitors was another factor in its evolution.
The latter part of the work is dedicated to Jyotish or Vedic
Astrology and how the use of the heavens was employed to
maximise the effectiveness of these remedies as well as helping to
determine appropriate preparation and administration times to
enhance their potency and improve the chances of favourable
outcomes.

1.2
Origins

I am often asked how I became involved with a system of medicine

that incorporates remedies of an alchemical nature. I suppose the
best answer to this question is ‘It found me’, literally dropping into
my lap back in the mid-1990s. I had an old dusty book thrown at me
by a friend who’d recently returned from a whirlwind trip around
India. ‘Here,’ he said, ‘thought you’d find this right up your street!’
This, as it turned out, was my first encounter with Āyurveda and
the first of many synchronicities that ultimately led me to the
specialised niche of Rasa Shāstra. After quickly digesting the book I
avidly started to search for some more material, interested to see if
I could find something along the same lines but written closer to
home. I started to search for Āyurvedic literature that focused more
on its practical applications. What I eventually found set me on a
direct collision course with Vedic Alchemy.
While wandering around a local bookstore I was amazed to find a
fairly recent publication (at that time) called Practical Āyurveda by
Vaidya Ātreya Smith.25 The dark shiny cover just seemed to jump off
the shelf, and having already ploughed through one introductory
book on Āyurveda and its concepts I was quite excited about my
new find. Thumbing through its pages in the store I quickly realised
this was exactly what I’d been looking for – easy to read, easy-to-
digest information and – best of all – a modest amount of Sanskrit26
terminology (Sanskrit was still an alien language to me in those
days, but was becoming more familiar with the passing weeks).
While later reading the section on herbal remedies I came across
a reference to a mineral-based medicine called Shilajit,27 an
exudate oozing from the Himalayas during the hot summer months.
Further reading divulged this material to have been in use for
several thousand years and also to be a remedy of highly prized
medicinal value. For some reason it was this commentary that set
the needle spinning, catching my imagination. I became extremely
curious and set about trying to obtain some of this exudate.
The hunt was on, and after a few initial disappointments and dead
ends I finally found a company importing the material, not 50 miles
from my front door. A few more enquiries via a phone call to the
importer made the useful discovery that one of the main business
partners was not only a medical herbalist, but had some extensive
training in Āyurveda, having studied in India. This just kept getting
better – I could not believe my luck! Over the next 18 months I
attended several foundation courses they were offering and found I
really had a bug for Āyurveda and so pursued the next logical step –
to buy a PC!
It was now 1999 and I took the plunge and invested in a second-
hand laptop. For me, the internet had finally arrived. I swiftly began
the not-so-slow process of becoming an internet junkie, staring at a
flat screen for hours on end and wrecking my eyesight in the
process. Back then connection speeds were painfully slow and every
keystroke seemed to take hours, but at last this strange new
medium paid off, broadening access to a growing online Āyurvedic
community, eager to share ideas, texts and – most importantly – free
downloadable information!
Rasa Shāstra was a little slower to emerge on the internet, but
eventually some material started to filter through. One early
contributor to the digital revolution of Āyurveda was a Dr Partap
Chauhan28 based in Delhi, an Āyurvedic physician of some note
having a special passion for rasa medicine, as well as a strong
inclination to actually use it in his practice. His speciality was the
treatment of medically incurable chronic conditions. My
introduction to his work via the internet was to be yet another case
of synchronicity as I eventually was able to visit Dr Chauhan in
India, spending a little time at his clinic. At that time, however, it
would be a number of years until we even spoke or got to discuss
his experiences with Rasa Shāstra in greater depth.
By now I’d built up a decent library of Āyurvedic literature and
enrolled on a four-year part-time college course in London. This
course offered students the chance to spend some of the final year
training abroad, gaining first-hand experience in the motherland of
Āyurveda – India.
By the time I’d made it to the end of my fourth year I asked if it
was possible to switch my internship from India to Sri Lanka (never
being one to do things the conventional way). I first planned a short
visit to Sri Lanka, just to get a feel for the place before committing
to a longer stay. The usual internship at the college was three
months. Somehow the idea of visiting an island made things seem
less intimidating. This in part turned out to be true, but also this
deviation from the normal college protocol presented a whole new
set of problems and opportunities.29
I ended up spending about ten months there in the end, before
returning to the UK in the autumn of 2005, laden with books, notes,
photographs and a wooden case full of Rasa Shāstra samples (42 in
total), and over the course of the next 12 months I did my best to
catalogue the lot.
Looking back at my little expedition, it occurred to me that there
was probably enough material to piece together a kind of photo-
journal, taking the reader through each individual process, step by
step. I had toyed with this idea whilst taking the photographs in the
first place but figured I probably didn’t have enough to make that
happen. When I actually did get around to reviewing the material I
realised there was enough, in fact more than I could use.
All this material eventually manifested as a series of DVD-ROMs
entitled Rasa Shāstra – The Art of Vedic Alchemy, a series that
rapidly expanded to fill a four-volume set – with a fifth in the
making (at the time of writing this book). This current work, the
book you now hold in your hands, could therefore be seen as the
culmination of eight years of research, practical experimentation
and additional studies of comparative techniques from around the
globe.

1.3
Rasa Shāstra

Translation of Sri Rudram Chamakam

‘I am stone, rock and ant hill, five types of soil and sand. I am
the mountains and hills, the kingdom of plants, flowers, twines
and herbs. I am gold, iron, lead, tin, copper, alloys and their
bhasma. I am glass, I am fire and rain. Healing herbs grow tall
when I nurture them, I am Shiva.’
Sri Rudram Chamakam

‘Among all types of physician viz. Varuna, Indra, it is Rudra

(Lord Śiva), the originator of Rasa Shāstra, whom has been
awarded prime position in Rigveda and Shuklayajurveda.’
Rig Veda

Simply put, Rasa Shāstra is medical alchemy. Using a fusion of

metals, minerals, gemstones, animal products and herbal
ingredients, highly medicinal compounds were formulated for
rejuvenation, the cure of chronic disease and ultimately life-
extension. On a more esoteric level some of this work also provided
a practical guide to the art of gold-making. Though this science was
established in antiquity, its practice very much continues to the
present day. Ultimately it was the medicinal side of this work that
prospered, producing a vast array of highly potent formulas
dedicated to relieve humanity from its pain and suffering.
In Sanskrit the word Rasa is used to describe a number of
different things, including juice, taste and essence; within the
context of Rasa Shāstra it is used to describe the metal mercury,
also known as quicksilver. The word Shāstra means knowledge or
sacred scripture. The term Rasa Shāstra, therefore, could be
translated as ‘the science of mercury’. Legend says that this science
was bequeathed to mankind by Lord Shiva, the deity most directly
connected to alchemy and life-extension. Many of his diverse
Sanskrit names are also synonyms for mercury and all can be used
interchangeably.

The Hindu God Shiva, progenitor of Rasa Shāstra/Vedic Alchemy

Rasa Shāstra could be said to follow two pathways, firstly

Lohasiddhi,30 referring to the transmutation of lower metals into
noble metals such as gold and silver. The second pathway,
Dehasiddhi, referred to the act of physical transformation, that is,
to make the human body imperishable (or immortal). The
underlying aim of these two practices was neither superficial nor
materialistic, but to establish a harmonious, prosperous and
peaceful society through the use of these alchemical techniques.
Rasa Shāstra is still very much practised in India and Sri Lanka
but focuses mainly on the art of rasāyana (rejuvenation of the
tissues, increased fertility and the reduction of senility in the
elderly). This is achieved through the use of both organic and non-
organic materials. These ingredients in their raw state are not
normally associated with having medicinal value; however, through
a sophisticated system of purification, reduction and refinement,
materials such as copper, zinc, tin, cinnabar, iron pyrite and arsenic
can be made to yield their great benefits if correctly processed.
Āyurveda uses the term rasāyana to describe the practice of
imbuing both medicants/tonics with regenerative/life-extending
capabilities, helping to re-impart youthfulness to the bodily tissues.
A great many Āyurvedic formulas aim to regenerate, bringing
renewed strength, and it is amongst these types of formulation that
Rasa Shāstra medicines are most prevalent.

1.4
Health and Longevity in Āyurveda

‘There is nothing in the world that does not have therapeutic

value in the appropriate quantity, condition and situation.’
Caraka Saṃhitā
 Interaction of the three doshas and five elements in Āyurveda

Learning the basic principles of Āyurveda is quite simple; however,

learning to use that knowledge diagnostically can take a lifetime.
Āyurveda is a science of life, and the best way to understand it is to
become a student of life.
Āyurveda recognises the physical constitution to be composed of
three active principles and that these principles are constantly
subject to imbalance. Imbalances can arise internally as mental
suffering or externally through physical suffering brought about by
improper lifestyle or modified by environmental factors. Āyurveda
uses the term dosha (that which spoils) to describe three forces or
actions that regulate and maintain the body. When imbalanced,
dosha leads to diminished health and, if left unattended, eventually
manifests as disease. If the body’s ability to repel disease is
compromised (as in the case of low immunity) then the end result
can be death. When balanced and in harmony, dosha maintains
health and vitality and subsequently supports a strong immune
system.
Āyurveda recognises three types of dosha; these are called Vāta,
Pitta and Kapha, each comprised of element(s). The ancients
recognised five great elements, called Pancha Mahābhūta (see table
on the following page). Qualities of each element were seen to
predominate in different substances, defining their attributes.
Heavy, dull, dense and fragrant were all attributes of the earth
element. With a concentration of the earth element comes stability,
mass and endurance. Moist, slimy, cold and tasty substances tend to
have a high concentration of the water element. This element
brings cohesion, softness, compactness and contentment. The fire
element brings heat, subtlety, sharpness and vision; it produces
metabolism, radiance, colour and illumination. The air element
brings movement, dryness and roughness; this force provides
movement, restlessness and erosion. Finally, the subtlest of the five
elements, ether, brings lightness, porosity, diffusion and sound.
Ether provides the space in which all other elements abide.
The three doshas regulate both the physical and psychological
factors in the body, from the minute structuring of the cell to the
complexity of mental functioning. Each dosha is uniquely
proportioned, giving rise to the multiplicity and variations of life
forms. This individual signature is called Prakriti, more commonly
understood as one’s individual constitution. It is this constitution
that determines physical appearance, behaviour, preferences and
emotions. When doshas are aligned or in a state of equilibrium the
body maintains health and vitality but, as the name dosha implies,
its very nature tends toward imbalance and impermanence. It is this
fundamental philosophy that required Āyurveda to develop a
healing strategy based on avoidance rather than cure. This also
happens to be the most logical course of action and one that seems
to have been mostly forgotten in modern times, as avoidance seems
to have been replaced by a ‘deal with it only after its manifestation
becomes a real problem’ mentality.

ATTRIBUTES OF PANCHA MAHĀBHŪTA

Sanskrit English Attributes Physical
senses
Ether Spacious, light, refined, smooth, clear, soft, subtle Ears/hearing
1. and auditory; forms an interactive medium for the
remaining elements
 Akash
2. Vāyu Air Light, cold, rough, mobile, subtle, restless, hard, Skin/touch
diffuse and tactile
Fire Hot, sharp, light, mobile, subtle, clear, Eyes/sight
3. transformative, assimilating and perceptive

Tejas
Water Cold, wet, heavy, smooth, dull, cloudy liquid and Tongue/taste
4. Jala flavoursome

Earth Heavy, dry, dull, hard, non-slimy, dense, gross, Nose/smell

5. static, rough and fragrant

Prithvi
Pancha Mahābhūta Dosha Primary location
1. Akash and vāyu (ether and air) Vāta Colon
2. Tejas (fire) Pitta Small intestine
3. Jala and prithvi (water and earth) Kapha Stomach

Āyurveda places a large emphasis on the doshas and their

interactions. There are many works which delineate the attributes
of each and how they relate to physiology and structure. The
following briefly outlines some of the more commonly mentioned
associations of the three doshas. As with all diagnostic methods it is
important not to get too lost in the attributes of an individual
constitution. Āyurveda states that all three doshas are always
present: it is their interplay that produces variation. However, their
accumulation and imbalance quickly manifest as improper bodily
functioning and will eventually lead to one or more pathological
conditions. It was these preliminary observations of doshic
interaction that were studied to avoid later problems. As
accumulation of any dosha(s) would increase their attributes in the
body, it was these signs and symptoms that were carefully noted
and catered for, hoping to stave off the eventual manifestation of
disease. This aspect of Āyurveda can be a great revelation for the
Western mindset in comparison with the preferred model of health
and disease. The whole idea that preliminary imbalances in the
body’s functionality will in any way have later ramifications is an
alien concept to say the least.

1.5
Ṣaḍkiryakalas

Āyurveda’s unique concept of health and disease sees the tiered

system of encumbrance slowly deteriorating on a sliding scale from
healthy dosha functionality to a firmly entrenched disease; this
process has been greatly simplified here to help convey its
concepts.

DOSHIC CYCLE/DISEASE PROCESS

1. Sanchaya Dosha starts to increase, due to improper lifestyle and/or environmental
(increase) considerations. Dosha is most likely to accumulate in its primary locations:
Vāta/colon; Pitta/small intestine; and Kapha/stomach.
2. Prakopa The continually increasing dosha(s) become imbalanced and start to act
(imbalance) upon their sites of accumulation, suppressing or activating the
functionality of the other dosha(s).
3. Prasara Now intensified, the doshas can no longer be contained and begin to move
(diffusion) from their site of aggravation. Vāta dosha travels with speed and moves
with irregularity; Pitta dosha spreads like a fire heating and burning; and
Kapha dosha floods and saturates the bodily tissues.
4. Sthana The doshas, now having migrated from their initial sites of aggravation
Samsraya take up residence in new locations. Once positioned, doshas can again
(location) begin the processes of pathological disturbance being fed by their ultimate
site of imbalance, much like the supply chain of an army. Vāta dosha,
having a strong affinity toward bones, will tend to concentrate its
destructive activities in these locations, often favouring joints. Pitta dosha,
having a strong affinity toward blood/bile, will tend to concentrate its
destructive activities in these locations, often favouring the digestive tract.
Kapha dosha, having a strong affinity toward mucous membranes and fatty
tissues, will tend to concentrate its destructive activities in these locations,
often favouring the lungs and upper respiratory tract.
5. Vyakti This fifth stage sees the emergence of a specific disease with a known
(symptoms) pathological pathway. Now well established with a constant source of
disturbed dosha, the disease fully integrates with its surrounding tissues,
now little encumbered by the underactive immune system. As its sites of
disease are slowly destroyed, the still-accumulating dosha looks for ever
more fertile ground, seeking always to expand its territory.
6. Bheda This final stage sees the interaction of disease, its pathways and other
(progression) doshas combining to create new sites of manifestation. These are like the
children of the original imbalances now taking on their own unique
characteristics, adapting to their environments and again diversifying into
their own variations of the original disease, what would commonly be
called complications (in modern terms).
As can be seen in the above, keeping the body at an optimal level of
health was paramount, as fostering an environment of apathy could
literally be an invitation to death. Although simplistic in its analogy
of the body’s functionality, the Āyurvedic view of pathology is really
interesting and easily understood. It is amazing how a few simple
corrections in lifestyle and diet can have massive ramifications in
levels of general health. Simple regulation of eating and sleeping
habits, the reduction of certain foods in different seasons, reducing
one’s food intake and limiting exposure to unwholesome
impressions all quickly abate disturbances to the sites of initial
accumulation. Continual practices of these techniques will often
relieve the intensity of a disease, allowing the body to start its slow
but sure repair processes.
These simple first steps are often a good way to establish a
rapport with Āyurveda, as their results tend to quickly manifest,
establishing a level of trust in the participant. For my own part, I
cannot remember ever receiving one piece of advice from a
healthcare professional that focused on current lifestyle/diet in
association with any particular symptom I had presented to them. It
seems the allopathic model favours a scenario where the disease is
totally aside from an individual; manifestation is more along the
lines of a random lottery, where only the lucky ones survive.

‘A flying bird is unable to avoid producing its own shadow,

whichever be the direction in which it is flying. Similarly, no
disease is produced without the involvement of Vāta, Pitta and
Kapha. Hence the doshas form the root cause of all diseases.’
Kayachikitsa

Knowing your predominant dosha(s) will help determine how best

to maintain a state of balance in the body. A very simplistic example
of this could be that a person with a high degree of the fire element
in their constitution will often display symptoms of accentuated
heat, anger and feelings of competitiveness when internal or
environmental factors cause the fire element to burn with greater
intensity. This might be brought about by living in a hot climate,
smoking, drinking alcohol, consuming hot, oily and spicy foods or
being surrounded by competitive, highly driven people.
Even today, though we tend to live in climate-controlled boxes,
you will often find your thoughts becoming more restless when the
sky clears and the wind picks up, as emptiness (akash) and wind
(vāyu) both increase the air element in one’s constitution. With
increased spaciousness and movement comes a surge of thoughts,
ideas and impressions that stimulate the mind. The end result of
this is restlessness. If your constitution also happens to be
dominated by the air element, this effect is felt doubly so, and so on.
The following outlines a basic overview of each dosha and their
more commonly displayed attributes.

ATTRIBUTES OF VĀTA
Physique/build Excessively tall or very short, thin with little muscular development, eats
erratically with variable digestion, variable elimination and light sleeper
Skin Cool, dry, rough
Hair Dark, curly, dry
Eyes Agitated, small, brown or grey-blue, dry-looking
Temperament Nervous, fluctuating moods, quick but short memory, creative
Energy Sporadic bursts, over-activity and poor stamina
Activity Vāta is most active in the autumn and between the hours of
2–6am/2–6pm
General Vāta relates to the elements air and ether. It is associated with
movement, coldness, dryness, ageing and exhaustion. Vāta presides over
the colon, nervous system, mind, kidneys and general movements of the
physical body. Vāta has an affinity with the hollow organs of the body
including bones. Vāta presides over the final third of life, a period when
we start to lose bulk and lessen our grip on material attachments.

ATTRIBUTES OF PITTA
Physique/build Medium, good muscular development, must eat regularly, quick
digestion, regular elimination, sound sleeper
Skin Warm, oily, prone to reddening or blemishes
Hair Light-coloured, straight, fine, slightly oily
Eyes Sharp, lustrous, bright blue or light brown with slight inflammation
Temperament Easily irritated, goal-oriented, organised, sharp memory
Energy Moderate, average stamina, enjoys physical activity
Activity Pitta is most active in the summer and between the hours of
10pm–2am/10am–2pm
General Pitta relates to the fire element and is associated with perception, heat,
digestion, oiliness and discolouration. Pitta presides over the small
intestine, liver, gallbladder and blood. Pitta is the body’s internal heat
regulator and its ability to absorb and digest nutrients. Pitta is strongly
related to eyesight, colour and our ability to determine truth from
falsehood. The presence of Pitta is felt mostly in the middle third of life,
 when we begin to assert our will, striving to achieve our ambitions and
goals.

ATTRIBUTES OF KAPHA
Physique/build Large, firm build, good muscular development, steady appetite, slow
digestion, regular elimination, deep sleeper
Skin Cool, smooth, moist
Hair Thick and wavy
Eyes Large, attractive, brown and moist
Temperament Calm, tranquil, compassionate, thorough, rarely forgets
Energy Steady, lethargic, with good endurance
Activity Kapha is most active in the spring and between the hours of 6–10am/6–
10pm
General Kapha relates to the elements water and earth and is associated with
lubrication, protection and endurance. Kapha presides over the stomach,
lungs and mucous membranes. Kapha, like a mother, protects our bodies
from harm, even lining the stomach with a protective membrane to
contain stomach acid. The presence of Kapha is felt mostly in the first
third of life. These are the years the body starts to build, establish and
attain strength. Kapha is cohesion, a sense of being grounded, slowly
moving through what appear to be endless summers.

‘Rishis who were formerly residents in communities or nomadic

between communities resorted to the diet, lifestyles and
medicines of the ignorant villagers. As a result of these poor
practices they became interested in the accumulation of wealth
and so became lazy and thus no longer maintained their health
and were unable to attend to their meditative practices.
Realising their mistakes they returned to the Himalayas, back
to the gods, the Ganga, holy places and celestial drugs,
protected by Lord Indra.’
Caraka Saṃhitā

These translated lines from the Caraka Saṃhitā31 are found in its
third volume, one which deals mainly with rejuvenation practices
and paints an idyllic picture of life in the golden age of the Rishis.32
It is interesting to note how even in those times the authors of these
texts were only too aware of the effects of dietary regimes and
environmental factors as well as the presence of unseen agents
pervading the ethers. These infinitesimal/ultra-subtle forces were
known to penetrate our defences and manifest disease within the
body. Collectively known as bhūta or what we might term spirits,
these supernatural organisms were thought to act like parasites,
attaching themselves to those offering fertile ground upon which to
feed. The presence of bhūta was particularly prominent in cases of
exogenous Unmada (insanity, psychosis and depression). Some
modern commentators on Caraka have seen these descriptions as
ancient insights into the presence of bacteria and viruses.

THE EIGHT BRANCHES OF ĀYURVEDA

Branch Specialism Branch Specialism
Internal 5. Vājīkarana* Aphrodisiacs
1. medicine

Kayachikitsa
ENT 6. Agada Tantra* Poisoning
2. Shalakya
Tantra
3. Rasāyana* Rejuvenation Psychiatric/demonology
7.
Bhūtavidyā
Paediatrics Surgical techniques
4. Kaumara 8. Shalya
Bhritya Tantra
* Represents particular areas influenced by rasa medicine.

These additional fields of research eventually diversified into what

is known as the Eight Branches of Āyurveda, a broad spectrum of
disciplines, each specialising in its own form of personal wellness.
Kaya Chikitsa forms a large part of the Āyurvedic texts, covering
internal medicine, diagnosis, diet and daily regimes. Shalakya
Tantra specialises in diseases of the head, eyes, ears, nose and
throat, or ENT as it is now more commonly known. Shalakya Tantra
is something of a fusion between the use of surgical techniques and
internal medicine. Rasāyana promotes rejuvenative practices
through the use of longevity-increasing medicines; many Rasa
Shāstra formulations can be found in this category. Kaumara
Bhritya (also called Bala Roga) specialises in the nursing of
newborns, early childhood development, child psychology and
dietary regimes to correct illness in the young. Vājīkarana (also
known as aphrodisiac therapy) helps to promote vitality and virility
in those wishing to conceive strong progeny. Vājīkarana means ‘to
give one the strength of the horse’. Agada Tantra (also known as
Visha Chikitsa) specialises in the removal of toxins from the body
via antidote. Poisons may be acquired from animals, plants and
insects or from mineral or metal sources. This branch of toxicology
was developed to combat both endogenous and exogenous poison,
accidently introduced or purposefully given. Agada Tantra also
relates to techniques for the purification of poison to be used in
rejuvenating therapies. Bhūtavidyā (also known as Bhūtavijja) was
actually closer to demonology or exorcism, focusing mainly on the
removal or warding off of malevolent spirits or ghosts. Modern
interpretations of this art have focused more on Bhūtavidyā as a
method to heal the mind, a kind of twenty-first-century Āyurvedic
psychiatry. Finally, and not least, Shalya Tantra, perhaps one of the
most interesting aspects of Āyurvedic healing – surgery. Pioneered
by Susrutha (considered by many to be the father of modern
surgical techniques), this branch of Āyurveda finds itself tackling a
number of conditions, including: complications of childbirth,
fractured bones, diseases of the eye, removal of tumours, wound
management, cosmetic surgery, anal-rectal diseases, urinary
disorders and blood-letting/leeching.

1.6
Ojas and Sapta Dhātu

‘Ojas is cooling, firm and contributes to the formation and

growth of flesh. It maintains integrity, is mobile, soft, shiny and
is possessed of the most efficacious nature. It should be
regarded as the most important element, the seat of vitality. The
whole body with its limbs and members is permeated by ojas.
Loss or diminution in its natural quantity leads to its eventual
emaciation and ultimate dissolution.’
Susrutha Saṃhitā

Among the many important concepts of Āyurveda is the

functionality of the body in regard to the assimilation of foods and
the body’s subsequent ability to repair, maintain integrity and build
tissue. This concept was visualised as a complex series of channels,
each with interlocking dependencies, supporting and being
supported by the collective whole. The system was known as sapta
dhātu or seven tissues. The seven tissues in question were rasa,
rakta, māṃsa, medas, asthi, majjā and shukra, all culminating in the
formation of ojas33 or vital essence. As it states in the Caraka
Saṃhitā:

‘If ojas is destroyed, the human body will perish. As bees collect
their nectar from the fruits and flowers, so ojas maintains the
human being by virtue of its properties and action.’

Ojas is of two types – one that resides in the area around the human
heart: Paraojas/superior; and Aparaojas/secondary, an inferior type
that freely circulates in amongst the tissues. Paraojas is fixed in
quantity, being a total of eight drops;34 its colouration is primarily
white with a slight tint of red and yellow. Paraojas is said to be
Somātmaka – that is, having a nature like Soma (nectar) or jala
(water); it is oily, cool and stable, residing in solitude
(unadulterated) and soft in nature.
Its counterpart, Aparaojas, was reckoned to be half of one anjali35
(roughly one cupped handful), its appearance likened to ghee. Its
taste was like honey and its smell like fried paddy rice. This form of
ojas was thought to be primarily a distilled form of rakta and Kapha.
Whereas Aparaojas may fluctuate according to lifestyle and diet,
Paraojas cannot be increased, but the loss of one drop would see
the termination of life. Direct injuries to the heart or the action of
visha (poison) are two possible examples of the sudden destruction
of Paraojas. Conversely, ojas could be preserved and promoted by
foods and herbs that promoted the strength of the heart and
circulatory system, and the avoidance of mental antagonism or
anguish (non-violence). Finally, residence in tranquil settings was
stressed as supporting ojas. Quite simply, ojas was and is
paramount for the maintenance of health, its presence essential for
life; ojas and life are co-dependent.
The seven dhātus are in effect a unique filtration and
transportation system that feed Aparaojas, performing their own
alchemy, converting ingested matter into living tissue. Like an
endless loop in the body the seven dhātus provide a framework
upon which the strength of the tissues rely – both over-abundance
as well as deficiency can be problematic at all levels. This cyclic
process of transformation from initial consumption of food to the
final rarefied ojas is thought to take about 30–3536 days.
Three models of dhātu formation are believed to co-exist and
function in unison to provide the body with its required
nourishment. Though each could in essence explain dhātus’
function, it is as though all three run concurrently to produce full
functionality:

1. Kṣīradadi Nyāya (dhātu transformation). This first explanation

of dhātu sees each of the seven tissues cook and transform
nutrients into a medium that can be accepted and digested by
a subsequent dhātu. Sometimes the analogy of milk being
transformed into curd, then butter and finally ghee is given as
an explanation.
2. Kedārīkulyā Nyāya (dhātu transmission). This explanation sees
each dhātu filling and overflowing, like a tiered irrigation
system, the expanding nutrients filtering down through each
tissue, nourishing each subsequent tissue upon direct contact.
3. Khalekapota Nyāya (dhātu selectivity). In this final process
nutrients pass freely between tissues, systematically being
harvested for essential content relative to each respective
dhātu. The analogy of grains and seeds being feasted upon by
different birds is often cited. After taking their fill, each bird
will then retreat to its own nesting ground.

Emaciation of dhātu leads to the emaciation of the body, each tissue

being slowly starved and so affecting its preceding and adjacent
tissues. This loss of tissue is attributable to a multitude of factors,
including: excessive fasting, over-anxiety, the habitual intake of
drying (over-processed) foods, exposure to one of the six tastes (see
Section 1.7), intake of alcohol, exposure to the elements for
prolonged periods, loss of bodily oils, excessive sexual intercourse,
blood loss, the natural effects attributable to old age and, finally,
more extraneous sources such as the association of bhūta (ghost of
malevolent spirits).

SAPTA DHĀTU
1. Rasa (plasma) Underlying dosha: Kapha
Origin: Heart and ten vessels
Mala/waste: Kapha
 Vitiation of rasa dhātu: Physical weakness after only minor
exertion, chest pains with heart palpitations, listless mind and
hypersensitivity to loud sounds
2. Rakta Underlying dosha: Pitta
(hgb/haemoglobin) Origin: Liver and spleen
Mala/waste: Pitta
Vitiation of rakta dhātu: Physical dryness of the skin, resulting in
cracks and lesions. The skin will lose its glow and lustre,
appearing pale and transparent
3. Māṁsa (muscle Underlying dosha: Kapha
tissue) Origin: Ligaments and skin
Mala/waste: Earwax, tears, nasal mucus, saliva and skin oil
Vitiation of māṁsa dhātu: Diminution leads to emaciation of the
tissues, especially around the buttocks, belly and neck
4. Medas (fat/adipose Underlying dosha: Kapha
tissue) Origin: Kidneys and greater omentum
Mala/waste: Sweat
Vitiation of medas dhātu: Diminution leads to emaciation of the
abdomen, weariness and dryness of the eyes, cracking of joints
and general debility
5. Asthi (bone/adipose) Underlying dosha: Vāta
Origin: Adipose tissue and buttocks
Mala/waste: Body hair, teeth and fingernails
Vitiation of asthi dhātu: Looseness of joints, improperly formed
nails, falling of teeth and loss of body hair
6. Majjā (marrow) Underlying dosha: Kapha
Origin: Bones and joints
Mala/waste: None
Vitiation of majjā dhātu: Weakening and lightening of bones, the
increase of Vāta diseases (in the hollow spaces), loss of lustre to
the eyes (muddying of the sclera)
7. Shukra Underlying dosha: Kapha
(reproductive fluids) Origin: Testicles and vulva
Mala/waste: Lubrication of the eyes, skin and stool
Vitiation of shukra dhātu: General debility, impotency, dryness of
the mouth, pain upon exertion
8. Aparaojas Ojas is increased by the consumption of sattvic food, and
(immunity/life-force) decreased by the intake of rajasic/tamasic foods
culmination of sapta Diminution of ojas: Weakness, fear and anxiety, pallor, dryness
dhātu and emaciation, loss of contentment, insufficiency of the sense
organs
Ojas is not a dhātu per se, but the culmination of all seven dhātu
functioning in equilibrium

1.7
Actions of Taste
 Six tastes

‘Lord Punarvasu said, “There are only six types of taste viz.,
madhur (sweet), amla (sour), lavaṇa (saline), kaṭu (pungent),
tikta (bitter) and kaṣāya (astringent).” The source material for
the manifestation of all these tastes is jalamahābhūta.’
Caraka Saṃhitā

Understanding the actions of taste is a key factor in determining

the energetics of foods, herbs, minerals and metals. Āyurveda uses
a system of six tastes (see illustration above) that helps categorise
the general actions of taste. The basic premise is that during one’s
normal dietary regime a balanced mixture of the tastes should be
followed, as over-consumption of foods predominating in one single
taste can ultimately lead to ill-health. Often both herbs and minerals
will be described in terms of their predominating taste(s), which
helps to indicate their underlying action upon the bodily tissues.
The six tastes are sweet, sour, salty, pungent, bitter and
astringent; all require the presence of water (jalamahābhūta) for
rasa37/taste to be apparent. Once sensed upon the tongue, the
body’s metabolism is stimulated accordingly, allowing foods to be
broken down into their constituent elements and effects, these
being:

THE SIX TASTES

Taste Elements Effect
1. Madhur/sweet Earth and Heavy, cold, builds tissues
water
2. Amla/sour Fire and earth Heating, promotes digestion, builds tissue
3. Lavaṇa/salty Water and fire Heating, promotes digestion, improves taste, retains
fluid
4. Katu/pungent Air and fire Heating, drying, promotes digestion, burns toxins
5. Tikta/bitter Air and ether Light, cold, cleansing, reduces tissues
6. Earth and Drying, cold, alkalising, heals tissues
Kaṣāya/astringent ether
Note: Tastes 1–3 are tonifying and 4–6 are emaciating in action.

Tastes composed of air and fire have a lightening (upward) motion,

whereas the composition of water and earth increase weight and
move energy downward. Combinations of other tastes show a mix of
qualities according to their composition of elements.

1. The sweet taste

The sweet taste promotes growth, strength, moisture and longevity.
It helps build and maintain all seven tissues. Sweet improves
lustre/texture of skin, is soothing to mucous membranes and gives
lubrication to the tissues and supports the immune system. In
excess the sweet taste increases Kapha dosha and āma, causing
obesity, lethargy, reduced digestive capacity (low agni), parasites,
excess mucus/catarrh and vomiting. Foods that typically
predominate in the sweet taste include: milk, honey, fruit sugars,
grains, nuts, herbs (cinnamon) and vegetable starches. Minerals
that typically predominate in the sweet taste include: mica,
antimony, lead, iron oxide, alum and gold, and gemstones including
cat’s eye and jade.

2. The sour taste

The sour taste stimulates the palate and appetite, promotes
strength, reduces Vāta, refreshes the sense organs, nourishes the
heart, increases bodily secretions and expedites digestion by its
moistening effect. In excess it aggravates Pitta and rakta, causing
oedema/swellings, itching, burning sensations in the chest, vertigo,
ulcerations and the suppuration of wounds, turbid urine and the
weakening of muscle tissue. Foods that typically predominate in the
sour taste include: cheese, yoghurt, sour fruits, fermented wines,
pickled vegetables and tomatoes. The metals varta loha and ferrous
sulphate predominate in the sour taste.

3. The salty taste

The salty taste promotes digestion through its agglutinative effects,
reduces Vāta, reduces accumulation and obstruction (mild laxative),
hydrates and brings softness to the tissues, liquefies Kapha,
neutralises all other tastes, improves circulation and reduces
stiffness of the limbs. In excess it aggravates Pitta and rakta,
aggravates skin diseases, and causes greying of hair, inflammation
and stiffness of joints, morbid thirst, teeth to fall, skin to wrinkle,
patchy balding (alopecia) and general ageing. The salty taste
increases the desire to eat more and consume (physically as well as
materially). Foods and minerals that predominate in the salty taste
include: rock, sea and table salts, processed foods (monosodium
glutamate), sea foods and sea vegetables (seaweeds).

4. The pungent taste

The pungent taste promotes digestion and keeps the palate clean. It
aids in the elimination of waste and the burning up of toxins, it
reduces obesity and it removes agglutinative substances. It reduces
Kapha, kills pathogens/bacteria and removes clotted blood. In
excess it aggravates Pitta and rakta, causing dryness, emaciation,
burning sensations, pain in the extremities, bodily tremors,
reduction of muscle mass, light-headedness and morbid thirst.
Foods that typically predominate in the pungent taste include:
garlic, chilli, ginger, cayenne pepper and cardamom. Milder
pungent tastes include coffee and tea. Minerals that typically
predominate in the pungent taste include: copper sulphate, iron
pyrite, calamine, cowrie shells, sulphur, arsenic disulphate, arsenic
trioxide and cinnabar. Plant material/visha that predominates in the
pungent taste includes: aconite, milk hedge and crown flower.

5. The bitter taste

The bitter taste promotes the tastes of other foods, digestion and
tautness of the skin, dries excess moisture, reduces Kapha/Pitta and
increases the removal of mala (bodily wastes). The bitter taste
reduces itching of the skin, fevers and burning sensations, its action
being both germicidal and antibacterial. Used in excess it depletes
dhātu (emaciation), especially rasa, rakta, māṁsa, medas and
shukra. The bitter taste creates coldness, lightness and dryness of
the palate and aggravates diseases of a Vāta nature. Foods that
typically predominate in the bitter taste include: barley, dark leafy
vegetables, bitter gourd, and spices such as sage and turmeric.
Herbal bitters include: gentian root, neem, coptis, goldenseal and
malabar tamarind. Metals that predominate in the bitter taste
include: bismuth, iron, tin, zinc and bronze. Plant material/visha
includes: flame lily, cannabis and croton seed.

6. The astringent taste

The astringent taste promotes the reduction of bodily fluids. Its
action is drying, binding, cold, heavy and stiffening. The astringent
taste reduces Kapha and helps to relieve diseases of rakta Pitta
(bleeding disorders). If astringency is used in excess it causes
dryness of the tissues, constipation, distension of the abdomen,
reduction of blood circulation, pain in the sides of the chest,
weakness of the heart and a darkness of countenance. The
astringent taste causes spasms, stiffness of joints and vitiation of
Vāta dosha. Foods that typically predominate in astringency
include: dried pulses, beans, tofu, sprouts, lettuce and alfalfa. Fruits
such as apple, pomegranate and plantain are a good source of the
astringent taste. Minerals that predominate in the astringent taste
include: antimony, turquoise and red coral. Metals include: copper
and Mandura (rust of iron). Plant material/visha includes Dattura
and opium.
 1.8
Ṣaḍupakarmas

Ṣaḍupakarmas

‘One who knows how to reduce, to nourish, to dry, to oleate, to

fomentate and the astringent therapies, is the real physician.’
Caraka Saṃhitā

Caraka divides therapeutics in Āyurveda into six categories, these

being: Laṅghana (lightening), Bṛṃhaṇa (building), Rūkṣaṇa
(drying), Snehana (lubrication), Svedana (sudation) and Stambhana
(retaining). Through the application of these six principles it was
understood that bodily ailments were to be successfully treated.
These principles were considered paramount in importance, second
only to Tridosha.38 If administered correctly with appropriate
dosage and in accordance with the season, these therapeutics were
able to eradicate all curable diseases. Inasmuch as Vāta–Pitta–
Kapha was responsible for the genesis of disease, so were these six
therapies to be considered their nemesis.

1. Laṅghana therapies
Laṅghana therapies included: digestive stimulants, intense physical
exercise, fasting, exposure to the elements and the use of certain
medicated enemas. Traditionally, lightening of the body was more
effective during the winter months and upon those of a stronger
constitution afflicted with diseases of excess Pitta, Kapha and
mala.39 Lightening therapies are especially useful for the treatment
of skin disease, obesity and diabetes. Energetics of favourable
drugs included: light, subtle, heating, rough, hard and non-sticky.

2. Bṛṃhaṇa therapies
Bṛṃhaṇa therapies included: heavy diets, rich with fresh meats,
oils/ghee, dairy and sweet foods, warm bathing, nourishing
enemas,40 sleep and comfortable environments (sheltered from the
elements). Traditionally, nourishment of the tissues was more
effective during the summer months and aimed at those suffering
from diseases of high Vāta, including: emaciation, over-exertion,
piles, overindulgence (alcohol, sex, etc.) and effects of old age.
Energetics of favourable drugs included: heavy, gross, cold, smooth,
soft and sticky.

3. Rūkṣaṇa therapies
Rūkṣaṇa therapies included: fasting, irregular meals, fomentation,41
reduced sleep and intake of diets rich in the tastes of pungent,
astringent and bitter (oil cake, honey, etc.). Drying therapies
targeted diseases that sought to obstruct the channels with dosha
and mala: gout, aching joints, cramps and urinary disorders.
Traditionally, drying of the body is more effective during the winter
months and upon those of a stronger constitution. Energetics of
favourable drugs included: light, dry, clear, heating, rough, hard
and non-sticky. The use of astringent substances (earth/air
elements) allows drying, but not lightness.

4. Snehana therapies
Snehana therapies included: the internal/external application of oily
substances from both vegetable and animal sources, these being:
taila (oils), vasā and majjā (animal fats/marrow) and grtha42 (ghee).
Oleation therapies target diseases of all dosha, but favour the
reduction of Vāta: dryness of the body, anxiety, fatigue, infertility,
addiction (alcoholism) and low immunity.
Traditionally the internal oleation of ghee is most effective during
the autumn months and that of animal fats/marrow in the spring.
The external application of Snehana therapy is usually combined
with Svedana (steaming) and internal oils/fats taken with suitable
anupāna or in medicated formulas. All oleation therapies are
contra-indicated in extremes of weather (excessive heat or
coldness). Energetics of favourable drugs included: heavy, moist,
cooling, smooth, soft and sticky.

5. Svedana therapy
Svedana therapy involves the application of external heat (to induce
sweating). Fomentation of tissues by applied heat has a direct effect
upon medas dhātu (fat tissue); Svedana facilitates the removal of
dosha and mala by opening the channels of elimination. Svedana
therapy targets diseases of Vāta and Kapha, including: spasms,
abdominal distension, joint pains, constipation, sciatica and
paralysis of the limbs. Treatments are typically administered after
internal and external oleation, after the digestion of food and in a
closed environment (devoid of breezes). Fomentation therapies are
contra-indicated in close proximity to sensitive parts including the
eyes, heart and groin; these places were advised to be shielded by
cloth, leaves, water and cool hands. Svedana is also contra-
indicated with the involvement of Pitta dosha. Energetics of
favourable drugs included: heating, weighty, penetrating, liquid,
oily and stable.

6. Stambhana therapies
Stambhana therapies seek to contract/retain the liquidity of the
body including: sweat, urine, faeces and blood. These fixing and
strengthening therapies have a direct action on patients afflicted by
Pitta dosha, diarrhoea, vomiting, poisoning or those exposed to
excessive Svedana therapies. Stambhana seeks to restore strength
to the body and provide relief from the aforementioned conditions.
Signs of excess fixing included: constipation, stiffness, anxiety and
chest pains. Energetics of favourable drugs included: cooling, dull,
soft, subtle, smooth, dry and static and light.

1.9
Pañcakarma

‘Pañcakarma (five purification therapies) bestows happiness to

both patients and healthy persons by promoting their strength
and longevity, and also by curing their diseases.’
Caraka Saṃhitā

Pañcakarma (Pañcha = Five and Karma = Action) is arguably one of

the most powerful ways to eliminate deep-seated toxins from the
body. Prior to any attempt to regain long-term balanced health it
may sometimes be advised to consider this therapy, if the body is
sufficiently strong enough to undergo the intensive therapeutic
purgation of five actions. The use of PK (as it is commonly
abbreviated to) should not be underestimated, as it forms an
integral part of Āyurveda/rasāyana therapy; indeed, its use is
considered an important preparatory procedure before
administering rejuvenating drugs.
As we shall see in later chapters, shodhana of minerals, metals,
gemstones and plant material forms the primary action with which
to liberate their medicinal properties. It was through the
application of elaborate purification procedures that harmful toxins
were expelled, leaving the remaining material highly potentised.
These exact same principles were being applied to the purification
of the human body, in an effort to remove accumulated toxins,
strengthen the tissues and extend life-expectancy.
Unlike the resilient structures of metals, gems and minerals, the
Āyurvedic masters had to contend with the infirmities of the human
body, a conscious organism complete with digestive tract, vital
organs, wastes and five senses, all of which made the process of
purification extremely complicated. Their eventual compromise was
Saṁśodhana, a three-tiered system that essentially spends its first
third preparing for purgation, a middle third purgating and a final
third recovering from purgation. This final stage,
rebuilding/reprogramming the body through the use of improved
diet and daily routine, was perhaps its most critical, as reduced
diligence here could effectively undo all the previous hard work.
The uses of Saṁśodhana (rectifying) techniques were also seen as
a vital prerequisite for the reception of rasāyana/vājīkarana
(rejuvenative/aphrodisiacs) including Rasa Shāstra medicants. The
analogy of fertile pastures, freshly nourished and irrigated to
receive new crops, is often used to describe the state of the body
after rectifying therapies, as opposed to vital nutrients poured upon
dried and barren land.
Some variations on the five main therapies exist, detailed in the
classical Pañcakarma of Ātreya/Caraka, Dhanvantari/Susrutha and
latterly Keralīya (Southern India). The former two adhere mostly to
similar procedures, differing in the application of Basti (enema) and
the supplementation of blood-letting therapies. The Keralīya system
seems to have reinterpreted earlier classical techniques and
adapted these methods in a simplified form; these have been briefly
covered at the end of this subsection.

SAṀŚODHANA REGIMEN (ĀTREYA AND DHANVANTARI SCHOOLS)

No. Sanskrit English/Unani
Pūrvakarma (Preparatory treatment)
1 Pācana Digestive appetisers and stimulants
2 Snehana Oleation (internally), Abhyaṅga (Dalak/external massage)
3 Svedana Medicated fomentation (Tareeq/steaming/sweating)
Pañcakarma/Pradhanakarma (Five therapies)
1 Vamana Emesis (Qai/therapeutic vomiting) −K
2 Virechana Purgation (Ishal) −P
3 Nirūha Basti Medicated enema −V
4 Anuvāsana Basti Oil enema −V
5 Nasya Nasal purgation (Virechana/purgation, Bṛṃhaṇa/nourishing or
(Śirovirechana) Śamana/palliative) −V
Dhanvantari School variation
3 & Basti Nirūha/Anuvāsana (as combined treatments) −V
4
4 Raktamokshana Blood-letting (Fasad/incision, Hajamat/cupping and
Taleeq/leeching) −P
Paścatakarma/Uttrakarma (Post-therapy)
1 Saṃsarjanakrama Dietary regimen
2 Rasāyanadi Rasāyana therapy
3 Śamanādi Palliative therapies

The following is a breakdown of each of the three stages in

Saṁśodhana.

1. Pūrvakarma
Pācana

Pācana helps promote and strengthen the digestive process,

allowing the body to burn up toxins and properly convert ingested
food, minimising its production of āma. This is usually achieved with
the introduction of foods easily assimilated by each doshic type
along with various appetising spices, for example long pepper, black
pepper, ginger, cinnamon, cardamom and fennel. To aid in the
shodhana of the body a number of foods and beverages are to be
avoided throughout the process of PK, including: dairy (excluding
ghee), fermented foods, stimulants (alcohol, cocoa, caffeine,
tea/coffee, recreational drugs), meats and seafoods (including
shellfish), certain spices such as chilli and garlic, and the
minimisation of salty foods.

Snehana
Snehana means to make smooth by the application of oils, both
through diet and by external application. Dietary oils have been
given as ghee, vegetable oils (such as sesame/castor), muscle fat
and marrow. In practice, ghee43 and oils such as olive are usually
preferred, due to their ability to be digested with relative ease, over
the recommended heavier animal fats. Snehana is usually
performed over a seven-day period, slowly increasing its dosage in
accordance with digestive tolerances. At the end of this period the
tissues will have become saturated, no longer requiring oleation.
Continuation beyond this point invites the re-accumulation of toxins
(āma).
 Externally, medicinal-grade oils are applied liberally to the tissues
using regular strokes called Abhyaṅga. Sesame oil (pre-cured44) is
the oil of choice for this procedure – due to its slightly warming
nature it penetrates deeply into tissue and bone. Sesame is slightly
sweet, bitter and astringent in taste, pacifying Vāta without
aggravating Kapha. Application is performed in a warm calm
environment, with easy access to Svedana equipment (Svedana is
always employed to fully activate the potential of external oleation
therapies).

Svedana

‘Even dry pieces of wood bend freely by means of oleation and

fomentation when duly applied. Then why living human beings
should not also be benefited.’
Caraka Saṃhitā

Svedana, applied heat (traditionally steam-heated cloths, stones,

bolus, poultice or bath45), was used to induce sweating, dilating the
bodily channels and promoting the absorption of oil and the
removal of toxins.
Caraka gives a number of methods for the application of Svedana.
These include the use of: subterranean cellars heated by fires (with
sufficient exhaust points for smoke); water-tubs (baths) to be filled
with ghee, milk and oils; and elaborate poultices made from ghee,
meats, oils, horsegram, sand, stone, faeces and iron oxide.

Note: One interesting reference to Nāḍī Sveda in Caraka addresses

itself to physicians who are geologically conversant and
technologically inclined, constructing fomentation equipment (very
much like a modern pressure cooker), harnessing its steam and duly
administering it through a tube. The recommended (Vāta-reducing)
decoction to be used in conjunction with this yantra (apparatus)
included: castor seeds, sesame seeds, rice, milk and blood. Suitable
decoctions for Pitta- and Kapha-reducing therapies are also
discussed in some detail.

2. Pañcakarma/Pradhanakarma
Note: The main purgation therapies were recommended to
commence in the months of Chaitra (March to April for Kapha),
Shrávana (July to August for Pitta) and Mgrashirsha (November to
December for Vāta).

Vamana
Vamana is the first Pañcakarma, the act of therapeutic vomiting.
This action rids the body of excess Kapha and, secondarily, Pitta
expelled from the stomach. The ejected material is composed
mostly of the water and earth elements. Following sufficient
oleation and sweating (4–7 days), the bodily pathways should be
suitably lubricated and dilated to facilitate the removal of larger
amounts of material. Vamana was undertaken in the appropriate
season (usually spring) and in the morning hour(s) that Kapha
predominated. While keeping the patient in a warm environment,
they consume foods that help provoke Kapha;46 once having eaten
and the meal digested, they retire early and sleep well, before
arising early to receive emetic drugs. No further food is consumed
and the patient is kept warm and comfortable until vomiting starts.
Vomiting is continued until Pitta (bile) is seen. After Vamana is
complete the patient recovers for 2–3 hours or until hunger returns,
at which time thin rice gruel can be given in small quantities.
Conditions that benefit from Vamana include: cough, asthma,
rhinitis, tuberculosis, diabetes, acute fever, skin disease, anaemia,
diarrhoea, nausea, poisoning, tumours, piles, heart disease and
excess phlegm/mucus.

Virechana
Virechana is the second Pañcakarma, relating to purgation. This
stage primarily aims to rid the body of excess Pitta dosha
accumulated in the small intestine, liver and gallbladder. Although
Virechana is the primary means used to eliminate excess Pitta, this
method facilitates a secondary reduction of Kapha dosha. Virechana
was undertaken in the appropriate season (usually late summer)
and in the morning hour(s) that Pitta predominated. Virechana is
preceded by a sufficient period of oleation and sweating, allowing
the bodily channels of elimination to become sufficiently lubricated
and dilated, facilitating a strong downward purgation. Prior to
commencement of Virechana, the stomach should be empty and the
previous meal fully digested. There are a good number of purgative
ingredients recommended for this procedure, some of the most
popular including Eranda Sneha (castor oil), Trivruta (Operculine
turpethum) and Jayapāla (Croton tiglium). Purgation is usually
continued until mucus is seen in the evacuated stool. Generally this
procedure is considered the least complicated to undertake.
Conditions that benefit from Virechana include: fever,
haemorrhoids, diabetes, ulcers, diseases of the skin (spots and
pigmentations), chronic itching, inflammation, constipation,
poisoning, gout, chest pains, heart disease, eye disorders and
anaemia. Those who have previously received Vamana also benefit.

Nirūha Basti and Anuvāsana Basti

‘No therapeutic measures other than Basti cleanse the body as

quickly and easily, causing both depletion and nourishment
instantaneously, free from any adverse effects.’
Caraka Saṃhitā

Nirūha Basti (decoction) and Anuvāsana Basti (oil) are respectively

the third and fourth stages of Pañcakarma. Caraka says that while
Vamana, Virechana and Nasya represent 50 per cent of the five
actions’ potential, Basti constitutes the remaining 50 per cent of its
medicinal power. Each type of Basti had a specific function to
perform in the colon; the action of Nirūha is more
purifying/purgating whereas Anuvāsana produces a tonifying effect.
Basti is the primary means of reducing excess/vitiated Vāta.
Traditionally Basti (decoction or oil) was administered through use
of a specially prepared animal’s bladder and nozzle. Medicants
contained therein could be applied to a number of different sites on
the body, including: anus, urethra (penis), vagina and wounds. Basti
was undertaken in the appropriate season (usually autumn) and in
the morning hour(s) that Vāta predominated.
A number of different materials were recommended for Nirūha
Basti, including such diverse ingredients as milk, rock salt and
honey, along with decoctions of Triphala, Dashamula,47 Vaccha,48
Sunthi49 and Shatapushpa.50 The total contents in this type of Basti
could be from 400–960ml.51 Favoured oils for Nirūha Basti were
castor and sesame. Anuvāsana Basti uses a range of medicated
sesame oils in quantities of about 100–250ml. After treatment was
complete (stools/mala evacuated) the patient was advised to rest
and take a warm bath before eating a light meal.
 Conditions that benefit from Basti include: sciatica, infertility,
chest pain, tremors, joint pains, abdominal bloating, pelvic pain
syndrome, emaciation/atrophy, and retention of flatus, urine, semen
or stool. Basti also aids in the reduction of obesity. Basti improves
the complexion (lustre) and digestive power (agni), and gives
strength to the body by reducing the effects of ageing (longevity
promoting).

Nasya

‘The skin, shoulders, neck, face and chest become thick, well
developed and bright; the body parts and the sense organs
become strong along with the disappearance of grey hairs by
those persons who are habituated to nasal medication.’
Aṣṭāñga Hṛdayam

Nasya or Śirovirechana is the fifth and final stage of Pañcakarma

centring on the application of medicated oils into the nasal passage.
Nasya means ‘of benefit to the nose’, and the nose was seen as a
direct pathway to the brain. Subsequently any medicant introduced
via the nose directly pacified VPK (Vāta/Pitta/Kapha) as well as
diseases of the head, neck and shoulders. Nasya was of three kinds:
Virechana (purgatory), Bṛṃhaṇa (nourishing) and Śamana
(palliative). This particular karma can be used in the initial stages
of Pūrvakarma as a part of internal Snehana/oleation or latterly in
Paścatakarma to subdue doshas or help rejuvenate the
srotas/circulatory channels of the head. Recommended materials for
Nasya include liquids (milk, ghee or medicated oils52), smoke
(medicated cigarettes), liquid extracts (herbal) and dry powders
(snuff).
Nasya is generally performed in accordance with dosha
predomination: mid-morning (Kapha), noon (Pitta) and mid-
afternoon (Vāta). Nasya treatments were advised to be given in
specially constructed clean-rooms, devoid of dust with comfortable
seating (reclining if possible), along with receptacles for discharged
sputum. Following a light head/facial massage, hot towels/herbal
bolas were applied about the neck and head to induce sweating and
dilation of circulatory channels. Extracts, oils or liquids were then
dropped individually into each nostril, the dosage and material
dependent upon individual treatments. Following inhalation the
patient was then given another light massage and allowed to rest.
An unpleasant taste in the mouth or burning sensation of the throat
was alleviated by gargling with warm water.
Conditions that benefit from Nasya include: migraine, blurred
vision, rhinitis, attention deficit disorder (ADD), hay fever, tinnitus,
diminished hearing, tonsillitis, toothache, stammering, face
pigmentations, cataract, stiff neck, tetanus, goitre and hoarseness
of the voice.

Raktamokshana

Leech

‘A person accustomed to blood-letting enjoys a kind of immunity

from all types of skin diseases, sarcomata, aneurism, oedema
and disorders brought about by the vitiation of blood, such as
ovarian tumour, carbuncle and erysipelas.’
Susrutha Saṃhitā

Note: Raktamokshana is less commonly employed outside of India

due firstly to lesser experience in blood-letting techniques and
secondly due to a minor risk of infection53 after use. That being
said, the use of blood-letting/leeching is an extremely interesting
topic and so has been included in this subsection on Saṁśodhana
regimens.

Raktamokshana might better be termed ‘the art of blood-letting’,

aiming to relieve the body of toxins being harboured within the
blood itself. Developed by the more surgically orientated
Dhanvantari School, this practice is considered a primary therapy,
employing a number of interesting methods for incising and
exuding small amounts of blood from the body. Despite this
technique sounding medieval, perhaps even a little gruesome, it
should be remembered that this process was proven to be an
effective means of easily removing vitiated blood from the body. The
expulsion was achieved by the use of two means, Sashastra (cut or
puncture by sharp instrument) and Ashastra (without
cutting/puncture), via the use of medicinal-grade Jalalukā54
(leeches55):
• Sashastra: The wound once opened was relieved of blood by the
use of a number of different methods, including: Sirā-vyadha
(venipuncture), Alābu (dried bottle gourd56), Śrnga (animal
horn57) and Pracchāna (multiple small incisions by sharp
instrument).
• Ashastra: After cleaning the skin, a little milk or blood was
applied to the desired locality. Freshly collected leeches were
then positioned and allowed to feed until fully saturated,
naturally detaching somewhere around 30–90 minutes later.58
The wound (which would continue to bleed for a good number
of hours) was washed in cold water, dried and honey applied
topically to the bite area. The wound was then dressed using a
kasáya (an alkalised herbal material).

Conditions that benefit from Raktamokshana include:

diseases/discolouration of the skin, inflammation, boils, migraines,
cyst/tumour reduction, glaucoma, diabetes, high blood-pressure,
gout, arthritis, varicose veins and Pitta-type fevers.

3. Paścatakarma/Uttrakarma

‘Freshly hatched eggs should be handled with tenderness as an

oil pot filled to the brim or cattle protected by their herder, with
staff in hand. Similarly the physician should carefully protect
the patient from unwholesome diets/regimens.’
Caraka Saṃhitā

Saṃsarjanakrama
Saṃsarjanakrama is nothing less than the rekindling of digestive
fire (agni) and the rebuilding of ojas. This prime after-therapy
addresses the patient’s dietary regimes and the re-introducing of
simple foods after each of the five purgative therapies. This is an
extremely precarious time and one in which the patient should be
carefully watched and administered to. Incorrect restoration of agni
and ojas can not only undo all the purgative therapies but could co-
create a whole string of new conditions in the recovering patient.
Following strong purgation the body becomes exhausted, its
digestion impaired, ligaments and joints feel loose and the body
hollow. To this end Caraka recommends the introduction of peyā
(watery gruel), slowly building to meat-soups. As digestive power
returns, the pleasing tastes of sweet, sour and oily are introduced.
Later this is to be augmented with sour and saline, followed by
sweet and bitter and finally astringent and pungent tastes. Lighter
and less enkindles hunger, like a small flame devouring tinder.
When the strength of the fire becomes strong, substantial fuels can
be introduced.

Rasāyanadi

‘A person undergoing rejuvenation therapy attains longevity,

memory, intellect, freedom from disease, youth, lustre,
complexion and voice, excellent potentiality of the body and
sense organs, vāk-siddhi (the power of speech), respect and
brilliance.’
Caraka Saṃhitā

It should be borne in mind that the culture from which Āyurveda

sprang was deeply enmeshed in the continuity of lineages and the
potentiality of strong offspring as individual kingdoms relied on the
stability of their monarchs and heirs. It is therefore of little surprise
that PK and rejuvenative therapy was reserved for royalty or the
super-wealthy, and that two Āyurvedic treatment limbs were
dedicated wholly to rasāyana and aphrodisiacs. Rasāyanadi focuses
on the application of these life-promoting medicines in an effort to
regain lost youth and restore vigour. After undergoing the
aforementioned therapies the body waited like fertile land to be
newly seeded.
Introduction of rasāyana drugs was considered best protracted,
starting with lower doses, and slowly increasing in quantity on a
daily basis. This practice would continue over a number of weeks
until the required dose was reached and at this point could then be
retracted over a similar time frame, arriving back at the original
dosage. There are literally scores of longevity-promoting formulae
arranged in Caraka Saṃhitā, Cikitsāsathānam.59 This section is
replete with multiple entries for recipes that suspend the ageing of
the body from 100 to 10,000 years and re-potentising/enlivening of
the aged. These texts are particularly relevant to this work in
regard to their use of metals, minerals and herbal elixirs/celestial
drugs. Rasāyana in Cikitsāsathānam concerns itself primarily with
herbal materials such as Harītakī (Terminalia chebula), Āmalakī
(Emblica officinalis), Bibhītaki (Terminalia belerica), Haridra
(Curcuma longa), Pippali (Piper longum), Vaccha (Calamus acorus),
Nāgabalā (Sida veronicaefolia), Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri),
Bhallātaka (Semicarpus anacardium) and Guggulu (Commiphora
mukul), but also includes the use of curds, pasted til (sesame
seeds), milk, ghee, honey, oils and jaggery. These same texts also
contain recipes containing metals including gold, silver, iron and
copper, and minerals such as copper pyrite, copper sulphate,
sulphur and bitumen.

CYAVANA PRĀŚA
Perhaps one of the best-known rejuvenatives in the Āyurvedic
arsenal is Cyavana Prāśa. Its name is taken from the Rishi,
Cyavana, who was bequeathed the formula by the Ashwins.60 His
aim in taking the celestial drug was to restore his youth so he might
continue to pursue his infatuation with a very young maiden.
Perhaps not quite the conduct expected from a Rishi, but it at least
meant having this particular avaleha’s61 properties endorsed by a
figure of some notoriety.
Although there is no absolute agreement on its exact recipe, the
manufacture of Cyavana Prāśa requires about 35–40 ingredients, of
which Āmalakī, ghee and jaggery form a high percentage. The
finished paste is aromatic, sweet, sour, pungent, bitter and
astringent and considered VPK, giving a post-digestive sweetness.
The curative actions of this formula include: promotes strength,
aids in respiratory weakness, alleviates cough, colds and symptoms
of gout, improves digestion, builds blood in cases of anaemia,
strengthens the heart and, of course, is rasāyana. Cyavana Prāśa, it
should be mentioned, is but one of a number of avalehas renowned
for their potency and stamina-building action.

Śamanādi
Śamanādi promotes the long-term preservation of the patient
through correct lifestyle, eating habits and exercise. Āyurveda uses
the term Dinacharya (pathway through the day) to help the
individual make the right decision on how best to promote health,
happiness and wellbeing, whilst managing to avoid what most of us
would call today modern lifestyles.
A number of factors that determined health or ill-health were
noted by the ancient rishis and were accordingly promoted or
discouraged. Just some of the factors that enhanced wellness
included: intake of wholesome, fresh foods; reduction of dried and
saline foods; avoidance of old, putrid or stale foods; a regular intake
of food; avoidance of addictive substances; moderate activity of
pleasurable pursuits; avoidance of excessive physical stress and
strain; waking and sleeping early; and the avoidance of lower
emotions (fear, grief, greed and jealousy).

Keralīya Pañcakarma
Later interpretations developed in Kerala could be seen more as a
physiotherapy-Pañcakarma, incorporating various classical
techniques along with new methodologies. These reformed
treatments were non-season dependent with greater emphasis on
Snehana and Svedana. Keralīya Pañcakarma targets specific
ailments, placing a greater emphasis on rejuvenation and tonifying
effects rather than purgation.

Dhārā Karma/Śirodhara
Dhārā Karma/Śirodhara uses a number of liquid mediums62 to be
poured (in a narrow stream) slowly upon the forehead, whilst the
patient lies in comfort. The suspended reservoir manipulated by the
administrator can be skilfully guided back and forth while refilling
its contents. Dhārā Karma has been found effective in the treatment
of mental disorders, stress, memory loss, insomnia, facial tics/palsy,
rhinitis, sinusitis, fainting, confusion, coma, impaired
hearing/tinnitus, cataracts and diminished vision.
Kāya Seka/Pizichhil
Kāya Seka/Pizichhil, also known as ‘the royal treatment’, employs a
similar principle of gently pouring warm medicated oils63 onto the
body in conjunction with light massage (long even strokes), usually
performed in unison by two masseurs. Kāya Seka enkindles the
body’s digestive power, improves and enlivens the senses, promotes
ojas, pacifies Vāta dosha, removes muscle spasm and promotes
rejuvenation of the skin, bone and muscle tissue.

Piṇḍa Sweda
Piṇḍa Sweda is literally fomentation via herbal bolas and is
considered to be the most potent of the five Keralīya therapies. First
the patient undergoes Snehana and Svedana before being treated
with decocted herbs cooked in Ṣaṣṭika, Śāli rice and kulatha, tied
into cloth bolas. The heated bolas are then gently tamped over the
body to induce sweating, taking special care to foment the area
about the joints and extremities. Sensitive body parts are covered
by cloth during this procedure. After fomentation is completed, the
bolas are opened, and their contents removed and massaged into
the tissues. The process is ended by a warm bath and rest.
Materials typically used in medicated bolas include: milk, paddy
rice, eranda leaves and Bala decoction. Piṇḍa Sweda promotes
rejuvenation of the neuromuscular system; its use is also indicated
in cases of osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, Parkinson’s disease,
multiple sclerosis, sciatica, muscular cramping and
inflamed/deteriorating joints.

Anna Lepa
Anna Lepa involves the application of herbal pastes directly onto
the body. Quite often this treatment will be used as an adjunct to
Piṇḍa Sweda in the event the former is not sufficient to remove
deep-seated toxins from the body. Typically, pastes tend to be of
three energetics (cooling, warming and astringent), catering for all
three doshas. Lepas can be effectively applied to arthritic joints,
lesions/bleeding wounds, ulcers, boils and severe skin conditions.
Lepas are usually formulated from medicated grains (cooked with
herbs and pasted with milk or ghee); when dried the paste is
removed and the area bathed in luke-warm water.

Śiro Lepa
Śiro Lepa applies medicated oil directly to the hair and scalp area,
after which Lepa can be pasted over the top and enclosed in the
leaves of a banana plant. The patient then receives (whole body)
Snehana therapy and rests for approximately one hour before the
paste and oil are removed. Medicated oils are again applied to the
scalp, after which the patient receives a warm medicated bath. Śiro
Lepa is highly favoured for mental ailments, head and neck injuries,
early greying or falling of hair, facial paralysis, stroke and
fatigue/stress.

1.10
Patients Unsuited for Saṁśodhana

Caraka Saṃhitā includes some interesting notes on the contra-

indications of patients who would be least likely to benefit from
treatment. Though some of these recommendations are readily
comprehensible, others may seem a little harder to fathom in light
of modern thinking. It should be remembered that accepting a new
patient was as much a risk to the practitioner’s reputation as was
the patient placing his life in the hands of a practitioner. Prior
consideration of treatment was of great importance as anything less
than a successful outcome might not only be dangerous for the
patient (complications or re-manifestation of original symptoms) but
also might cast doubt upon the healer’s ability to heal and so end
his livelihood.
Some of the contra-indications of treatment include:

1. One who considers his knowledge to be superior to that of the

physician.
2. One who cannot organise/arrange his affairs prior to
treatment.
3. One who has an aversion to kings and physicians and is himself
despised by them.
4. One who is sceptically minded.
5. One who is unwilling to carry out instructions.
6. One who is grief-stricken.
7. One without belief in god(s).
 8. One who is rash, fierce, fickle, ungrateful or cowardly.
9. One who is hostile toward the physician.
10
. One who is destined to die (terminally ill).

In conclusion it should also be mentioned that these types of

therapy were and still are highly labour-intensive, involving the
presence of a trained doctor, a nurse and manual workers or
orderlies. Treatment also includes a certain quantity of medicated
oils and ghee, herbal decoctions and rasāyana drugs, all usually
prepared on demand. To undertake treatment and gain benefit the
individual had to be able to support themselves financially for
extended periods when therapy was begun; hence PK was
understood to be the treatment of kings, and not something
generally within the reach of the common man. Saṁśodhana in its
entirety was a time-consuming therapy; most importantly its post-
period was allocated to Paścatakarma. During this final stage the
body could easily become imbalanced due to an insufficient
recovery time being allocated after the strongly purgating acts of
PK.
 SECTION 2
METALS AND METAL-WORKING

2.1
Metallurgy and Healing

Something of particular interest to us in this book is the

manipulation of metals and how these vital technologies enabled
the alchemists to work their magic. Without this working
knowledge, the whole arena of high temperatures would be strictly
off limits, restricting the alchemists of old to cold herbal infusions
and hot teas.
One of humanity’s most significant leaps forward was the
manipulation of metals. Its development and sophistication runs in
tandem with the growth of society, from the early smelting of
copper ore, to its alloying with tin and the arrival of bronze.
Metalworking to the uninitiated must have appeared like magic.
Here was a material like no other, something that could be heated
to radically high temperature, hammered, drawn, liquefied and
finally cast, only to be thrown back into the fire from whence it
came. If ever there was such a process that might inspire ideas of
rebirth or heaven and hell, it must surely have been in the fires of a
forge. The manipulation of fire and the harnessing of high
temperature provided the means by which metals would finally
yield. Fire in cooking softens food and permits the digestion of the
most fibrous plant material, as well as heavy meats. These same
flames harden wood and crack the hardest of stones. Intensified by
the blowing of air, fire liquefied the most resistant of metals, and
when heating rocks rich in metal ore they were finally forced to
give up their precious cargo.
 The extraction of copper, smelted from the ore malachite, was
thought to have been known about as early as 7000 BC in the
ancient world. Simple earthen pits filled with charcoal were used to
heat crude ceramic crucibles, made with higher percentages of
silicates. Crude bellows fashioned from animal skins and bladders
could be worked repeatedly to blow a steady stream of air through
carved soft stone nozzles, quickly raising temperatures high enough
to smelt ore. This sight is really quite something to see, if you ever
get the chance – the simplicity of the procedure is overwhelming
and yet, though crude, it works exceptionally well.
In my own locality there is a government-sponsored project that
re-creates interest in historical research by re-enacting these
ancient practices. Just recently, they held an open day at which
several visiting archaeologists set up shop to demonstrate the
simplicity and effectiveness of these technologies. Using nothing
more than primitive mortars, a hole in the ground, turf and animal-
skin bellows, they produced a reasonable cache of copper globules
in less than 30 minutes (with a little backbreaking work from the
man on the bellows). This display of simplistic tools and a little
knowhow shows how the manipulation of metal in the hands of
master craftsmen produced the artistic treasures and sophisticated
weaponry of the past.
The birth of the Bronze Age saw the hardening of copper’s crystal
lattice by alloying it with the metal tin. Though initially this process
was thought to be purely accidental, with the formation of arsenical
bronze it quickly became clear that the addition of a softer metal
created a new material with properties greater than each. It
appears that early experimentation with bronze used ratios as low
as 5 per cent up to 25 per cent tin in order to find the perfect alloy,
one that brought strength and flexibility and could reproduce the
finest of detail when moulded. This new high-technology bronze
work quickly became the preoccupation of the early Chinese
masters who managed to perfect the art to a level of quality that is
unsurpassed in the ancient world.
What is most interesting about these ancient examples of
metallurgy is how little we really know about some of the ancients’
production techniques. It is clear from research that much still
remains cloudy about how some cultures were able to perfect their
metal-working skills to such a high level of sophistication. Three
such examples are: (1) wootz steel64 (a.k.a. Damascus steel), later
to find favour with the moguls in their conquest of India, commonly
used to fashion Saracen Scimitars; (2) the seemingly corrosion-
resistant grade of forge-welded iron displayed in the six-ton
Ashokan pillar in Delhi, India; and (3) Nihontō Katana,65 the
preferred bladed weapon of the Samurai. These examples, along
with other curiosities and miscellaneous artefacts,66 continue to
baffle the archaeological community, puzzled by their ingenuity of
manufacture, ultimate origins and most importantly how best to
pigeonhole them into historical conventionality.
In the past I’d tried my hand at blacksmithing, though not
because I had any interest in a career change or a passion for
shoeing horses. Mostly I was just curious to see what was involved
in working iron at high temperatures. I had seen smiths
demonstrating their art publicly or watched the odd documentary
that delved into the world of smithing; however, here was where the
armchair ended and the reality began.
In short, it was very hard work, extremely skilful and fraught with
occupational hazards. After a brief introduction to safety aspects in
the workplace, the first hour of the course centred on the art of
lighting a fire in the forge. Even this, as it turned out, could be a bit
of a nightmare. Even with foolproof modern equipment, many of the
assembled students’ fires waned after ten minutes, finally dying out
altogether. It was at this point that I began to appreciate that
smithing was an art form, not just a job. Studying advanced
students in the same room was a joy, watching them coax the metal
to perform unbelievable feats, as it adopted the elasticity of plastic
and obeyed their every command. I cannot claim to have mastered
smithing to any great degree over the few weeks of the course, but
this short foray into the world of the smith did give me a great
appreciation for the art. When you witness first hand semi-molten
iron being forged-welded, emitting a breathtaking shower of sparks,
radiant glowing white-hot metal being rapidly quenched in cold
water, it is not hard to imagine how on-lookers gazing at a smith
and forge could have witnessed scenes from Roman mythology,
much like Vulcan fashioning lightning bolts for Jupiter.

2.2

Loha (Metal)
Rasa Shāstra categorises metal into three basic types: pure (sudha),
impure (puti) and mixed (misra). Metals were often defined in terms
of caste, with gold and silver representing the pure states of metal
and lead occupying the lowest grade. These references are almost
certainly astrological in origin and relate to the hierarchy of planets
(or graha as they are known in Vedic Astrology). Each of the seven
known planets at that time was associated with corresponding
metals reflecting their position within the celestial realms (see table
below).

PLANETS, STATUS AND METALS

Planet Status Metal
Sun/Surya King Gold/Swarna/Sudha Loha
Moon/Chandra Queen Silver/Rajata/Sudha Loha
Mars/Kuja Commander-in-Chief Iron/Loha
Mercury/Buddha Prince Mercury/Pārada/Puti Loha
Jupiter/Guru King’s Advisor Tin/Vanga/Puti Loha
Venus/Shukra King’s Advisor Copper/Tamra/Puti Loha
Saturn/Shani Servants Lead/Nāga/Puti Loha
Northern node/Rahu Militia Brass/Pittala/Misra Loha
Southern node/Ketu Militia Bronze/Kansya/Misra Loha

The astrological relationship between metal and planet appears

throughout Āyurvedic and Jyotish67 texts and is key to
understanding their complex interrelations. This hierarchy of
planets has a strong bearing on their strength/action within a rasa
formulation – for example, the metal gold was acknowledged to
both enhance the life-force/prana and nourish the immune system.
These are both significations for the Sun when studied in a
horoscope. The metal iron relates to the formation of blood and to
physical prowess (muscle tone, etc.), all attributes conveyed by the
planet Mars. The metal mercury (an important addition to many
rasa formulations) was seen as a digester and assimilator of all
metals (except iron), and consequently iron flasks were frequently
employed to contain and transport the liquid metal. This
relationship was also mirrored astrologically by the strained
relationship between planet Mercury and planet Mars.

2.3
Ariloha and Dhalana

A similar principle was employed to reduce/convert each of the

seven planetary metals into bhasma. This principle was known as
Ariloha (metal’s enemy). By the introduction of enemy metals
during the heat processing, one could force both to lose cohesion,
mutually weakening their structures until trituration became
possible. Eventually, after much successive heating, metals could be
reduced to fine powders that in turn could be triturated with
organic materials, before arrival at a finished alchemical ash. In an
effort to further reduce certain metals, minerals such as sulphur,
orpiment, realgar and cinnabar were used in conjunction with the
technique of Ariloha.

ARILOHA
Planet (metal) Enemy (metal)
Mercury (Pārada)* Mars (lodestone)
The Sun (gold) Saturn (lead)
The Moon (silver) Jupiter (tin)
Mars (iron) Venus (copper); also Ketu (bronze)
Jupiter (tin) Moon (silver)
Venus (copper) Mars (iron); also Yasada (zinc)**
Saturn (lead) Sun (gold)
* Mercury: Kanta Loha was frequently used in the subjugation of mercury, so it may be
included here.
** No Vedic planetary association for zinc exists; however, Jupiter and Venus are close
contenders. Jupiter’s metal (tin) closely resembles zinc. Venus holds sway over the body’s
reproductive tissues (Shukra), a medicinal quality also found in purified zinc.

The additional practice of dhalana was developed for the shodhana

of some low-temperature metals. This elaborate process of heating,
liquefying and quenching eventually weakened the metal’s
structure, stressing it by repetitive temperature extremes. Each
metal was liquefied seven times and poured into a different
medium, including oil, buttermilk, urine, vinegar and horsegram
decoction. Eventually processes such as dhalana would render
materials into twisted writhing masses that when re-liquefied were
slowly triturated with herbal components.

DHALANA PROCESSING
Sesame seed oil 7×
 1. Taila
Curd or buttermilk 7×
2. Takra
Cow urine 7×
3. Gomutra
Vinegar 7×
4. Kanji
Horsegram decoction 7=
5. Kulatha
Total 35

As the plant material calcined it was stirred slowly into the liquid
metal until a uniform ash was achieved. These powders could then
be triturated with various juices such as aloe gel, sour orange,
lemon juice, triphala or lotus seed decoction until a fine paste was
achieved. Ground paste was then formed into small cakes called
cakrika and heated to high temperatures in sealed crucibles until
only a very fine calx remained.

2.4
Metallic Immune Booster

One interesting herbo-mineral-metal formulation still used in India

is a potent immune-booster for adults and children alike (although
this formula finds more favour in paediatrics68). This simple lehyam
(paste or jam) is recommended to stave off disease in infants, being
easily assimilated and above all tasting good.
The immune-booster is a combination of Vaccha stems/Sweet Flag
(Acorus calamus), 24-carat gold thread, calcinated gold, almond
powder, ghee and honey. The traditional preparation is made from a
short section of fresh Vaccha stem having a thin gold thread passed
through its centre (longitudinally). The stem is then ground ‘end-on’
upon a flat grinding stone. The rough surface of the stone skims
both herb and gold, leaving a macerated gel with colloidal-sized
pieces of gold suspended in the material.
The paste is then collected to a central point, and small amounts
of calcinated gold (called Swarna Bhasma), ground amber (copal),
almond powder and a little ghee (clarified butter) are mixed well
together. To this paste a drop of honey is added to sweeten the
dose. The completed formulation is then scooped up upon the little
finger and dangled above the baby’s mouth and curious fingers. Of
course, as soon as this hits the baby’s tongue the baby makes short
work of the suspended nectar.
 SECTION 3
VISHA (TOXINS)

3.1
Origins of Visha

‘Eyes of the Cobra’ symbol used to represent markings seen on the back of the cobra’s
hood

‘Because poison has its origins in water, it becomes sticky like

jaggery on contact with water. This allows for its rapid
spreading during the rainy seasons. However, the appearance of
 the star Agastya (Canopus69) signals the end of the rainy
season, counteracting the effects of poison. Therefore the
effects of visha (poison) become milder after the rains have
subsided.’
Caraka Saṃhitā

The concept of visha (poison) is perhaps one of the most interesting

and unique aspects of Āyurvedic alchemical thought which
acknowledges the use of toxins as potent medicines. Poisons
correctly presented to a patient after a strict purification regime,
and, most importantly, prescribed in the correct dosage, were
considered to have miraculous effects.
As noted by the introductory passages from Caraka Saṃhitā, the
ancients were well acquainted with the effects of poison and
resided in a world where exposure to these toxins was an ever-
present danger. Visha was thought to originate in two70 forms,
mobile and immobile, derived from minerals, metals and plants
through accidental poisoning, or direct interaction with poisonous
wildlife.71 Caraka defines mobile sources as snakes, insects,
spiders, leeches, fish and mammals, all of which can transmit their
poisons through bite and sting. Both sources of poison were noted
to have different energetics as regards directional movements and
physical symptoms. Animal poisons were noted to move downward
and plant poisons upward72 upon interaction. Consequently each
could be used in micro-doses to counteract the other’s action.73
Immobile poisons produced a range of responses from the body
including high fevers, choking, vomiting of white froth, fingertip
sensitivity, anorexia (long-term), shortness of breath and fainting
spells. The mobile sources of visha produced inflammation, oedema,
fatigue, fever, drowsiness and coma. Susrutha also makes some
mention of mineral-based poisons, commenting that these strike
mainly at the heart, causing a burning sensation in the palate and
fainting spells. Mineral visha was mostly considered a slow poison,
its effects taking many hours, days or sometimes months to fully
manifest.
Many if not all of the immobile substances (plants and minerals)
were purposely developed into medicines of one sort or another,
their toxicological effects being transmuted into amrita (nectar)
through the practice of shodhana/purification (see Section 5.4 in
Part II). Jangama substances were also intentionally harvested for
medicinal usage; however, over longer periods of time their use fell
mostly into decline, though some herbal traditions still promote
limited usage.
One such practice still accommodated in Chinese medicine is the
use of the scorpion (Quan Xie). Preferably caught during the spring
(Kapha) or autumn (Vāta) months, the nocturnal animal’s body is
first boiled and sun-dried. Powdered scorpion is administered to
clear the liver channels (clears toxins) and helps remove
‘endogenous liver wind’ (a precursor to paralysis, convulsion and
spasm).
Contemporary use of mobile visha sources focuses mostly on
cobra venom, a practice that is still favoured by some rural doctors
based in southern India, usually trained in the Siddha Tradition.
Unpurified visha (mobile and immobile) introduced into the body
was noted to display certain qualities, these being in direct
opposition to ojas74 (life-sustaining essence). Visha substances
usually display the following qualities: vyavayi (fast acting), vikasi
(pervasive, without need for digestion), tīkṣṇa (sharp) and usna
(heating). Their ability to penetrate and effectively neutralise ojas
causes the physical body to perish. Conversely, minute quantities of
purified material introduced into the body had the opposite effect,
boosting ojas, and stimulating the immune system. These materials
could be from mineral or plant sources and sometimes even a
combination of both. Visha used correctly can have miraculous
effects; partly due to its pervasiveness/assimilation properties and
partly due to its inherent potency. Even purified materials were
treated with extreme caution and used only where appropriate (see
Section 3.4). Once administered into the tissues, visha spreads
quickly and relatively unobstructed, able to penetrate into the
deepest tissues, with its selected anupāna also helping to guide its
course to the site of disease.

3.2
Visha as Antidote

Another perspective on visha was ‘like treating like’. Small amounts

of visha could be introduced in the event of accidental poisoning or
direct exposure to toxins via bites, stings, etc. The following two
examples are taken straight out of classical works dealing directly
with the counteracting of visha, the first clearly relating to insect
sting and the second preparation being recommended for both
mobile and immobile poisoning, most notably poison tubers and the
bite of Krishna Sarpa (black serpents):

‘A pill made from Hingu (asafoetida) and Haritāla (yellow

arsenic), along with the juice of matulunga (Citrus medica), is
applied on the bite and collyrium (eye-salve) is best to remove
the poison of a scorpion.’
Aṣṭāñga Hṛdayam

‘Equal quantities of sudha Tankana (borax), sudha Tuttha

(copper sulphate), haridra (turmeric), jatikosa (Myristica
fragrans) are ground together well with the juice of Devadali
(Luffa echinata75) – equal to the amount of the drugs. This
formulation is known as Viṣavajrapāta Rasa which can
overcome all kinds of visha vikara (poisoning).’
Rasendra Sāra Saṅgraha

This formula claims to be able to raise one from their death bed,
upon introduction. Typically up to 3g could be administered along
with an anupāna of human urine to induce vomiting and consequent
purgation. Borax and turmeric were also known to have powerful
anti-visha effects, administered singularly or in unison.
Alternatively the combination of Kajjali (mercuric sulphide) and
Abraka (mica bhasma) improved resistance to toxins or ‘cleansed’
the tissues of any remaining residues which conventional herbal
preparations were unable to remove.
The general treatment of poisons (in lower concentrations)
centred on identifying the dosha most affected by its presence in
the body. Poisons of a Vāta nature were combated by sweet, oily,
sour and salty foods, administered with a ghee anupāna. Pitta-
aggravating poisons were treated by the application of mild
purgation, the application of cold poultice and foods that
predominated in bitter, astringent and sweet tastes. Other useful
anti-Pitta therapies included ground pearl and rosewater (pisti).
Lastly, poisons of a Kapha nature responded well to emesis of warm
poultice foods predominating in the astringent, bitter and pungent
tastes.
The ‘home’ of each dosha was also examined to determine the
depth of toxicity. For example, if the stomach (Kapha) was deemed
to be the localised position of visha, then treatment would be light
and results quickly achieved. If located in the small intestine (the
home of Pitta) the condition would require more treatment but was
curable with some diligence. If located in the large intestine (the
home of Vāta) treatment would be difficult, requiring the use of
many remedies and the attention of a learned physician.
The general rule for antidotes is quite logical; any substance used
for the purification of rasa/visha materials automatically has potent
antidote properties attached to it. An example of this would be
Tankana (borax), used in the purification of Sasyaka (copper
sulphate). Tankana is highly recommended in cases of poisoning by
impure Sasyaka. Likewise, Gandhaka (sulphur) is used in the
preparation of Pārada (mercury) but is also highly efficient in the
removal of impure Pārada from the body.
There were a number of different materials known to have
excellent anti-visha effects, these often being used topically or
internally as required by Āyurvedic physicians. It should also be
noted that any rasa material being utilised for its antidotal
properties would still require purification prior to its use.

GENERAL ANTI-VISHA SUBSTANCES

1. Borax* 11. Goat’s milk
12. Arjuna (Terminalia arjuna)
2. Rock salt
3. Kanksi*
13. Turmeric
14. Cow’s urine (external wash only)
4. Lime water

5. Sulphur*
15. Lemon juice
16. Black pepper (Piper nigrum)

6. Ginger juice
 7. Ghee 17. Lime juice

18. Sarpakshi (Rauvolfia serpentina)

8. Bee honey
9. Cow’s milk
19. Aloe juice
20. Gojihva (Elephantopus scaber Linn)
10. Triphala Quatha

* Materials requiring prior purification.

The following denotes specific antidotes in regard to the treatment

of plant-based poisons (visha). For more individual information
about these items see Appendix 2, ‘Catalogue of Materials and
Their Use’.

SPECIFIC ANTIDOTES
Visha Antidote
1. Vatsanābha (Aconitum 1. Warm goat’s milk with ghee
napellus/ferox) 2. Kuchala (Nux vomica)
3. Curcuma with Amaranthus (Amaranthus polygonoides)
4. Sarpakshi – Indian mongoose herb (Ophiorrhiza
mungos)
5. Cow’s butter
2. Arka (Calatropis Water mixed with Gaireeka* (red ochre)
gigantea/Calatropis
procera)
3. Sehunda (Euphorbia Water mixed with Gaireeka* (red ochre)
ligularis/neriifolia)
4. Dattura (Datura Saline water, cow’s milk sweetened with sugar or juice of
stramonium/metel) eggplant (Solanum melongena)
5. Langali (Gloriosa Goat’s milk with ghee
superba)
6. Karaveera (Nerium 1. Sugar candy mixed with buffalo milk
indicum) 2. Ground arka bark in milk
7. Gunja (Abrus 1. Honey, dates, grapes, tamarind, sour pomegranates and
precatorius) Āmalakī ground together
2. Prickly amaranth (Amaranthus spinosus) mixed with
sugar and taken with milk
8. Khasabeeja (Papaver 1. Rock salt, Pippali (Piper longum) and emetic nut
somniferum) (Xeromphis spinosa) ground and drunk with hot water
2. Tankana* (borax) and Sasyaka* (copper sulphate) taken
with ghee
9. Vijaya (Cannabis 1. Ginger root and yoghurt
sattva/indica) 2. Juice of jackfruit leaves (Artocarpus heterophyllus)
10. Jayapāla (Croton 1. Coriander seeds with sugar and yoghurt
tiglium) 2. Ghee and milk drink
11. Bhallātaka 1. External: Swelling relieved by butter and juice of
(Semicarpus anacardium) prickly amaranth
2. External: Milk with pasted sesame seeds
3. Internal: Warm milk sweetened with dark jaggery
12. Kuchala (Nux vomica) 1. Vatsanābha* (Aconitum napellus)
2. Warm goat’s milk with honey/ghee or camphor
(Cinnamomum camphora)
3. Coffee
* Antidote requiring purification.

3.3
Signs of Visha

The following lists some general signs and symptoms seen in the
presence of visha, the source being mobile or immobile poisons:

1. Topically there is a discolouration of the skin about the area

where visha first entered.
2. A person begins to shiver.
3. There is inflammation in the bodily tissues.
4. Disfigurement or contortion of the whole body occurs.
5. Foam is seen issuing from the mouth.
6. Extreme contraction by the shoulders and arching of the back.
7. Loss of movement in all the limbs.
8. Final stages of death are seen, including respiratory and
cardiac failure.

Having regarded any of the previous signs, a physician was best

advised to treat a patient using the following two protocols. (1)
denotes ingestion of visha (smaller quantity) and (2) ingestion of a
larger quantity:
 1. The patient was first made to vomit; this is best achieved by
drinking goat’s milk. After the patient has vomited he must
again be given goat’s milk until he can drink without the need
to vomit. In other words the patient is not to be given any
additional milk when he no longer feels the need to vomit after
drinking.
2. The patient is again encouraged to drink the following: goat’s
milk, salt water or water from washed fishes. This he is given
until he vomits only bile. After this vomiting stage is complete,
the patient is given purgation drugs until mucus is seen in the
stool. Finally the patient is given ghee (clarified butter) to help
strengthen the tissues and heal the internal organs. Ghee is
considered to be one of the best substances for the removal of
poison and at the same time helps repair the tissues from
damage sustained from the invading poison. Over a period
following these treatments the patient would also regularly
drink honey water (weakly diluted honey); this would have the
long-term effect of removing any residual traces of visha still
embedded deep in the tissues.

3.4
Visha as Medicine

The following two commentaries from Susrutha Saṃhitā outline

treatment protocols for the use and abstinence of purified visha.
Medicines containing visha were specifically prescribed for the cure
of disease and the prevention of senility. The use of visha-based
medicines outside of these guidelines was ill-advised:

‘Visha may be prescribed to one who consumes ghee with

regularity and who maintains a salutary diet (containing
milk/ghee). One who is willing to follow the directives of his
physician is permitted to take visha.’
Susrutha Saṃhitā

‘Persons disposed to anger, irritability or have an excess of Pitta

dosha, impotent or are members of a royal family. Those who
are exhausted from excess hunger, thirst, physical strain,
perspiration or are consumptive. The elderly (80 years or more),
 pregnant, very young (less than 9 years) or showing signs of dry
patchy skin conditions are contra-indicated.’
Susrutha Saṃhitā

3.5
Caste of Visha

The classic work on Rasa Shāstra, Rasa Jala Nidhi,76 advises visha
to be categorised by caste, indicating that its introduction into fresh
milk will often reveal its true nature:

‘Visha deposited into fresh milk will effect a discernable colour

change in this medium. Milk remaining unchanged but causing
the visha to be transformed to a similar whitish shade denotes
poison of Brahmin77 caste. These signs are auspicious and
should be taken to elevate its usage as a remover of disease and
senile decay.’
Rasa Jala Nidhi

‘Milk turning red upon its introduction is deemed to be suitable

for alchemical workings with Pārada (mercury) and is of
Kshatriya78 caste. The yellowing of milk or visha indicates it to
be a curer of kustha (skin diseases) and of Vaishya79 caste.
Finally, the blacking or darkening of both milk and visha
indicates poison to be of a Shudra80 caste and consequently the
bringer of death.’
Rasa Jala Nidhi

The text goes on to suggest that each caste of visha has its
respective uses in the art of medicine. Brahmin visha can be used in
the cure of the most serious diseases, Kshatriya visha can be
administered to one who has inadvertently swallowed poison,
Vaishya visha is to be used in the treatment of minor diseases and
Shudra visha can sometimes be useful for the treatment of snake
bite.
This elaborate classification can also be extended to the
perpetrator of the venomous attack itself – most notably, the snake.
Susrutha states: ‘Brahmin Sarpa are wise, having large scales of
silver and gold. Their fragrance is sweet smelling and pearlescent
in shade.’ It also describes these types of serpents as having a faint
yellow glow about them:

‘Kshatriya Sarpa have the temperament of warriors and are

easily provoked or irritated. They have deep glossy scales
depicting logos of both the Sun and Moon, painted discs, conch
shells and umbrellas. Vaishya Sarpa are merchant class and
have a deep rich black or red shine; they can also be ash-grey in
colour. At times this caste can seem ridged in their movement
and may contort in unusual ways. Shudra Sarpa (servant caste)
is described as having dull lifeless scales, rough skins and the
colouration of a buffalo or leopard.’

Susrutha notes that there are about 80 different classifications for

snakes. These can then be categorised into five distinguishable
types: hooded, hoodless and painted with circular patches, hoodless
and striped, non-venomous and slightly venomous hybrid species.
Other important notes on their classification include snakes with
painted hoods that depict logos of wheels, spots, ploughs,
umbrellas, elephant goads or swastikas. Snakes bearing these
symbols appear to strike with agility and speed.
Full-bodied snakes (marked with partially coloured rings, spots or
a bright fiery lustre) strike with greater force. Snakes depicted with
glossy, partly coloured scales and perpendicular lines that run the
length of their bodies display characteristics of both of the
aforementioned types. An additional observation states: snakes with
hoods aggravate Vāta dosha; brightly coloured snakes with
spots/blotches aggravate Pitta dosha; and finally stripy-patterned
snakes tend to aggravate Kapha dosha. Susrutha also makes the
interesting observation that snake venom doubles in potency during
the heat of the summer months. Venom obtained from a youthful
dark-coloured cobra was particularly prized for its medicinal
effects.
Currently in India, scientific analysis is under way to study the
‘possible’ curative effects of snake bhasma. The rasa formulation
Krishna Sarpa Masi Bhasma is currently being trialled as an
antidote for snake bite. The bhasma itself was produced using
conventional methods of heating (puṭa). After death, the whole body
of a cobra was sealed in a crucible and incinerated, finally
rendering a form of alchemical black ash. Astāñga Hṛdayam81
suggests this ash also be mixed with Bibhītaki (Terminalia bellirica)
oil to be applied to the skin in cases of leucoderma (Vitiligo).

3.6
Snake Venom

Snakes are a curious speciality in India, being both feared and

highly revered. Although snake venom is highly toxic, purified82 it is
believed to be a highly auspicious rasa with potent healing effects
as well as having consciousness-expanding properties. Purified and
consumed via the gastrointestinal tract, its exposure to dosha is in
an entirely different manner. By nature, visha disperses oil and
dehydrates Kapha, its heat aggravates Pitta, its sharpness and
quickness aggravate Vāta and upon entering rakta (blood) it
invades the subtle channels of the body, eventually dissipating ojas.
Once subjected to bhavana, dried and rehydrated in sweetened
milk (Kapha), the toxicity of the venom can be digested in the small
intestine (Pitta) and finally eliminated in the colon (Vāta). Digested
in this manner, venom stimulates the immune system and coaxes
any vitiated dosha back to its normal abode: Kapha/stomach,
Pitta/small intestine and Vāta/colon.
Only the cobra is given the highly esteemed position about the
neck of Shiva. Added to this honour, it is portrayed in an elevated
position, its own head raised higher than that of the god. This
iconography raises some interesting questions about the nature of
the cobra and, more importantly, its venomous secretions. Snakes
typically symbolise Kundalini Shakti (sleeping serpent energy in the
body) and the passage of time; the coiled serpent is especially
linked to immortality. Through the act of skin shedding the snake
shows its transformative energy, and its bite is an ever-present
reminder of mortality/death. In Rasa Shāstra, Sarpa-Visha
dominates the category of visha, having only one competitor –
Vatsanābha (Aconitum napellus), a claw-like tuber partly named to
reflect its deadly poison, comparable only to that of cobra venom.

NOTES
1. The Puranas, meaning ‘in ancient times’, are a collection of 36 religious texts written
in Sanskrit and in story form cataloguing the history of the universe (cosmology),
genealogies of gods, demigods and kings, and the cycle of world ages. There is no
agreement as to their age; the Puranas were an oral tradition long before being
committed to writings.
2. Vasuki was reputed to be king of the Nāga; references to him are found in both Hindu
and Buddhist texts. Chinese and Japanese cultures make reference to Vasuki as one of
the eight great Nāga Kings.
3. Also known as Halahala (poison).
4. The peacock is highly venerated in Vedic and Buddhist texts, as it was observed to eat
poisonous creatures. Peacocks and their attributes were believed to counteract the
effects of poison; see Mayūr Piccha (peacock feathers), thought to contain copper due
to their blue/green colouration, and Sasyaka (peacock ore), which is bright blue in
colour and has anti-visha properties when taken as a medicine. In Buddhism Maha
Mayuri (peacock king) was known as the destroyer of demons and toxins.
5. Lord Shiva became known as Nilakanta (the blue-throated one) after swallowing
visha.
6. Kamadhenu’s inclusion in the story illustrates the venerated properties of milk.
7. Other items recovered from the churning of the ocean include: Shankha (Vishnu’s
Conch Shell), Airavata (King of Elephants), Uchaishravas (Winged Horse), gemstones
(10–14 in number, possibly representing ratna and uparatna) and Chandra/Soma (the
Moon). The final cache of treasures varies according to story sources.
8. Goddess Lakshmi is worshipped as the bringer of wealth, beauty and prosperity;
mythically she is the Ocean’s daughter. Her sister Alakshmi represents her opposite
attributes, bringing loss, misfortune and death.
9. For more information about Āyurveda see Section 1.
10. Mohini (one of the ten Avatars of Lord Vishnu) was typically associated with
temptation, desire, madness, despair and ultimately their doom.
11. For more information about Rahu/Ketu see Part IV.
12. Though the origins of both lunar nodes were one and the same, upon separation both
the head (Rahu) and tail (Ketu) took on their own distinct personalities.
13. Garlic juice is a purifier of mercury; onion juice is used in the purification of sulphur.
Himalayan garlic is thought to be the most potent in purification and medicinal
action.
14. The use of magic to afflict others with misfortune (abhicāra).
15. Attempts to put an historical date on Āyurveda places its written history around 1500
BC. India’s own historical records place these documents about 3000 BC, with an oral
tradition going back 10,000 years.
16. Date based on the passing of Siddhartha Gautama Buddha (480 BCE) and the
subsequent appearance of Nāgārjuna 400 years hence (Tibetan Buddhism sources).
Generally, references to Nāgārjuna’s extended longevity are treated with scepticism;
modern researchers of Nāgārjuna place him somewhere around the first to third
centuries aD.
17. Nāgārjuna I (160 BCE), founder of the Mādhyamika school of Mahāyāna Buddhism.
18. Nāgārjuna II (seventh century).
19. Nāgārjuna III (ninth century). Rasasiddha = one highly skilled in the art of alchemy.
20. Nāga = snake/dragon people; they appear in both Sanskrit and Pali texts, and these
popular stories feature in Jain, Hindu and Buddhist mythologies. Nāga Folk are
underworld dwellers famed for their knowledge of the healing arts, love of
gemstones/precious metals and great fondness for exotic incense.
21. See A History of Indian Medical Literature Vol.1 (1999) by G. Jan Meulenbeld.
22. Manuscript of Nāgārjuna III. The author of this work is almost certainly referred to by
al-Bīrūnī in his book India (1030 AD).
23. Rasāyana of the eyes, through direct application of collyrium or bathed in medicated
oils.
24. In the Tibetan tradition his partial-conquering death was achieved through the Art of
Amitayus/Amitābha, the longevity Buddha (seen holding divine amrita). Amitayus is
one of three life-extending Buddhas, including Ushnishavijaya and White Tārā.
25. Smith, Vaidya A. (1999) Practical Āyurveda: Secrets for Physical, Sexual & Spiritual
Health. European Institute of Vedic Studies. Available at www.atreya.com/ayurveda/-
Vaidya-Atreya-Smith-.html.
26. Pre-Classical Sanskrit (Vedic Sanskrit or Devanagari) is an Indo-Aryan language
dating back to around 1500 BC. Ancient Sanskrit texts are thought to be some of the
world’s oldest written material.
27. For more information about Shilajit see Section 8 in Part III.
28. Director of Jiva Institute, Faridabad, Delhi. Dr Chauhan is Jiva’s principal Āyurvedic
physician and a recognised specialist in the use of Rasa Shāstra medicine.
29. I have already covered some of these adventures and adversities in the introduction. I
leave the reader to connect the dots from this point forward.
30. Loha here means metal in general. The name Loha can also refer specifically to the
metal iron.
31. Caraka, the author of the Caraka Saṃhitā, is historically placed somewhere around
100 BC to 200 aD. Some miscellaneous references push this date back as far as 500–
800 BC.
32. Ancient seers (enlightened ones).
33. Thought to be the sustainer of life, ojas is nothing more than Prana suspended in a
liquid medium.
34. A drop is a measurement calculated to be equal to the droplet falling from one’s
thumb after submerging it into water and then allowing it to drip the water content
held by surface tension.
35. One anjali = 2 palas or 8 tolās (approximately 96ml). The actual amount of ojas
present in each body was assessed by an individual’s hand; hence the amount of
Aparaojas would vary in quantity relative to the size of the hand.
36. This number can vary according to the individual, as each digests according to the
strength of his or her own agni.
37. Rasa here refers to taste, or juice.
38. Tridosha = Vāta, Pitta and Kapha.
39. Excess bodily wastes.
40. Anuvasana (Sneha) Basti.
41. Piṅḍa Svedana.
42. Ghee is considered to be the most auspicious oily substance due to its yogavahi
properties, sweet taste, easy digestion and nutritive properties. It reduces both Vāta
and Pitta, and promotes intelligence and good complexion. Ghee feeds rasa/shukra
dhātus and ojas.
43. Different medicated ghees are preferred to aid in the digestion of āma, Dadimadi
Grtha (blood disorders), Vasā Grtha (lungs), Pippali Grtha (diabetes), etc.
44. Cold-pressed sesame oil is heated on a very low flame for approximately 2 hours until
cured.
45. Modern interpretations of Svedana tend to favour the use of wooden steam cabinets
or custom-made water-resistant body-tents.
46. Usually heavy dairy foods such as soft cheeses, yoghurt, etc.
47. Dasha = 10/Mula = Root: Bilva (Aegle marmelos), Agnimantha (Premna integrifolia),
Shyonaka (Oroxylum indicum), Patala (Stereospermym suaveolens), Kashmari
(Gmelina arborea), Bruhati (Solanum indicum), Kantakari (Solanum xanthocarpum),
Shalaparni (Desmodium gangeticum), Prushniparni (Uraria picta) and Gokshura
(Tribulus terrestris).
48. Acorus calamus.
49. Ginger root usually cooked in milk or soaked in lime water prior to drying and
powdering.
50. Fennel (Anethum sowa).
51. Caraka gives a number of different recipes and treatment protocols dependent upon
constitution, season and time of life.
52. Medicated oils best suited for Nasya include Anu Taila, Vaccha Taila and Bramhi Taila.
53. The gut of the leech contains an endosymbiotic bacterium (Aeromonas hydrophila).
Like most bacterial species Aeromonas hydrophila has been implicated as a pathogen
under exceptional circumstances.
54. Jala = water and Oka = dwelling in. Susrutha Saṃhitā goes into significant details on
the type of leech best suited for the task of blood-letting, including physical
appearances and suitable environments to collect from.
55. Currently there are three species favoured for medicinal leeching; these are Hirudo
medicinalis, Hirudo verbena (European) and Poecilobdella granulosa (Asian).
56. This procedure is synonymous with Hajamat/cupping, whereby small incisions were
made into the skin and a dried hollow gourd is heated by flame, positioned near the
wound. The subsequent vacuum in the gourd appears to suck the wound, facilitating
the removal of blood.
57. Usually the horn of a bull, open at both ends. Several incisions are made into the
patient, covering the wounds with its broad end. The practitioner then sucks on the
apex of the horn to extract blood, placing his thumb over the aperture while
recovering his breath.
58. Susrutha recommends a wet cloth be kept over the leech while feeding. It is not clear
if this was to make the leech feel less vulnerable or, being a water dweller, to keep it
moist. Modern leeching practices have noted that leeches tend to urinate excess
water from their bodies to accommodate greater quantities of blood in their crop.
59. Chapters 1:4 and 2:4.
60. See Section 21 in Part IV.
61. Medicated jam.
62. The application of warm milk, ghee, herbal decoction, buttermilk, water and curd,
coconut milk, etc.
63. Usually a mixture of ghee and sesame oil, medicated with rasāyana herbs such as
Shatāvari, Ashwagandhā and Guḍūchī.
64. Wootz (later called Damascus steel) is believed to have been manufactured from
around 300 BC in Southern India. Favoured by both Persian and Arab armouries, this
material was revered for its armour-piercing abilities. One key process thought to
have been used in Wootz manufacture was its enclosure in closed crucibles, heated to
exceptionally high temperatures. For more information see Verhoeven, J.D., Pendray,
A.H. and Dauksch, W.E. (1998) ‘The key role of impurities in ancient Damascus steel
blades.’ Member Journal of the Minerals, Metals and Materials Society 50, 9, 58–64.
65. Manufactured from Tamahagane or gem steel (fine iron-sand containing small
amounts of naturally occurring carbon), giving the material a hard, yet flexible,
quality.
66. (1) The Antikythera Mechanism, recovered from the waters around the Greek island
of Antikythera in 1901. For more information see www.antikythera-mechanism.gr or
Marchant, J. (2008) Decoding the Heavens: Solving the Mystery of the World’s First
Computer. London: Windmill. (2) The blue-coloured tiles of Ishtar’s Gate, Babylon
(600 BC). Chaldean ruler Nebuchadnezzar emblazoned the walls of his processional
thoroughfare with glazed tiles produced by a combination of sodium, silicate, cobalt
and copper oxides. When heated to precise temperatures in excess of 1000°C this
glaze can be reproduced using modern methods; however, it is still difficult to explain
how over 20,000 of these tiles were manufactured, with little colour variation.
67. Vedic Astrology.
68. Also called Bala-Chitksa.
69. Canopus (also known as Agastya in Vedic Astrology) is the brightest star in the
southern constellation of Carina, being visible to 37° north of the equatorial plane.
This star also shares some prominence in the folklore of Japan and China.
70. Susrutha mentions a third category of visha called Gara or artificial poisons, being
specifically engineered to kill; taken over longer periods these poisons attract less
suspicion.
71. The full list of mobile poisons includes: snakes, insects, spiders, scorpions, lizards,
leeches, fish, frogs, locusts, chameleons, dogs, tigers, lions, jackals, hyenas and
mongooses.
72. Gaṅgādhara’s edition of Caraka Saṃhitā reverses this direction.
73. The commentary on Caraka notes this mutual contradictory property of visha to be
specific to prabhava (its specific action) only. It is noted that some visha are
contradictory in action, i.e. Kuchala counteracts the effects of Vatsanābha, etc.
74. See Section 1.6.
75. Devadali is known to have emetic, antibacterial and blood-purifying properties.
76. An Ocean of Indian Alchemy.
77. Brahmin, typically spiritual/teacher caste, considered to be at the pinnacle of Vedic
culture.
78. Kshatriya (warrior caste) – the governing, fighting elite.
79. Vaishya – merchant/trader class (traders).
80. Shudra or servant class.
81. Aṣṭāñga Hṛdayam = Heart of Medicine.
82. Cobra venom was purified by trituration with cow’s urine and consumed with honey
and milk.
 PART II

Workshop, Equipment,
Method and Apparatus
 SECTION 4

SITING OF RASASHALA

4.1
Siting of the Workshop
 Rasashala yantra (from The Mystery of Kūkai by Tamotsu Sato)

The siting/building of a Rasashala (Rasa = mercury and

Shala = protective/covering) is given some considerable
thought in Rasa Shāstra – after all, this is the facility where
the bulk of the work would be undertaken and should
accommodate the needs of those engaged in manufacture.
Many of the recommendations made for its siting and
construction are quite practical, while others are perhaps
more difficult to accommodate. In this section we take a
look at some of the basic requirements for initial
preparation and final construction of this auspicious
building.
 First and foremost is the location of the construction site,
which obviously should be situated away from residential
areas. The Rasashala itself was required to be somewhat
secluded, shielded by foliage, yet able to receive a gentle
breeze and not be at the mercy of the elements. Easy
access to abundant fresh water was of primary importance
along with a good supply of combustible materials such as
wood and cow dung. During the course of daily
manufacture, availability of such materials would be
essential, as would access to stones and sand and clay or
mud. Cow dung was especially important, being the
primary source of heating. Once dried, this vital commodity
would be used to heat a number of different apparatuses
engaged in the process of boiling/frying/baking and
calcination. The surrounding terrain was to be suitably
fertile and must boast a good selection of fresh herbal
supplies.
In regard to local herbal/soil requirements, Susrutha also
makes a number of interesting comments regarding these
questions in his Discourse on general features of ground
recommended for the culture of medicinal plants or herbs.
Plants, it was observed, generally displayed similar
features to the land from which they sprang, physically as
well as energetically. Signs of auspicious land ripe for
bearing medicinal-grade plants included: even ground, firm
and devoid of anthills, and away from lands used for
religious rites, cremation or execution. Soils were to be
heavy, rich and compact, devoid of sand and potash, black,
red or yellowish in colouration and adjacent to water.
Collected herbs were advised to be stored in the north or
east of the pharmacy (NE is traditionally a place of
storage), tied in cloth, in earthen vessels, hollow tubes of
wood or suspended from wooden pegs.
If all of these provisos sound like a tall order, there were
even more considerations advised, including areas of
uninterrupted sunlight, yet also able to provide shade
during the hottest seasons. The prospective area should not
encroach upon the habitats of wild animals or disturb their
nesting/migratory/feeding routes such as an area
frequented by grazing animals or on the path to a local
watering hole. Buildings were to be sited away from burial
grounds, crossroads or marshy lands (subject to flooding).
The prospective plot, having met all of these criteria,
should then be inspected for signs of inauspiciousness,
including: foul-smelling soil/air, excess fungi, abundance of
dead foliage, stagnant waters, poisonous insects and snake
lairs.

Note: The presence of snake(s) in small numbers might be

construed as a good omen.1 Avoiding displeasure from the
local snakes was strongly advised. It was considered well
advised to make an offering of fresh milk laced with honey,
and ask their permission to construct the pharmacy in the
vicinity of their home. The forcible removal or killing of
snakes/serpents was considered extremely inauspicious
and would forebode toxic effects manifesting from
medicines in that vicinity.

4.2

Sarpa (Snakes)

Special consideration of locally dwelling serpents might

also be dealt with using yantra technology; specifically
Sarpa Bhaya Hara Asseeyaa yantra (see illustration below)
was to be inscribed onto the outer walls of the building or
on the section of wall a snake was first seen to gaze upon.
This yantra would be inscribed using powdered cinnabar
applied as paint. Alternatively, the same design could also
be inscribed onto bronze plates and affixed above all four
entrances to the pharmacy.

Sarpa Bhaya Hara Asseeyaa yantra

Note: Lower right (numbers) represent the values written above in Sanskrit
Central floor mandala, drawn two cubits square, rendered using red (cinnabar)
paint

‘Just as here in the reign of men the flame of the fire

raises upward into the air and a heavy object when
thrown falls to the earth; so it also happens below in
the realm of the Asuras.’
Pañcha Siddhântikâ, Varāhamihira

In the idealised orientation and construction of Rasashala

(see the classical floor-plan on the following page), there
seems to be some slight variation, and so the information
shown here should not be taken as the absolute design.
Additional considerations to any siting would be heavily
influenced by Vāstu2 (building harmonics/eight cardinal
points) and Jyotish (astrological influences), both
integrated techniques such as Dig Bala (directional
strength of planets) or supplementary considerations such
as Mhurta (auspicious timing). Vāstu is a separate science
and a detailed study in its own right; however, it is worth
noting that most idealised constructions of a sacred space
would be greatly or wholly influenced by this discipline.
Classical floor-plan for Rasashala. The centrally inscribed yantra hosts offerings
of 15 individual rasa materials along with a self-contained yantra (H) featuring
an offering of eight additional materials

The general energetics of the pharmacy floor-plan shows a

square, denoting a balanced Brahmin site.3 Additional
recommendations advise a north-facing construction,
erected upon sweet-smelling ground, rendered white in
colour and consecrated to the planetary gods Guru and
Shukra (Jupiter and Venus), the two prominent
instructors/advisors/teachers in the celestial court.

Sthir Vāstu diagram showing cardinal points and corresponding elements. The
centralised figure is Vāstu Purusha4 (lying with his head toward the north-east
and facing downward); the demon is imprisoned on the earth’s surface and
held in check by multiple deities
If most or, preferably, all of the above requirements were
met, the area could then be cleared and appropriate
offerings made to the relevant deities. Ceremonies included
the anointing of the ground with jasmine flowers mixed
with ghee, honey and jaggery. After consecration,
construction could begin. Of course, times have changed
and availability of, or access to, land is now a big issue. As
can be seen from the recommendations above, the siting of
a Rasashala is no small matter. The whole project from
inception to completion requires huge amounts of forward
planning and a great deal of consideration about the
surrounding terrain. This is of course now a major
headache for companies wishing to build such a facility
according to the classically prescribed design.

4.3
Modern Interpretations

I cannot speak for all Rasashala in Sri Lanka and India, but
during my study period I was able to visit a few sites
making notes about their position and construction. Most
modern facilities just don’t have the luxury of
accommodating the dictums of Vāstu. In a modern city,
space always comes at a premium and rent is a constant
worry. That being said, modern facilities try wherever
possible to incorporate the wisdom of these ancient
sciences, trying to promote as many favourable energetics
as possible while at the same time neutralising potential
negative aspects via the use of rituals and offerings, and
prayers/mantras. In cases of buildings subject to
malevolent natural forces and the like, the use of a
talisman/yantra, mirrors, dried herbs, coloured fabrics and
vegetation/plants may also be effectively employed.
 Below I have reproduced (as accurately as possible) one
such facility in Colombo, Sri Lanka. This pharmacy was
probably one of the more impressive sites I was lucky
enough to look around and, even more fortuitously, allowed
to work in. The small site was especially commissioned by
the hospital, its layout executed to incorporate as many
features of Vāstu as possible. In fact the senior doctor, in
whose charge the rasa department fell, was kind enough to
give me a little tour of the facility, continually pointing out
how well the building conformed to accepted standards of
ancient pharmacy construction.
Given the fact that space was an issue on-site and that
the building was an afterthought, I think they made an
amazing job of getting so much packed in a small space.
Over a period of two to three months I was given
permission to work here, in between use by its resident
staff. Having everything so close to hand was a real benefit,
making production very smooth. During my short stay there
I managed to get a lot done – having everything needed so
close to hand was a real treat. Amazingly the pharmacy
also came with its own resident snake, a cobra I think.
Although I only saw a bit of it once (vanishing under a pile
of cloth sacks outside), it was enough to keep me mindful
when disturbing supplies in dark corners.
 Floor-plan of Rasashala (modern interpretation), Colombo, Sri Lanka

4.4
Celestial Considerations
In conjunction with Vāstu, Jyotish (Vedic Astrology) is
almost always employed to elect suitably auspicious
moments such as the laying of the foundation stones,
digging, construction, positioning of columns, hanging of
doors and the tiling of the roof. Lastly, an auspicious
moment is elected to officially open the doors of the new
building. The method for electing suitable times is called
Mhurta (also known as ‘electional astrology’). Drawing up a
horoscope, the Jyotisha (astrologer) studies the current
positions of each planet over the coming months, trying to
determine a window of opportunity when all nine graha are
optimally positioned during the day, casting favourable
glances upon the project. Special note is paid to the
positions of the two great luminaries, Sun and Moon, as
well as the Moon’s Nakshatra.
Using Mhurta, an astrologer should be able to pinpoint
suitable date(s) and time(s) that will help to ensure the
success of the whole enterprise, including the construction
of the pharmacy building, its occupants and most
importantly its medications. Mhurta is commonly used
throughout India by astrologers to routinely elect
auspicious times for numerous occasions such as marriage,
job applications, financial investments, home buying, family
planning and major purchases such as cars! The list is
endless, and all require the services of an astrologer,
helping to ensure that the applicant gets one rung up on
the ladder to success.
In addition to arriving at a suitable date, the Jyotisha will
usually quiz his employer on a number of points prior to
working with the horoscope, which might include such
points as: the history of the proposed site, birth details of
the person most directly responsible for its supervision,
and its nature of use. Finally, and most importantly, they
must also consider the time constraints of completion,
taking into account the appropriate seasons and weather
conditions along with financial considerations (employment
of construction crew, etc.). Armed with this information, the
astrologer starts to run possible planetary positions looking
for favourable times. With 9 planets, 12 astrological signs
and 12 zodiacal houses, there are a lot of variables.
Electing times when everything is perfectly aligned is
almost impossible, so in most cases it comes down to
picking the most auspicious moment, when it is 80 per cent
or more favourable.
Forecasting or electing times with the aid of a horoscope
is often labour-intensive, requiring a great eye and an
excellent working knowledge of the heavens. In the case of
consecrating our pharmacy, special attention might also be
paid to the zodiacal 4th house (representing dwelling place
or base), Kuja (Mars), a planet deeply connected to the
building’s structural integrity, and Shani (Saturn), holding
sway over fixed assets such as property/real estate and the
general karma surrounding the project. Studying the 10th
house gives some insight into the project’s vocational
activities as well as overall productivity/prosperity. The 6th
house relates mostly to matters of healing/health; planet
Mercury (called Buddha) can indicate the potency/efficacy
of the medicines produced, being the planet greatly
connected to healing and astrology.
 The eight cardinal points with their respective planetary rulers

As can be seen, any or all insights offered by the Jyotisha

would be of enormous interest to those responsible for the
construction, maintenance and general running of such a
facility – hence the blessing of an astrologer is taken with
great seriousness.

4.5
Final Note

One final note on Vāstu Shāstra might be to mention that

its usage favoured a more northerly climate – cool breezes
coming from the Himalayas to the north, and so on. From
the Vedic standpoint the northern hemisphere was
understood to be more auspicious, being uppermost/above
or Upari (the realm of the devas). The southern hemisphere
or Adhas (lower heavens) was thought to be the abode of
more hellish forces; hence the Vāstu Purusha faces
downward, toward the southern realm. These observations
were not meant to denigrate those that dwelt at more
southern latitudes, but to draw attention to the ancients’
observation of the land and its energetics relative to the
upper and lower planes of the cosmos.
There is also the question of one’s geographical location
upon the surface of earth, relative to the equator. In
comparative studies between Vāstu and Feng Shui5 there is
a stark difference of opinion in relation to cool and cold
northern winds. Feng Shui regards the northern wind to be
a harsh influence upon the home and so minimises
exposure to its malefic quality. Vāstu Shāstra, in contrast,
encourages openings in the north of the structure,
benefiting from the auspicious cooling breezes. Caraka
seems always to favour harmony with one’s climate, culture
and society, regarding alignment to nature’s flow rather
than attempting to swim upstream. Perhaps some re-
evaluation of Vāstu Shāstra may be necessary to
accommodate the needs of living spaces in a more
northerly climate?

 
 SECTION 5

SELECTION OF APPRENTICES

5.1
Alchemist and Apprentice

‘Metallurgy is a science which was taught by Shiva

(God) himself. It is to be given to an earnest disciple by
the preceptor in accordance with the usual procedure.
In an auspicious moment, when the Moon and stars are
strong, an earthen vessel full of water and containing
gold, gems and fruits is to be placed in front of the
Rasaliṅgam and covered with pieces of cloth.’
Rasa Jala Nidhi

When training a new apprentice it was considered prudent

to carefully select student material, making sure neither
side was investing unwisely. This selection was critical,
both ensuring precise transmission of knowledge and
competency of practical endeavours. The ancients laid
down specific rules to adhere to when selecting an
appropriate apprentice.
This self-protective mechanism was developed to ensure
propagation of complex knowledge and rituals across
multiple generations, keeping the traditions unadulterated
and intact. The final selection process would undoubtedly
be the key to success, ensuring traditions that survive to
this very day in some cultures.
The fundamentals of medical alchemy could perhaps be
transmitted in a short time to a willing student, but with
such a variety of materials to work with (each displaying its
unique qualities), in practice it would no doubt take many
years. With this kind of time investment it was imperative
that the appropriate student be found and selected. Many
texts of Rasa Shāstra recommend the following traits for
competency and reliability:

1. Of good lineage and conduct.

2. Devoted to his teacher.
3. Showing outstanding devotion to his studies.
4. Good mannered and well spoken.
5. Alert and diligent and free from laziness.
6. Taking wholesome food and drink.
7. Well conversant with the theories of Āyurveda and
Jyotish.
8. A devotee to the gods and a believer in Karmic Law.
9. Not inclined to speak ill of others.
10
. Honest.
11
. Of brave heart.
12
. An expert in his own profession.
The selection process also extends to one’s prospective
teacher/master. There are also text references suggesting
essential attributes for a prospective tutor. After all, the
commitment to a master would engage a student for many
years and so too would be a serious investment of one’s
time. Essential qualities for one’s tutor included the
following:

1. Of good lineage.
2. Well skilled in the use of Āyurveda and the
identification of disease.
3. A devotee of Lord Shiva and the Goddess Parvati.
4. Patient, thoughtful and compassionate.
5. Skilful in the medical-alchemical arts with diligence in
experimentation.
6. Knowledgeable in the use of mantra.
7. Proficient in geomancy (geology).
8. Rises with the sun and retires with its setting.
9. Honest and of brave heart.
10
. Taking wholesome food and drink.
11
. Skilled in the use of Jyotish.
12
. Works with regularity and efficiency.

These traditions also find their way into the Tibb/Islamic

tradition with a slight spin on the previous, adding the
qualities of humoral theory, favouring students’ overall
balance of temperaments: blood, phlegm and black and
yellow bile. Imbalances of dosha/humour could prove to be
a major stumbling block in selection.
Lastly, some commentary has been made also on the
selection of staff. Though employed in the pharmacy, they
would not have required an exacting knowledge of
processing or medicinal application. Resident staff would
ultimately be responsible for the end product, but would
work under the constant supervision of the master. The
quality of staff was a highly integral part of the whole
operation – poor selection could seriously throw the
reputation of the pharmacy into question and so additional
guidelines were also advised for their selection. These
included the following:

1. Of an honest and truthful nature.

2. Aware of their duties.
3. Accustomed to cleanliness at all times.
4. Energetic, strong, brave and diligent.
5. Partakes of wholesome foods and regimes.

5.2
Samudrik Shāstra

As with the previous accounts, physical strength,

proportion and body symmetry were also contributing
factors. All parts of the body were carefully studied for
auspicious signs. Body parts included the face, feet and
hands. One’s size, weight, colouration and anatomical form
were highly important factors in the selection process.
These examinations were not limited to the
student/teacher relationships but persisted at all levels of
Vedic society. Children would be constantly examined for
symmetry and physical proportion along with growth rates
and the appearance of strange bodily markings. The Caraka
Saṃhitā also gives concise measurements for foetal
development and the physical development of organs,
skeletal frame and joints, including relative distances and
angles between such points. In addition, examination of
one’s parents might also yield a wealth of information as to
the student’s temperament and health predispositions. Two
interesting examples are Factors derived from the Mother
and Father in the Caraka Saṃhitā (see table below).

FACTORS DERIVED FROM THE MOTHER AND FATHER

Mother Skin, blood, flesh, fat, heart, lungs, stomach, liver, small intestine,
spleen, kidneys, umbilicus, bladder, colon, ovum and rectum
Father Hair (on head and face), nails, fine body hair, teeth, bones, veins,
ligaments, arteries and semen

In the later years of physical development a whole battery

of measurements and tests were employed to gauge
physical strength, height, length, breadth and
circumference using a standardised measurement of
roughly 1.95cm (usually the breadth of an adult finger),
called an Anguli.

5.3
Hast Rekha Shāstra

Specific analysis of the palms, palmistry (Hasta Rekha6),

would also be employed by a teacher when selecting an
appropriate apprentice. Firstly, accessing one’s Āyurvedic
constitution and then astrological fate via the hand would
be an almost instantaneous way of gauging the quality,
strength and longevity of an individual. By studying the
hand and palm the tutor would have before him a living
horoscope, written upon the skin and supported by flesh
and bone without any need for horoscope calculation. In
India the practice of Jyotish and palmistry are inseparable,
both being routinely studied to corroborate one another. In
the West these two disciplines have tended to become more
specialised in their own right, eventually separating into
astrology and palmistry.
The hand was believed to be a microcosm of the universe,
upon which the signatures of the planets were written,
waiting to be decoded. Everything seen upon the palm was
thought to mirror the birth chart. If one was so inclined and
skilled enough to learn its language, one short glance at
any palm (of a potential student) could be a strong deciding
factor in their tutelage.
Curvature of lines and their intersection can produce
striking geometric forms on the palm. Just like the planets,
Rekha are also understood to move, morph/collide, vanish
from view and suddenly reappear throughout the course of
life. These shapes and symbols were of particular interest
and were studied in great detail. Some configurations were
considered positive omens of impending good luck; others
were thought to indicate persons of special merit.
Conversely, harbingers of ill luck, bringers of doom and
persons of low moral standards were also thought to be
seen written on the lines of the palm.
Some of the more auspicious signs (pictograms) on the
palm included: a lotus flower, fish or fish’s tail (upward and
downward pointing), a bow and Shiva’s trident. Auspicious
signs on the palm relating to the planet Jupiter make one
learned and wise. The Sun makes one honoured and
trustworthy; the Moon makes one caring and nurturing.
Signs of Mars indicate a charitable disposition and a
master of metal-working. Signs of Saturn mark one with
steadfastness and longevity.
Landmarks/lines of great importance include: head line
(Dhana Rekha), life line (Ayu Rekha) and heart line (Jeewan
Rekha). Well-developed mounds at the base of the fingers,
especially the Sun (ring finger) and Jupiter (index finger),
were seen as auspicious. Descending lines from these
positions were also of high note (Keerthi Rekha = Sun line,
Guru Rekha = Jupiter line). Also considered were
proportions or malformations of finger joints, 12 on the
four fingers relating to the astrological signs of the zodiac
(see illustration below). The various types of karma (see
Section 17.2 in Part IV) attached to the lines were written
in their intensity; for example, strong lines but branched or
chained denoted Aagama or movable karma, directing their
manifestation toward a future life or lives. Deep entrenched
(high walled) lines denoted Prarabdha or fixed/fruiting
karma, directed to manifest in the current lifetime with
major effects. Faint or weak lines that started and
terminated haphazardly upon the palm denoted Kriyamana
or dual karmas, directed to manifest in the current lifetime
with only minor effect (being easily resolved or rewarded).
Auspicious signs seen in areas controlled by the planet
Mars7 called Klatra or Kuja Rekha typically denoted
working with metals. Shukra Pasha (also referred to as a
Venus girdle), although ostensibly seen as a favourable sign
on the palm, showed an excess of the planet Venus, veering
one toward material gains and luxury. This configuration
could well lead one away from austerity unless it was
supported by Guru Pasha (Jupiter mound or line/loop).
Likewise, Buddha Rekha (Mercury line) was also
considered a beneficial sign, but if overly strong would also
inspire strong mercantile qualities in a student, perhaps
becoming too business-like in their activities.
Unfavourable, inauspicious signs included chained or
shortened Rekha, over-developed or prominent little finger,
fleshy Venus mound, Dhana Rekha descending deeply onto
the area ruled by the Moon (said to cause depressive
tendencies), and inauspicious signs on any of the 12 joints
of the four fingers. Confused or broken lines fragmented
one’s energy; weak lines associated with Saturn might
make one work-shy. Lastly, planetary lines entangled upon
the Rahu/Ketu axis were portents of bad luck, addictions or
the warping of one’s personality, creating strong insatiable
desires.

Left: Auspicious signs on the palm including bow, lotus, fish, swastika and
trident
Middle: Planetary positions and 12 zodiacal signs
Right: Prominent lines commonly observed on the palm: A – Life line (Ayu
Rekha), B – Mercury line (Buddha Rekha), C – Fate line (Karma Rekha), D –
Head line (Dhana Rekha), E – Heart line (Jeewan Rekha), F – Sun line (Keerthi
Rekha), G – Venus line (Shukra Rekha), H – Jupiter line (Guru Rekha)
Note that positions differ slightly on each individual. For more information
about planets and signs see Part IV

5.4

Shodhana (Purification)
Shodhana is the name used in Rasa Shāstra to describe the
process of purification whilst reducing (through trituration)
gross elements to subtle ones and in the same process
removing inherent toxic content. The process of shodhana
employs the use of various plant juices, decoctions and
salts along with intensive grinding and sieving. These
actions constantly help reduce particle size as well as
providing a medium in which grinding can be more
effective. Unlike modern purification, which systematically
removes single elements to obtain a pure substance,
shodhana works by adding a variety of substances to base
materials, effectively coercing unwanted elements to
conjoin with these liquid mediums to be then dried up in
the evaporation process.
 Preparing bhasma

Loss of material is inevitable during shodhana – the labour-

intensive process of washing, grinding, drying and heating
slowly and imperceptibly erodes the overall volume. Even
though purification requires the addition of other
ingredients, generally the overall trend is toward lightening
and lessening. Depending upon the material in question, at
least one-third to half the total volume can be expected to
miraculously vanish during manufacture.
Shodhana is a cyclical process, slowly moving the initial
material toward an extremely refined state. If followed
correctly, the end result should be a very fine powder,
easily assimilated by the human body without fear of
damaging or deranging the dhātus.8 The following outlines
the general process of bhasma preparation:

1. Impregnation: After powdering the base material, a

liquid or gel medium is added and stirred well into the
powder to make a coarse paste.
2. Levigation: Both materials are then constantly ground
for one hour or until the liquid content has begun to
evaporate. During this process the material should
become a fine paste. (Note: Some materials are
recommended to be ground in a mortar of granite,
iron or fine ceramic, depending upon its consistency
and resilience.)
3. Making cakrika: Cakrika means disc, or disc-shaped.
Here the drying paste material is formed by hand into
small flat pills.
4. Drying cakrika: Once formed, cakrika are allowed to
dry in the open air under sunlight.
5. Crucible sealing: Dried cakrika are then transferred
into a crucible, called sharaava. Effectively this type of
crucible is usually two deep earthenware plates,
sealed about their waist using strips of cotton cloth
smeared with clay.9
6. Drying crucible: Once sealed, crucibles are dried
before adding another layer of protective cloth and
clay. This process is usually repeated 4–7 times
depending on the quality of the cloth used and
thickness of clay. Once sealed, contents are effectively
air-tight, reducing oxidisation when heated to
temperatures in excess of 800ºC.
7. Calcination:10 Dried crucibles are placed into a variety
of open pits (called puṭa11) filled with dried cow dung
 (above and below). Once ignited, the material burns
for 3–4 hours.
8. Cooling: The puṭa (after exhausting the fuel) is
allowed to slowly cool over a period of 24 hours. For
more information see Section 6.7.
9. Pounding: The crucible once cooled is opened and its
contents retrieved. The cakrika within are now broken
up and re-ground in a mortar.
10
. Impregnation: The circle of processing has now
completed one circuit. Here ground cakrika are again
mixed with a liquid or gel medium and stirred well to
make a coarse paste.

This slow process of removal/reduction acts not only to

remove impurities but also to greatly potentise any
remaining material. It is this complexity of the process that
partly explains why the dosage of rasa medicine tends to be
minuscule and its effect almost immediate. Conversely,
improper manufacturing techniques can intensify the
toxicity of these medicines as surely as good practice can
enhance their therapeutic effects. In Rasa Shāstra there
are no shortcuts – the only reward is successful
preparation. Quality is determined by the time invested in
the processing. Cutting corners will reduce the efficacy of
these medicines, and cheapening the mixture invites the
risk of creating a compound that could be potentially lethal
for the end user. With all of these constraints it is
understandable why Āyurvedic manufacturers tend to shy
away from rasa preparations, for unless technically geared
up for such practices alchemical medicine means
equipment, labour-intensive efforts and constant testing
and analysis, all of which add considerable cost to the
finished remedy.
 SECTION 6

PREPARATION OF MEDICINES

6.1
Testing of Alchemical Preparations

The ancients went to extraordinary lengths to fully prepare

these medicines prior to use, developing a set of elaborate
protocols involving the slow reduction of materials by
exposure to high temperature and the systematic grinding
of the reduced powders in bio-assimilative juices. This level
of processing aimed to kill each base material, reflecting its
inability to be resurrected to its former state – that is,
metals should not reconstitute to be malleable, nor
gemstones regain a crystalline structure.
The following represents seven qualitative tests that were
performed upon each finished bhasma.12 Although these
seem a far cry from modern biochemistry, they remain
useful indicators of consistency and purity. After a little
practice it is possible to start gauging just how much
processing each material might require to be fully
processed into medicine. These tests help establish a
baseline, after which it is a question of sticking to the
recipe. If something goes amiss, feels odd or doesn’t
adhere to the standard tests, it’s a safe bet that something
has been incorrectly purified/processed or has become
contaminated.

BHASMA TESTING
Subtlety A small amount of freshly prepared bhasma should be placed
between the index finger and thumb and rolled about in a circular
motion until the bhasma becomes engrained into the fingerprints.
The excess material can then be blown away leaving only the
smallest amount of material lodged into the raised pattern of the
fingerprint.
Purity Upon being cast into a naked flame, bhasma should remain inert.
Any signs of smoke, pungent smells or reconstitution of the original
material denotes improper levels of purification or processing.
Taste A small amount of bhasma is placed on the tongue and sampled for
taste. If correctly prepared, bhasma should be free from taste.
Colour There are permissible colour variations in all rasa base materials,
but generally most bhasma will attain a recognised colour/hue after
its proper purification and processing.
Lustre If correctly prepared, bhasma should have an even matt surface
without lustre or visible shiny particles.
Texture Finished material should be smooth and velvety to the touch; when
grinding with a pestle and mortar, bhasma should be light, without
the feeling of scratchiness.
Stability Correctly prepared and appropriately stored bhasma should be
unaffected by the passage of time. Material should remain resistant
to temperature change. If stored correctly and well protected, the
potency of bhasma will increase with age.

After meeting all of the required testing, the prepared

medicine could be stored almost indefinitely, often used by
travelling physicians who simply did not have access to the
seasonal herbal varieties of medicine. In addition to its
great longevity there are a number of key features that
make Rasa Shāstra preparations more advantageous than
other preparations:

1. They work in smaller doses and are faster in action.

2. If taken with honey, rasa preparations get absorbed
quickly into the body’s deepest tissues.
 3. They act as a metabolic catalyst, carrying the potency
of the herbs they contain directly to the cellular level.
4. The efficacy of some rasa preparations increases over
time and hence they have no expiry date.
5. The availability and preservation of rasa medicines is
much easier than herbal preparations.
6. The taste of rasa medicine is generally neutral and
very easy to administer.

6.2

Mercury (A Special Case)

Perhaps one of the most controversial materials to find its

way onto the shelves of the rasa pharmacy is mercury. At
first sight of this liquid-metal, most either raise an eyebrow
or make a run for the nearest fire exit. In this book I hope
to demystify its use a little, bringing the reader toward a
greater understanding about its necessity in some rasa
preparations. The whole subject of mercury (used in a
medicinal context) is usually met with dour faces and
incredulity; however, the fact is that this material forms the
mainstay of rasa medicines, hence the prefix rasa, just one
of the varied names used for the element mercury (Hg).
There is something alluring about this material, having
captivated people since time immemorial.
Can mercury be made non-toxic for the human body? This
is not an easy question to answer and I definitely do not
have all the answers.
One quick answer is: mercury does not lose all toxicity
after purification, not by any stretch of the imagination.
Additionally mercury, once purified, is seldom used directly
without first combining it with sulphur. Its black sulphide
then forms the basis for many rasa formulations or is
reprocessed (via high temperature) into its red sulphide
form, mercury (II).
Rasa Shāstra advises that considerable
13
purification /processing be undertaken prior to the use of
mercury; its required steps were to be undertaken fully to
ensure that materials were suitably prepared before
attempting consumption. Needless to say, these purification
methods were complex and extremely involved. Considered
the ultimate panacea, this material was not going to give
up its benefits with ease.
There are some differences of opinion as to how best to
harness its medicinal qualities, but most text references
express the dangers of incorrect purification,
contamination of material and inferior grades. Much that
has been written on the benefits of mercury also includes a
chapter on its toxicity when improperly purified, suggesting
that problems were encountered with its internal
administration. There are a number of lengthy discussions
on why and how to best eliminate these impurities once
absorbed into the bodily tissues.
Mercury’s historical fame is heavily intertwined with both
gold-making and life-extending elixirs, each of these
applications requiring extended complex purification
practices that would fully awaken the powers of this metal.
Most notably it was the mineral cinnabar that became
associated with the transmutation of base metals into gold
and rejuvenation of the tissues through the use of
immortality drugs (for more information on these practices
see Part III).

6.3
 Khalwa Yantra (Pestle and
Mortar)

Alchemically perhaps the most important and most used of

all equipment, the myriad forms (design/shape) and
composition of the pestle and mortar all have an
application. During the process of manufacturing each base
material necessitates the use of different grades, and each
of the following have their individual merits.

Cast iron
Cast iron Khalwa are especially useful to shatter and crush
hard brittle materials such as gemstones and minerals, and
malleable metals such as tin, copper, lead and zinc. Iron
Khalwa are also useful for breaking up the fibrous parts of
plants including bark and dried seeds. These types of
mortar are also favoured for the trituration of mercury due
to its inability to form an amalgam with iron.
Iron Khalwa are subject to heavy surface oxidisation and
so should be kept scrupulously clean and oiled in between
use. During the processing of plant material it is not
uncommon for sap/juice to develop a slight discolouration
due to its interaction with the iron surface; however, from a
therapeutic point of view this interaction is negligible, and
perhaps even beneficial.
Iron is extremely durable, seeing many years of tireless
work, and so is well suited to all alchemical endeavours. Its
ability to withstand extremes of heat and resist the powers
of mercury has long made this material of high value.

Bronze and brass

Bronze and brass are hard non-ferrous alloys used to
manufacture some types of mortar. Though durable, they
are susceptible to tarnishing and surface corrosion over
longer periods of time. Both alloys were considered to have
curative properties in their own right, often associated in
relieving diseases relating to blood, liver, spleen and skin.
Due to the malleability of these metals their use was
commonplace. These alloys were thought to be highly
auspicious for their practical applications as plates from
which to eat and vessels from which to drink (water
allowed to stand in a bronze jug was thought to be
beneficial for health). The two alloys were often cast into
ceremonial items such as figurines, statues and bells, used
to ward off malevolent spirits.

Brass mortar
Granite
Granites are useful for powdering dried plant material and
for breaking up coarsely compacted minerals. Higher
grades of granite (fine crystalline structure14) are
composed mainly of silicates (feldspar). The black variety of
granite contains higher levels of feldspar with an average
hardness of 6.5–7.5, which slow their wear to a minimum.
Granite mined in India offers a large array of coloured
variances ranging from red to green, white, bluish-grey and
right up to dense black varieties. The black variety is
favoured for mercurial operations; one such design of
Khalwa called Naukakruti Kharal15 is considered best for
work with Pārada.
Chemically, the colouration of granite is a composition of
various mineral assemblages including iron, mica, obsidian
and quartz, all of which slightly modify the hardness of the
material. Some varieties of granite were thought to contain
small amounts of copper (flecked particles) and were
considered to be highly auspicious for the purpose of
making mortars.

Note: Due to the formation processes of granite, the

presence of metals such as copper is less likely due to their
tendency to bond with abundant and more compatible
elements such as sulphur. The colours observed in these
materials are more likely to occur due to the oxidation of
manganese or magnesium. It is possible that the different
grades and colours impress some subtle quality upon the
materials being processed, but as these constituents vary
in percentages it would be difficult to standardise.
 Naukakruti kharal mortar. This traditional apparatus is preferred for the
preparation of mercury. It is believed that black granite imparts some special
property into the purification process. Ideally the size of this yantra is specified
as 39.2 × 18 × 24cm

Ceramic/porcelain
Ceramic-ware is a highly robust material useful for
finishing materials; its ultra-smooth surface is well suited
to fine grinding. The extremely hard surface offered by this
material is achieved by the use of kaolinite (china clay), a
finely levigated clay mineral rich in aluminium silicates,
heated to approximately 1300ºC to obtain a hard white and
slightly translucent surface. Other materials associated
with assemblage of kaolinite include feldspar, iron oxide
and gypsum. Due to its chemical composition its vitrified
surface is impervious to liquids and does not require
glazing. Repeated grinding will eventually scour its surface,
forming a key upon which contaminates can adhere.
Regular abrading with an ultra grade of wet and dry paper
will keep the surface relatively unmarked. Although hard,
this material is highly brittle and should only be used
during the final processing of materials.

Glassware
Although easily available, glassware is not favoured over
other more traditional materials. It has its uses where its
transparency aids in the observation of sedimentation.
During the processing/purification of Rasaka (calamine),
material is ground with cow’s urine and allowed to settle
over a period of several hours. Once settled, the unwanted
liquid content is carefully poured off and replaced with
fresh urine.

Semi-precious stones
Perhaps less affordable and in some cases impractical,
mortars may be manufactured from semi-precious
materials. Medicinal compounds, especially rasa-based
medicines, were thought to be empowered by the use of
these stones as both medicines and grinding agents. Jade,
quartz, onyx and agate all have similar hardness (6.5–7.0),
with marble (white and black varieties) having a hardness
of around 3.0–5.0. The use of clear quartz was thought to
be auspicious for the potentising of liquids under moon or
sunlight.

6.4

Automation (Man vs. Machine)

Much of the traditional equipment used in Rasa Shāstra is
still present to this day; however, some of the
manufacturing techniques have evolved. Mechanisation has
begun to permeate into modern facilities, taking much of
the backache out of the more tedious jobs. Some
pharmacies have opted for elaborate mixers and grinders
to help remove part of the human equation (see colour
plates for an example of a Kajjali machine). Whether the
inclusion of machines affects quality is an ongoing debate,
but following the Āyurvedic maxim (intent is everything),
the introduction of machines would not be a shrewd move.
The general consensus of opinion amongst rasa experts in
India and Sri Lanka is that something is definitely lost with
the removal of the human hand and the addition of
mechanical arms.
Whilst in Sri Lanka I spoke to a teacher from one
Āyurvedic university who as part of his PhD thesis had
conducted an experiment on mice, who were given small
but continuous doses of Rasa Sindoora (red mercuric
oxide). One batch had been purified and prepared by hand,
the other manufactured by automated processes.
The mice were then carefully monitored and regularly
tested through a process of urine analysis over a number of
months. At the end of his intensive study he concluded that
hand-prepared materials showed little or no detectable
levels of mercuric toxicity in the urine excreted from Test
Group A animals. Their counterparts (Test Group B),
receiving materials produced through non-human
intervention, proved to have measurable levels of mercury
in their urine.
He then went on to relate that none of the animals in Test
Group A showed any signs of poisoning, damage to their
central nervous system, necrosis of organs, changes in
temperament or impairment to gross or fine motor
functionality. Test Group B had unfortunately exhibited
some behavioural changes, along with slight damage to
organ tissue, but given the level of dosage he thought this
was understandable.
It appears he was extremely interested as to why
materials prepared by hand should differ in their
therapeutic action. As a teacher of Āyurveda he found the
data gratifying as its results were in keeping with
Āyurvedic theory, but as a student of modern biochemistry
he was also intrigued to know if the difference could be
shown chemically.
I was not able to follow up this conversation and study his
results, and due to time constraints we were not able to
meet again; however, his comments stuck with me and so I
now relate them here, be they somewhat anecdotal.

6.5
Mediums Used for Bhavana
 Manah Shila (realgar), bhavana with ginger juice

‘Purified mercury, ground with the root of white eranda

(Ricinus communis) and Kanta Pashana (magnetic iron
ore), is to be heated along with silver in a closed
crucible.’
Rasanavakalpa

Bhavana is of key importance, starting the whole process of

assimilation prior to calcination. The various mediums used
for bhavana were not randomly selected, but carefully
chosen for their history of medicinal use. The most
commonly used bhavana include lemon and apple juice,
aloe gel, raw milk and castor oil, along with decoctions of
triphala, bhringaraj and lotus seed. Rosewater is a
particular favourite for the conversion of gemstones into
pisti, highly prized medicines in Unani.
All these materials have their specific qualities and each
was considered a stand-alone healing agent in its own
right. Over centuries of practical experimentation each
found special application in the manufacturing of rasa
medicine, most notably during its initial pre-
digestion/assimilation stage of bhavana.

Nimbu/lemon (Citrus limonum)

Lemons are initially acidic but long-term alkalising in
nature, making them a great medium to begin the process
of purification/assimilation. Lemon juice is sour and
astringent, light, dry and penetrating; it also evaporates
quickly when making cakrika. The juice of lemon stimulates
agni and reduces phlegm (decongestant in action). It also
has an anti-inflammatory action on the tissues. Overall the
effects of both lemon and lime are likely to reduce all
dosha; however, lemon in greater quantity is more likely to
aggravate Pitta. Both lemon and lime juices are advised in
the role of bhavana, or alternatively the juice of sour
orange16 (Citrus aurantium Linn). Due to its abundance in
Sri Lanka, Ambuldodam is an excellent substitute in the
absence of the former.

Rubb-e-seb/apple juice (Malus

sylvestris/domestica)
Highly favoured in Unani formulation as both bhavana and
anupāna, the action of apple is considered to be both a
hepatic/cardio tonic as well as having anti-oxidant
properties. Apple juice is cooling, astringent and slightly
sour. It is known to aid in the healing of damaged mucous
membranes, bind stools and reduce intestinal bleeding
(colon).

Kumārī/aloe gel (Aloe barbadensis)

The juice/gel of the aloe plant has been used medicinally
for thousands of years; Kumārī means young maiden/virgin,
and so it was traditionally seen as a tonic that imparted
youthful vigour. The freshly extracted gel can readily be
applied externally to sores, burns and wounds. Aloe
balances all three doshas and services all seven dhātus.
Aloe gel is cooling, sweet, slimy and astringent. Kumārī gel
is a particular favourite with many rasa preparations – its
ability to destroy poison, promote digestion, eliminate āma
and rejuvenate the blood and skin make it a highly
favourable medium for bhavana. Due to its astringency, it is
fast-drying when pasted with minerals, metals and herbs.

Godugdha/milk
This is considered a necessity of life in Āyurveda; milk is
sattvic, tonifying and nourishes all tissues. Its use in
bhavana increases rejuvenating properties on materials;
milk strongly enhances strength and feeds ojas. The
properties of milk are: sweet, cooling, −VP +K, laxative,
anti-visha and aphrodisiac. Typically milk is used as a
bhavana for animal products and visha (toxic plant
materials).

Eranda/castor oil (Ricinus communis)

This is considered to be the king of oils; its use is centuries
old and its healing properties legendary. The best medicinal
grades were those with a reddish or yellow hue; however,
other variations of colour were acceptable but of lesser
effectiveness. Eranda was particularly useful in reducing
highly resistant materials requiring extended purification.
Examples of these include mercury, copper, iron pyrite and
bornite. Castor oil is sweet and pungent/heating (−V +PK);
it is analgesic and has nervine qualities. The oil was said to
be best when extracted on a Sunday, under the
performance of ritual.

Kamala/Kanwal Gitta/lotus seed (Nelumbo

nucifera) decoction
Lotus seeds decocted find favour in the preparation of
some Kushta. Their decoction17 is a potent medium with
which to begin the transformation of ratna (precious gems)
and uparatna (semi-precious gems). The qualities of lotus
seeds are considered to be light, sticky, oily, cooling, sweet
and astringent (−PV +K). Lotus seeds have affinity to the
skin and complexion, the heart, urinary system and large
intestine (peristaltic motion). The decoction of lotus seeds
can be used in place of rosewater for the preparation of
pisti.

Arq Gulab/rosewater (Rosa damascene)

Rosewater has a strong affinity for diseases involving heat,
inflammation and the female reproductive system. Its
slightly light/bitter/astringent taste (–PK +V) contracts the
tissues and reduces bleeding, whereas its sweet post-
digestive effect helps to tonify those same tissues (+K –VP).
Additionally, Arq Gulab works to support plasma, blood,
heart and overall life-force, its cooling and sweet nature
nourishing the circulatory and nervous systems in tandem.

Triphala
See Section 6.9 for more information.

6.6

Mārana (Calcination)
 Types of puṭa/burning pits

This subsection might also be titled ‘The Art of Saṁpuṭa’ or

‘Calcination’. Saṁpuṭa means to cover or contain. Through
the use of pits dug into the earth, crucibles (called
Sharaava Saṁpuṭa) were heated to high temperature to
calcine their contents. A puṭa was literally being used as a
unit of heat, a way of approximating temperature range.
Various sizes of pit were excavated, their dimensions based
upon the analogy of natural occurrences; for example, the
dimensions of gaja puṭa (gaja = elephant) would be based
upon the size of a ground depression left by an elephant’s
belly. Varaha puṭa would be a similar depression left by that
of a boar, the dimensions of kukkuta puṭa said to equate
two hops of a rooster, and so on.
Surya and Chandra puṭa (named after the two great
luminaries) were essentially sunlight and moonlight
respectively. Surya puṭa is commonly employed during
bhavana, its drying action used to evaporate surplus
moisture between trituration. Chandra puṭa is commonly
reserved for pisti (see Section 6.8) and the preparation of
cooling medicines such as pearl, mother of pearl and
corals.
Most materials requiring the use of puṭa usually give
some indication as to which dimension is most appropriate
for conversion into bhasma. As a rule, something around
the dimensions of a gaja puṭa (see illustration above for
puṭa sizes) was commonly cited in preparation techniques.
The largest example, called maha puṭa, was reserved for
materials requiring sustained high temperature (such as
iron and mica), while smaller puṭa such as kukkuta and
kapota were preferred for mercurial preparations and some
amṛītakarana18 processes.
As the dimensions of the puṭa were based on somewhat
variable examples, so too is the modern interpretation of
puṭa size. Different authors give different dimensions, these
often taken from classic works such as Rasa Ratna
Samuccaya, Rasa Tarangini, Rasa Prakasha Sudhakara and
Rasārṇava. That being said, if you average out the
differences, they are all of similar value (plus or minus an
inch or two). The illustration at the start of this subsection
gives a general guide to name, content and size of puṭa.
Traditionally, puṭa would be excavated to the required
size, usually in the south-west corner of the pharmacy, into
fresh earth, and used for a number of firings. Eventually
after rain and natural erosion these were filled and re-sited.
In practice most modern facilities don’t have the luxury of
re-siting due to limited space and so construct permanent
structures, either lined with firebricks or cast into cement
pits. These are also constructed in the interior south-west
corner of the pharmacy, using ventilation shafts to carry
away their toxic emissions.
Traditionally also, dried cow or buffalo dung, called
vanopala, was the preferred fuel for puṭa.19 This was
collected on the forest edge/grass land from the indigenous
desi-cow. The dung was collected fresh and made into
cakes of roughly similar dimension, then later stored in dry
conditions. Each size of puṭa allocates a recommended
quantity of cow dung to produce a certain level of heat;
however, there seems to be little standardisation of cake
size.
Given the large amount of cakes sometimes required
(maha puṭa requires 1500 c.d.c.20), it is difficult to imagine
a specific quantity being adhered to. From my own
observations, puṭa are made to approximately the required
size and filled accordingly (see illustration below); a base of
dried cow dung filled just over half the puṭa’s depth. The
crucible(s) is then placed atop and the remaining depth is
then filled to capacity with additional cakes. Once ignited
using oiled cloths, cow dung cakes slowly burn downward,
diminishing in mass until only grey/white ash remains some
24 hours later.21

Sample puṭa

6.7

Puṭa Paka (Temperature)

Temperature and duration of heat are important keys to the

alchemical processing of rasa medicine. The term mārana
literally means to kill, raising the temperature of some
materials to around 1000°C inside sealed crucibles. Killing
a material literally means it can no longer re-constitute into
its original form.
 High temperature immediately starts to pre-digest many
types of mineral and animal products, making their
structure brittle and facilitating further reduction into a
fine powder. Metals exposed to the mārana process have
usually been pre-digested by other means; however, their
eventual conversion into bhasma also continues by
repeated exposure to high temperature. Once converted,
most materials lose their weight but energetically retain
residual heat from mārana processing. This heat (known as
agni) enkindled inside the cakrika will allow for better
assimilation and penetration into the subtle tissues of the
body.

Puṭa temperature analysis: varaha (left), kapota (right);

pyrometer insertion through ceramic plate into core

Most of the real alchemy takes place at the heart of a puṭa,

where materials subjected to intense heat are energetically
altered, allowing new properties to be impressed upon the
heated mass while discarding less desirable ones. This
fascinating area of research has until fairly recently
received little attention in the available literature of Rasa
Shāstra. Apart from a few research institutes studying the
effects of puṭa, questions regarding peak and optimal
temperatures seem to have been largely skirted around.
 Standardisation of cow dung cake size using a circular template

I found this part of the work intriguing and decided to

reproduce a number of puṭa (namely: gaja, varaha, laghu
and kapota), trying to measure what was actually going on
temperature-wise inside each. After spending a few warm
summer months making thousands of cow dung cakes (an
unenviable task!), I was able to reproduce and experiment
with puṭa temperature. Below I have produced a number of
graphs/heat signatures that hopefully demonstrate the
intensity of heat generated in the various sizes of puṭa.
(Note: The numbers of individual cakes given for each size
of puṭa were based on manufacturing a standardised size of
cake, 9cm in diameter.)
Gaja puṭa: approximate dimensions 29.5 squared inches; content approx. 850
c.d.c.
Varaha puṭa: approximate dimensions 17.5 squared inches; content approx. 350
c.d.c.

Laghu puṭa: approximate dimensions 14 squared inches; content approx. 200

c.d.c.
 Kapota puṭa: content approx. 8 c.d.c.

RESULTS OF PUṬA TEMPERATURE TESTS

Type of puṭa Temperature Duration
960ºC 255 min
1. Gaja puṭa
910ºC 219 min
2. Varaha puṭa
910ºC 210 min
3. Laghu puṭa
896ºC 90 min
4. Kapota puṭa
Note: Times given for the duration of heat do not reflect a cooling to ambient
temperature. Duration is a measurement of how long the temperature was
monitored; in all cases the final results were below 70–80ºC. Contents of puṭa
are commonly left for 24 hours before recovery, allowing the contents to fully
cool before opening the crucibles.

As can be seen from these results, maximum temperatures

of all puṭa were within about 60ºC of each other, and were
reached in similar times, give or take about 50 minutes
(except kapota). These results seem to indicate that there is
little difference in the actual overall temperature, with a
slight variation in duration. I was able to reproduce these
results more than once, so feel confident they are
reasonably accurate. On one occasion whilst preparing
kukkuta puṭa, I recorded a surprisingly low temperature
reading of 500ºC/260 minutes duration of heat. As this
result was obtained only once I can only think the cakes
were not sufficiently dry; this I had noted beforehand is an
important factor in c.d.c. efficiency. The UK it seems is not
the best environment in which to manufacture these items.
India’s climate is far more suitable (hot and dry), and cakes
are readily available on most street corners (see image
below).
 Cow dung cakes drying in the streets of Faridabad, India

6.8

Pisti (Anagnitapta Bhasma22)

Pisti (sometimes spelt ‘pishtee’) is yet another method of

preparing rasa medicines for bodily assimilation. Typically
medicines suitable for pisti include gemstones (both of the
ratna and uparatna categories) and animal products such
as: pearl, mother of pearl, coral and some varieties of sea
shell. Energetics of pisti are cooling but of a lower potency.
For enhanced cooling properties these materials are
advised to be exposed to Chandra puṭa. Pisti is advised for
conditions of high heat such as fevers and inflammation.
Pisti preparation is relatively simple in comparison to
bhasma, hence its popularity in manufacturing terms.
Method for pisti preparation:

1. Base materials are first soaked in salt water for 24

hours.
2. Materials are then dried and powdered using an iron
mortar. Contents can be sieved to remove any larger
particles.
3. Using freshly prepared rosewater, the resultant
powder is triturated (firstly in a granite then ceramic
mortar) for a period of around 15–20 hours.
4. Periodically the mixture is given Chandra or Surya
puṭa until dried, then fresh rosewater is again added
and trituration is continued until a very fine powder is
achieved. Like the rules for bhasma, particle size
should be small enough to fill indentations on finger
tips. Pisti should have a slight scent (rosewater) and
not feel gritty or irritating on the gums.

6.9
Anupāna

Vehicle of Delivery

Anupāna might also be called ‘Vehicle of Delivery’, a term

used to describe how the actions of a particular
formulation/material can be modified to target a specific
location in the body, a kind of personalised delivery system
that helps to hit the medicinal mark! This principle is not
exclusive to Āyurveda – both Unani and classical Chinese
medicine employ similar effective methodologies.

Honey
In general, preference is given to honey/madhu/shahed as
an anupāna due to its slightly heating nature and pre-
digested state (the bees having done most of the hard
work). Due to its subtlety, honey is rapidly absorbed by all
dhātu. Honey is favoured as an anupāna for its cleaning,
penetrative nature, and these exceptional properties have
long been known; indeed, many ancient societies revered
the honey bee and the medicinal power of their nectar.
Feral bee honey was considered to be superior; however,
domesticated varieties are more than acceptable. It is
always worth sourcing locally produced honey (most
neighbourhoods have a few beekeepers who are willing to
sell excess stock). Avoid mass-produced brands, as these
are nearly always blended, so it’s impossible to know their
source. Most commercially produced clear honey is heat-
treated to both make blending easier and improve its visual
appearance.
Due to the crystallisation of honey’s natural sugars it will
always granulate. Depending upon the sugars present,
granulation occurs at different lengths of time following
extraction from the comb. If clear honey is required
(preferred by many people) then the producer may apply
some heat to the honey (typically <35ºC), which causes the
sugar crystals to liquefy. Some beekeepers may apply low-
level heat to extracted honey to aid the filtration and
bottling process.
Āyurveda discourages any heating of honey, considering
it a pre-digested medicine/food and so extremely sensitive.
It is thought that raising the temperature beyond 37ºC
destroys its inherent enzymes, transforming its
23
heating/astringent /digestive capability into a material
more likely to imbalance dosha. Due to the global bee crisis
(CCD24) the sourcing of quality honey is becoming more
problematic. If in doubt, use local producers.

Dairy
Other useful anupāna include the use of ghee, milk/cream
and butter. All dairy products are considered rasāyana,
vājīkarana, tonifying/nutritive and sattvic in nature. The
use of milk/cream as an anupāna finds particular favour
with a number of rasa materials, including: pearl bhasma
and pisti, deer horn, mother of pearl, Shilajit, Bhallātaka,
serpentine, aconite and Guggulu. Milk/cream is favoured as
an anupāna for its cooling, sweet, emolliating powers
nourishing ojas. Like honey, milk quickly penetrates all
tissues, having a special affinity with shukra dhātu.
Ghee, although used in household cooking, should be
considered more medicinal than a food. Its healing effects
include: calming of duodenal ulcers, reducing heart
palpitations, lessening fevers, soothing nervous disorders,
improving difficult menstruation and helping to reduce
burning sensations (taken internally or applied externally).
Ghee is sweet, cooling, −VP +K (mildly), nutritive for all
tissues, rasāyana and balances agni (if taken in
moderation).
Butter (unsalted) is less commonly used as anupāna but
is still an effective vehicle for a number of materials,
including: deer horn, zinc, egg shell, copper sulphate,
topaz, garnet and chrysoberyl. Butter is sweet, cooling,
−VP +K, nutritive to all tissues and a strong aphrodisiac.
Butter is favoured as an anupāna for its nourishing effect
upon tissues, building shukra dhātu and ojas.

Triphala decoction
Triphala is perhaps one of the best-known Āyurvedic
remedies. Just some of its medicinal qualities include:
strong anti-oxidant, tonifies large intestine, cleanses
gastrointestinal tract, blood cleanser, laxative and high in
levels of bio-available vitamin C. Triphala is sometimes
favoured as an anupāna for its anti-visha/anti-oxidant
effects, along with its ability to tonify the tissues. Most
commonly a cold infusion25 or decoction26 of triphala is
prepared and administered along with loha/iron
preparations (e.g. Kasisa, Loha Bhasma), improving its
absorption.

Jaggery
Kithul jaggery is a common anupāna in Sri Lanka; typically
grated or taken in small pieces, it quickly dissolves in the
mouth. There are a number of whole cane sugars available
– jaggery/rapadura/guḍa; however, it is the processed sap
from date palm27 which is considered to have the greater
therapeutic quality. Typically kithul should be well formed,
dry and brittle; its colouration should be as dark as possible
(almost black). This variety is considered to be less heating
due to the plant’s natural Pitta-reducing properties.
Organically produced kithul jaggery is known to be rich in
iron, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium.
Kithul jaggery is favoured as an anupāna due to its
nutritive, unctuous and diuretic nature; it is particularly
effective for use with Makara Dwaja, Swetha and Sheetal
Parpati and Bhallātaka.

Water
Water is actually a huge subject in Rasa Shāstra, its
properties considered at some length. Some of the viable
sources include: mountain, rain, dew/moon, lake and river.
Copper, iron or bell metal vessels are all considered to
potentise water collected from these sources. Water
collected from mountain streams, condensed upon smooth
rock or plant leaves (under moonlight), is both cooling and
rejuvenating. Water (cool and warm) is an effective vehicle
for a number of materials, including: cowrie shells, lime,
chalk, saltpetre, Guggulu, soapstone, Jews’ stone, milk
hedge, croton seeds and coral.

Mercury
Modern thinking on the use of rasa medicine has now
begun to consider the possibility that mercurial drug
formulations carry the therapeutic charge of their
additional ingredients as a payload, in effect acting as both
curative agent and anupāna for the entire formula. Nano-
Veda (coined recently to describe the actions of rasa
medicine) aptly describes how these micro-sized particles
of HgS ‘slip’ or penetrate individual cell membranes to
deliver their explosive payload.

NOTES

1. The presence of snakes can be an auspicious sign as these creatures were

seen as agents of ‘Nāga Folk’.
2. The ancient Vedic science of Vāstu is believed by some to be the origin of
Feng Shui.
3. Square, sloping north, sweet fragrant soil and white = Brahmin. Short
rectangle, sloping east, astringent/bitter soil and reddish in hue =
Kshatriya. Long rectangle, sloping south, sour soil and yellowish in hue =
Vaishya. Long narrow rectangle, sloping west, pungent soil and blackish in
hue = Shudra.
4. Born from the sweat of Lord Shiva, whilst fighting Andhakasur (see
Matsya Purana).
5. The ordering of sacred space from the Chinese perspective.
6. Hasta = hand, Rekha = line.
7. Swastikas were deemed auspicious for the art of metallurgy.
8. See Section 1 in Part I.
9. Ground termite cement is also favoured in Sri Lanka. There are a number
of different sealing materials mentioned in Rasa Shāstra texts, some of
these being: clay, chalk, milk, rock salt and iron oxides.
10. An average amount of calcination is seven individual cooks. There are no
hard and fast rules; different grades of material require different amounts
of heating. Mica (silicon) may require 30–100 calcinations to complete its
transformation into bhasma.
11. The word puṭa means to contain or envelop.
12. Bhasma = ash/completely burnt.
13. From a modern scientific standpoint mercury is considered highly toxic,
known to cause irreparable damage to the body. Mercury toxicity can
accrue through direct inhalation or via absorption in its water-soluble
form such as methyl-mercury. Hg is an element and so is not able to be
adulterated.
14. Fine crystalline structuring denotes granite rapidly cooled from its
original molten state; coarse crystal structuring denotes the opposite.
15. Also called Tamari Pathar.
16. Also known as Seville or bitter orange.
17. Ratio of decoction: 25g of seeds to 100ml of water and reduced to 50ml.
18. Amṛītakarana = to instil the quality of amrita (divine nectar) into a
substance.
19. Also called Gomaya.
20. c.d.c. = cow dung cakes.
21. 24-hour period denotes maha, gaja, varaha and laghu puṭa.
22. Anagnitapta Bhasma = bhasma without puṭa/heat.
23. Honey is hygroscopic (draws moisture from air).
24. Colony Collapse Disorder.
25. 1 tablespoon of triphala powder is left in a glass of water overnight and
filtered the next day.
26. Ratio for decoction is: 1 cup triphala powder (approx. 180ml) added to 8
cups of filtered water. Contents are then heated and reduced to 1 cup,
filtered and cooled.
27. Caryota urens (palm jaggery, also known as toddy palm).
 PART III

Materials, Formula and

Processing
 

Rasa Materials
Quick Reference Guide

The following sections in Part III provide individualised

preparation methods of mercury, minerals, metals,
gemstones, plants and animal products. However, there are
many more materials used in the preparation of alchemical
medicines.
The table below is a concise list of 90 base materials used
in the production of various medicinal alchemical
preparations. This list does not represent the sum total of
all materials, but does provide a good overview of known
materials used in Rasa Shāstra. More information about
each of these base materials is given in Appendix 2,
‘Catalogue of Materials and Their Use’.
Categorisation follows the traditional arrangement with a
few additional miscellaneous materials used by some Unani
physicians; these have been itemised accordingly.
The science of Rasa Shāstra has laid down a blueprint of
acceptable purification methods along with the ordering of
these same materials. I have referred to this categorisation
as The Tree of Rasa Shāstra, outlining its various branches.
There seems to be no definitive agreement as to why
materials have been arranged thus, except to say that it
was perhaps based on availability issues or something as
straightforward as therapeutic potency.1
Apart from the obvious arrangement of like-materials
(metals, etc.), their ordering seems more to reflect direct
accessibility in relation to India’s geography. For instance,
mica (listed as Maha Rasa) is abundantly mined in the
north-east of the country, whereas rarer materials such as
cinnabar (listed as Sadharana Rasa) are generally not
available (in any quantity).2 Curiously, sulphur, essential for
mercury processing, appears in the Uparasa category.
Given the synergistic relationship between mercury and
sulphur and its importance in Rasa Shāstra, it seems
strange that this element finds itself downgraded to
Uparasa status. One explanation put forward by Indian
scholars has been that this arrangement of materials shows
some kind of hierarchy in denoting mercury’s ability to
conjoin with each material. This again is problematic as
mercury so readily bonds with the sulphur element and so
should automatically occupy a Maha Rasa position.
Obviously there was some logic behind the classic ordering,
but at this time no definitive explanation seems to have
been offered.

Note: Over the course of history the identity of some rasa

materials has been lost to us; wherever this is the case I’ve
highlighted the items with an asterisk. Some modern
researchers have attempted a little sleuthing and tried to
fill the missing spaces by selecting possible candidates
based on ancient descriptions of the said missing items.
Where noted, these substances should be considered as
currently under investigation to ascertain their potency.
Two such examples are Chapala and Kankusta, their
identities still remaining obscure, although there have been
attempts to identify these as Bismuthinite (Bismuth
Sulphide) and the Indonesian fruit Garcinia cambogia
(Malabar Tamarind) respectively.

RASA MATERIALS – QUICK REFERENCE GUIDE

No. English Sanskrit Category Indications/effects
1 Mercury Pārada Metal Rasāyana/rejuvenative/
yogavahi
2 Mercuric Kajjali Metal/Mineral Rasāyana/rejuvenative/
Sulphide yogavahi
3 Mica Abhraka Mineral Skin disease, fever,
diabetes,
tuberculosis/consumption,
improves vision,
aphrodisiac
4 Fluorite Vaikrānta* Mineral Anti-oxidant, abdominal
disorders, fever and skin
disease
5 Copper Swarna Mineral Diseases of the eye,
Pyrite Maksika anaemia, immune
stimulant, destroys
parasites
6 Iron Pyrite Vimala Mineral Diseases of the eye,
anaemia, abdominal
disease, digestive disorders,
skin disease
7 Bitumen Shilajit Plant/Mineral Diabetes, urinary calculi,
kidney rasāyana, chedana
in action
8 Copper Sasyaka Mineral Poisoning, skin disease,
Sulphate diseases of the eye,
rasāyana
9 Bismuth Chapala* Mineral Obesity, purgative,
Sulphide rasāyana
10 Calamine Rasaka Mineral Tuberculosis, consumption,
diarrhoea, fever
11 Sulphur Gandhaka Mineral Skin disease, digestive
stimulant, yoga vāhin,
mercury poisoning
12 Red Iron Gaireeka Mineral Cardio tonic, anaemia,
 Oxide poisoning, piles, promotes
vision
13 Ferrous Kasisa Mineral Poisoning, skin disease,
Sulphate builds blood, strengthens
liver and spleen
14 Alum Kanksi Salt Poisons, animal/insect bites,
bleeding gums, stomatitis,
bleeding disorders
15 Arsenic Haritāla Mineral Skin diseases, fever,
Trisulphide diabetes, gout, poisoning,
promotes digestion
16 Arsenic Manah Shila Mineral Skin diseases, intestinal
Disulphide parasites, fever, improves
eyesight
17 Antimony Anjana Mineral Obesity, improves vision,
Sulphide vomiting and rasāyana
18 Galena Nilanjana Mineral Eye diseases (collyrium),
ulcers, stops internal
haemorrhaging
19 Malabar Kankusta* Plant Obesity, purgative,
Tamarind abdominal bloating, weight
loss
20 Monkey Kampilla Plant Skin disease, intestinal
Face Fruit parasites, fever,
constipation
21 Arsenic Gauri Pashana Mineral Tuberculosis, consumption,
Trioxide aphrodisiac
22 Ammonium Nara Sara Salt Ulcers, infections, digestive
Chloride stimulant
23 Cowrie Kapardika Animal Digestive stimulant,
Shells improves vision
24 Ambergris Agnijara Animal Aphrodisiac, digestive
stimulant, promotes
physical strength
25 Mercuric Giri Sindoora Metal Lesions, skin infections,
Oxide general rasāyana
26 Cinnabar Hiṅgula Mineral Rejuvenative, skin disease,
fever, weakness,
debilitation
27 Lead Mrddara Śrnga Mineral Heals bone fractures,
 Monoxide reduces greying of hair,
improves fertility
28 Lead Nāga Sindoora Metal Skin diseases,
Tetroxide inflammation, bone
fractures
29 Gold Swarna Metal Immune system stimulant,
diabetes, heart disease,
consumption, mental
disorders
30 Silver Rajata Metal Stomach disorders, vertigo,
intoxication, senility,
diabetes, heart disease
31 Copper Tamra Metal Asthma, consumption, skin
diseases, poisoning,
anaemia, piles, parasites
32 Iron Loha Metal Anaemia, skin diseases,
diabetes, rasāyana
33 Rust of Iron Mandura Metal Childhood anaemia,
intestinal parasites,
jaundice, abdominal disease
34 Tin Vanga Metal Diabetes, fever, skin
diseases, infertility,
anorexia
35 Lead Nāga Metal Skin diseases, diabetes,
anaemia, fever, promotes
physical strength
36 Zinc Yasada Metal Diabetes, urinary disorders,
fever, promotes vision
37 Brass Pittala Metal/Alloy Blood disorders, anaemia,
kills parasites, cleans and
scrapes tissues
38 Bronze Kansya Metal/Alloy Skin diseases, blood
disorders, reduces Kapha,
promotes vision
39 3 Metals Tri-Loha Metal/Alloy Heart disease, immunity
booster
40 5 Metals Varta Loha Metal/Alloy Skin disease, promotes
vision and physical strength
41 Ruby Maanikya Gemstone Cardio-vascular disease,
improves digestion and
eyesight
42 Pearl Mukta Gemstone Reduces inflammation,
fever, heart disease,
promotes vision
43 Coral Pravala Gemstone Digestion, diabetes, purifies
blood, nourishes tissues
44 Emerald Tarksya Gemstone Poisoning, fever, digestion,
respiratory diseases,
vomiting
45 Topaz Pushparaga Gemstone Poisoning, skin disease,
fever, promotes digestion,
aphrodisiac
46 Diamond Hiraka Gemstone Immune system stimulant,
reduces ageing, reduces
pain, strengthens tissues
47 Sapphire Nilama Gemstone Arthritis, tuberculosis,
infertility, skin diseases,
poisoning, general debility
48 Garnet Gomeda Gemstone Anaemia, digestive
disorders, consumption,
skin disease, fever
49 Chrysoberyl Vaiduryam Gemstone Heart disease, blood
disorders, intellect,
longevity
50 Agate Akika Semi-precious Heart disease, internal
gemstone bleeding, urinary calculi,
weakness of gums
51 Sunstone Suryakaanta Semi-precious Brain dysfunction, impaired
gemstone digestion, senility
52 Moonstone Chandrakaanta Semi-precious Heart disease, fever, blood
gemstone diseases
53 Lapis Lazuli Rajavarta Semi-precious Diabetes, consumption,
gemstone diabetes, fever
54 Jade Sangeyasab Semi-precious Heart disease, stomach
gemstone disorders, dysentery,
urinary calculi
55 Turquoise Pirojaka Semi-precious Eye disease, poor digestion,
gemstone poisoning, heart disease
56 Tourmaline Vaikrānta Semi-precious Skin disease, anaemia,
gemstone poisoning, fever, promotes
physical strength
57 Amber Kaharuba Semi-precious Blood circulation,
gemstone dysentery, heart disease,
bleeding piles
58 Quartz Sphatika Semi-precious Immune disorders, general
gemstone debility, blood disorders,
burning sensations
59 Serpentine Nāga Pashana Mineral Heart disease, learning
difficulties, snake
bite/poisoning
60 Sodium Tankana Salt Infections, fever, colic pain,
Borate promotes digestion
61 Peacock Mayūr Piccha Animal Cough, hiccups, poisoning,
Feather chronic bronchitis, asthma
62 Jew’s Stone Badarasma Mineral Kidney disease/kidney
stones and renal calculi,
snake bite/poisoning
63 Lodestone Kanta Pashana Mineral Anaemia, consumption,
rasāyana
64 Asbestos Kauseyasma Mineral Gum disease/oral hygiene,
diabetes, anaemia, urinary
disorders
65 Bezoar Gorochana Animal Poisoning, pain, stress,
Stone preserves pregnancy
66 Deer Horn Mrga Śrnga Animal Heart disease, pleurisy, eye
disease, sinus problems,
migraine
67 Deer Musk Kasturi Animal Skin diseases, nerve
debility (paralysis),
poisoning and general
rasāyana
68 Conch Shell Shankha Animal Indigestion, IBS, diarrhoea,
gastritis, duodenal ulcer
69 Eggshell Kukkutanda Animal Sciatica, asthma,
leucorrhoea, bronchitis,
diarrhoea, arthritis
70 Cuttlefish Samudra Animal Osteoporosis, silica
Bone Phena deficiency, low phosphoric
acid, fractured bones
71 Mother of Sukti Animal Colic, urinary stones,
Pearl asthma, heart disease, fever
72 Goat Bone Ajasthi Animal Rickets, pregnancy/early
childhood calcium
deficiencies
73 Gypsum Godanthi Mineral Fevers, lung disease,
Haritāla asthma, anaemia,
tuberculosis, rickets
74 Calcite Surama Mineral Fevers, diarrhoea,
Sapheda excessive thirst, anaemia,
calcium deficiencies
75 Chalk Khatika Mineral Burning sensations,
excessive bleeding, wounds,
excess acid conditions
76 Limestone Sehunda Mineral Grazes and cuts, insects
stings and bites,
inflammation, wart removal
77 Soapstone Dugdha Mineral Internal/external bleeding,
Pashana skin disease, diarrhoea
78 Cobra Sarpa-Visha Mineral Fevers, hypertension, poor
Venom digestion, virility
79 Aconite Vatsanābha Plant Heart disease, rheumatism,
skin disease, poisoning,
rasāyana
80 Crown Arka Plant Purgative, warts, whooping
Flower cough, asthma, oedema,
enlarged spleen/liver
81 Milk Hedge Snuhi Plant Laxative, poor digestion,
colic, leprosy, abdominal
disorders
82 Datura Dattura Plant Fever, skin diseases,
intestinal parasites,
antispasmodic, hepatic
83 Flame Lily Langali Plant Laxative, skin diseases,
piles, colic, delivery pains
84 Indian Karaveera Plant Congestive heart disease,
Oleander ulcers, skin disease, boils,
kidney stones
85 Indian Gunja Plant Hair loss (alopecia),
Liquorice vertigo, asthma, excessive
thirst, boils
86 Opium Khasabeeja Plant Analgesic, improves
Poppy digestion, asthma, arthritis,
 inflammation
87 Cannabis Vijaya Plant Loss of appetite, poor
Indica digestion, spasm in the
intestines, blood
circulation, heart disease
88 Croton Jayapāla Plant Constipation, jaundice, skin
disease, abdominal pains,
intestinal parasites
89 Marking Bhallātaka Plant Piles, splenic disorders,
Nut persistent skin diseases,
abdominal bloating
90 Poison Nut Kuchala Plant Poor digestion, infertility,
antiseptic, low urine flow,
constipation, poor
menstruation
* No absolute agreement as to their identification.
Note: Each material has multiple applications, but its main applications are
detailed here.
 SECTION 7

MERCURY

7.1
Use of Mercury-based Medicines
 Purification of Pārada/mercury (Hg), with the juice of betel leaf (Piper betle)

‘Rasa (mercury) is superior to all medicinal substances

due to its effectiveness. Even in minute dosage, it
produces no unwanted taste upon consumption. It can
be used in all difficult conditions, returning health in no
time at all. Scholarly physicians prescribe medicines
only for curable diseases, but Pārada can be
administered even in cases of incurable disease. Hence
rasa (and its preparations) are superior among all
medicants.’
Rasendra Sāra Saṅgraha

‘If rasa (mercury) is processed by adding sulphur or

swarna makshika (copper pyrite), its
bhasma/alchemical ash so prepared would be a remedy
par excellence for curing all ailments. The patient
suffering from kustha (obstinate skin diseases including
leprosy) should take this recipe… [Similarly, mercury]
processed with diamond and Shilajit, or yogarāja,3
cures all ailments. The patient suffering from kustha
should take this recipe every day.’
Caraka Saṃhitā, Cikitsāsathānam

The use of mercury-based medicines forms a large part of

Rasa Shāstra formulations, hence the word ‘rasa’ (a
synonym for mercury). It was well understood by ancient
healers that mercury had an ability to both kill and cure;
indeed, it was often said that mercury’s ability to heal and
rejuvenate the body was matched only by its ability to age
and destroy that same body, if incorrectly processed.
Mercury is the eightieth element in the periodic table; its
chemical symbol is Hg, taken from ‘Hydrargyrum’ (latinised
Greek), meaning ‘watery silver’. Mercury has a freezing
point of −38.8°C and a boiling point of 356.73°C and is,
quite frankly, a remarkable substance. In nature it is most
commonly found in combination with the element sulphur,
forming a number of inorganic non-water soluble
compounds. When combined with carbon, it forms an
organometallic compound – methyl-mercury.4
At room temperature mercury is a bright silver-white
metallic substance, but when heated it quickly vaporises
into an odourless, colourless gas. In its sulphide form such
as cinnabar, mercury is easily liberated from its companion
(sulphur) upon application of mild heat and totally
evaporated at still higher temperatures. After cooling it will
again condense to form free liquid mercury. This was the
basic sublimation process applied to cinnabar by the
alchemists of old, a relatively crude yet effective way to
part the grip of sulphur and remove impurities such as tin,
lead and arsenic. Mercury readily combines with a number
of metals, quickly forming an amalgam. It remains inert,
however, when contacted by iron;5 in this regard iron flasks
were often employed to act as containers of the precious
liquid metal.
Mankind’s obsessive search for gold and silver6 sparked
much of the initial interest in mining larger quantities of
mercury ore, its ability to amalgamate with precious metals
making it an indispensable aid in their reclamation. Though
the antiquated process of mercury/gold-amalgamation has
greatly diminished, this method of gold extraction is still
used in small-scale mining-reclamation operations. The
process itself is highly wasteful, not to mention extremely
toxic for those unlucky enough to be working with it and
any local residents7 (both human and animal). Modern
renditions of this ancient art have refined the process
somewhat with the use of retorts and water baths, but
these methods are still not without their hazard. Modern
larger-scale operations rely mostly on the process of
cyanide leaching, using this solution to digest gold particles
from host ore and later reclaiming the metal through a
process of precipitation.
Gold mining in the developing world is becoming a major
problem, as heightened market prices are attractive to
those seeking short-term profits. Many of these facilities
still vaporise mercury during the extraction process, this
usually occurring at the goldsmith’s premises (usually slap-
bang in the middle of the mining shanty towns).
As this problem escalates, local governments in affected
areas are trying to regulate these mining operations by
supplying crews with retorts and water baths as well as
encouraging the older practice of panning. Although
considered a slower process, gold panning when coupled
with finely ground gold slurry can produce high yields of
the precious metal if heated with sodium borate (borax).
After the fine particles of gold are separated from the
slurry, they are mixed in equal quantity with borax and
heated to high temperature. The addition of borax lowers
the melting point of gold due to its natural fluxing capacity,
whilst providing a safe alternative to the more traditional
gold–mercury amalgam practice. The final procured gold
metal can then be assayed by cupellation to reduce it to its
purest form.
 Retort and water bath for gold extraction: (1) top container to hold burning
cow dung; (2) cow dung cakes; (3) thin iron sheet supporting top container; (4)
upright supports for top container; (5) half-filled water bath; (6) mercury/gold
amalgam held in iron cup; (7) iron tube with welded top and open bottom; (8)
central support holding iron cup; (9) mercury droplets reclaimed from water
bath; (10) iron base welded to iron tube; (11) vents at the base of the tube to
allow re-condensed mercury to escape

7.2
Origins of Mercury and its Impurities
 ‘In the Himalayan mountains Lord Shiva and Goddess
Parvati were engaged in seemingly endless sexual
copulation. This created a lot of commotion and
disturbance throughout the three worlds. This, as well
as the desire of obtaining a son from Shiva and Parvati
(who might then kill the demon Tārakāsura), prompted
the gods to sent Agni8 to end this sexual union,
travelling in the guise of a bird. When Lord Shiva saw
him, he became furious and stopped the act. At that
same moment, he took the ejaculated semen in his
hands and hurled it at Agni. Unable to bear its
intensity, Agni threw it into the River Gaṅgā, but the
mighty river could not bear it either and expelled it
upon the shoreline where it became Pārada (mercury).
Along with mercury, several other metals and ores were
formed; these were to become the blemishes of
Pārada.’
Rasendra Sāra Saṅgraha

Rasa Shāstra maintains that the toxicity of mercury is due

to dosha (impurities) such as visha (poison), vahni (burning
quality) and mala (waste). Modern analysis of mercury can
detect the presence of contaminants such as tin, bismuth,
lead, zinc and arsenic, but attributes such as dosha remain
beyond quantitative investigation.
In the past, free mercury, it seems, was visually inspected
to ascertain its potential usefulness. Experts in this science
were able to discern the presence of dosha by directly
observing blemishes on the outer surface or skin of pooled
mercury. The following tables outline some of these
properties and their subsequent effects if improperly
selected for ingestion.
The ancients recognised five9 different types of mercury:

TYPES OF PĀRADA
Rasa Thought to be blood-red, free from all blemishes, highly
 rejuvenating (rasāyana). Rasa and Rasendra are no longer available
to humankind after being hidden by the Nāga people.
Rasendra Blackish colouration, drying and quick natured, favoured by the
Nāga people for bringing increased longevity (without senility).
Sūta* Of yellowish colouration and contaminated, useful for both Deha
and Loha Siddha.1
Pārada* Blue/white in colour and used in a medicinal capacity, capable of
curing all diseases after suitable purification practices.
Miśraka* Displaying colours like that of the peacock feather, capable of
curing disease after subjection to purification practices.
* Available varieties useful for obtaining Siddhī2 after suitable purification
treatments. It should be noted here that mercury extracted via sublimation
from cinnabar was thought to be beyond the requirement of purification. This
red ore of mercury might match descriptions in the above category of Rasa.
1 Deha Siddha = making the tissues of the body imperishable (like gold).
Loha Siddha was the art of gold-making.
2 Super-human powers (clairvoyance, telekinesis, hypnotism, etc.).
Note: Intake of an impure source of mercury can be responsible for the
following conditions: abdominal pain, vomiting, burning sensations in the
body, ringing in the ears, impaired vision, excess salivation, headache,
drowsiness and excess sleeping, convulsion, depression, high temperatures,
aching limbs, falling of teeth, receding gum line, bleeding gums and swelling
of lymph nodes.

NATURAL IMPURITIES OF PĀRADA

Visha The natural toxicity of unprocessed mercury
Vahni The burning effect of mercury upon consumption (excess Tejas)
Mala Natural wastes intermixed with mercury (usually metals)
Giri Mineral content (sand, silicon, granite, etc.)
Chapala* Unsteadiness (always in motion)
* Not to be confused with the controversial material bismuth (III) sulphide.
The word Chapala means unstable, a feature obviously seen in this quality of
Pārada and Sb2S3.

METAL IMPURITIES OF PĀRADA

Vanga Tin (Sn)
Nāga Lead (Pb)
Yasada Zinc (Zn)
 KANCHUKA DOSHA (SHEATHS) OF PĀRADA
Parpati Rough outer layer (looking like coarse skin); dries bodily tissues
and obstructs the elimination of urine and stools.
Patini Broken surface (looking like ruptures and dimples); causes
dryness and cracking of skin.
Bhedi Small indentations or imperfections resembling holes; causes
strong purgation.
Draarvi An area of inconsistency, appearing to degenerate or decompose;
promotes water retention in body tissues.
Malkari A visible disturbance of the three doshas (Vāta–Pitta–Kapha);
causes Tridosha disturbances in body functioning.
Andhkari Dullness, without reflective surface – appearing to be blind; may
cause blindness in extreme circumstances.
Dhwankshi Darkness or black colouration upon the surface; causes the drying
of mucous membranes and discolouration of the skin.

Pārada’s inherent visha was known to cause death; vahni

brought about burning sensations and high fever; mala
promoted exhaustion and lethargy; giri gave rise to light-
headedness, fainting or coma; and capala gave rise to a
loss of virility. The presence of dhātu (tin and lead)
promoted diseases of the skin and impotence respectively.

7.3
Transmutation of Base Metals

There cannot be any mention of mercurial operations

without some question of transmutation arising. Was it or is
it possible to transform lower base metals into those of a
much greater value, such as silver and gold? Rasa Shāstra
is commonly known as Vedic Alchemy and so quite
naturally brings up the question of gold-making. One of the
frequent questions I get asked is, ‘Was this feat possible?’
What’s important to note here is that it was believed
possible and subsequently attracted a fair amount of
interest because of these claims. It has been the case
throughout the centuries (our own times included10) that
profiteers will always seek shortcuts to get rich quick.
Throughout the ages, many have seen alchemy as a viable
option to deliver great rewards with little or minimal
expenditure on the part of the seeker.
There are a number of historical accounts where
advanced masters have provided a short demonstration on
the art of gold-making, much to the amazement of the
assembled audience witnessing these acts. Several
visitations (as recently as 1942) to a temple in Delhi record
acts of gold-making by two famous Rasa Vaidya Śāhtrī,11
both manifesting pure gold from mercury, intermixed with
a percentage of pre-prepared mercury. Though these
accounts are tantalising, they are far from conclusive, or at
least far too incredible for the sceptical mind. As a friend
once said to me, ‘If you really had the means to transmute
gold, would you show your neighbour, or shout it to the
world?’ Yet this image of the alchemist remains in our
culture more than any, striving to obtain the seemingly
impossible, attracting adepts from all walks of life.
To the ancients, this concept was valid. Pancha
Mahābhūtas (five great elements) were combined and
fashioned into all the varied forms seen in the physical
world, so it took no great leap of faith to imagine that
metals such as mercury and lead were only a step away
from gold.12 It appears that transmutation was but one step
along the pathway to obtaining enlightenment through the
alchemical arts and perfection of the immortal Jiva.13 Gold
to an alchemist was nothing more than a sign that things
were going well, not a means to an end.14 Gold-making,
much like the search for Shangri-La or the Soma15 plant,
appears to have revealed itself only to those not actively
looking for it!
 Having said all that, mercurial operations were initially
divided into two general categories: the perfection of
metals (transmutation of lower grades); or the perfection of
the physical body, the quest to remove decay and senility
from one’s failing tissues. Like gold, this new alchemical
body would not tarnish, pale or fade, but endure for all
time, effectively becoming immortal. In this regard the art
of metal transmutation was referred to as Lohasiddhi, while
the art of attaining immortality became known as
Dehasiddhi. Mercury could then be subdivided into two
additional categories of Samanya (common use) and
Rasāyana (rejuvenation/longevity), including the
destruction of all diseases called Vyadhi-Nashana.
Interestingly, all rasa medicines (containing mercury)
have a strong rasāyana action. The use of mercury in a
sulphide form (known as Kajjali) helps potentise the
formula, this also being its most commonly used state. To
help elevate mercury to its second tier of operation
(rasāyana), eight additional impressions (also called
Saṁskāra) were recommended to further awaken its
powers to rejuvenate the body.
In practice the ‘common’ method is almost exclusively
used to prepare all rasāyana drugs. Ashtasaṁskāra
(meaning eight Saṁskāra) can be an extremely
cumbersome process, with a high percentage of loss to
base material. Typically most texts assert that losses can be
as high as seven-eighths of the original value, making it
necessary to process large amounts of the liquid metal, in
anticipation of extremely low yields. These losses were
primarily attributed to gati or the unpredictable
movements inherent in mercury, enumerated thus:

LOSS OF PĀRADA
Jalgati Dissolution of mercury into liquid mediums (mainly water)
Hansagati Loss during the transfer or trituration of mercury
Malagati Loss of mercury’s natural impurities during Saṁskāra
Dhoomagati Evaporation of mercury vapours (at room temperature and
during heating)
Jeevgati Loss of mercury due to its inherent nature (unaccountable
losses)

For additional interest I have outlined the eight Saṁskāra

of mercury in the following table; however, for the purposes
of this narrative we shall be exploring only the common use
of Pārada/mercury.

PĀRADA ASHTASAṀSKĀRA (EIGHT IMPRESSIONS OF MERCURY)

Swedana Mercury is first made to sweat by the Dolā yantra method,
(steaming) steamed in kanji (vinegar). This first level of processing helps
relieve mercury of mala (waste material).
Mardana Trituration of mercury in Taptakalva yantra (heated mortar),
(trituration) typically ground in a decoction of kanji, carbon (soot), rock salt,
jaggery or curd, etc.
Murchana Removal of visha, vahni, mala and giri. Mercury is successfully
(fixing) ground with the gel of aloe, triphala, Dattura and citraka until
becoming fixed (solid mass).
Uthapan To undo the previous action, mercury is triturated with lemon
(liquefying) juice and washed with kanji and hot water.
Patana Sublimation of mercury is carried out to remove any remaining
(sublimation) contamination of tin and lead. This requires multiple
sublimation (Adhahpatana/upward and
Urdhvapatana/downward), after being triturated with a number
of herbal and mineral materials. Finally the remaining mercury
is triturated with Abraka (mica) and again sublimated until it
becomes thermostable.1
Rodhan After its sublimation, mercury becomes impotent; it is now
(potentising) heated in saline2 water or kanji to rekindle its potency.
Niyamana After Rodhan, mercury becomes enlivened to the point of
(restraining) having to be constrained by the use of Swedana. A bolus of
macerated herbs is used to restrain mercury during the use of
Dolā yantra.
Deepana A macerated mixture of herbs and minerals are pasted onto a
(ingesting) pure copper sheet and allowed to soak in kanji. This action
greatly sours the kanji, which is then used to give Swedana
(steaming) to mercury. Kanji prepared thus allows mercury to
 develop an appetite (ingestion process). At this point mercury
has become Bubhukshita (famished). Once hunger has been
induced, it is said that mercury can be fed and assimilate both
minerals and metals, yet remain constant in weight. After
completing this step, mercury is again washed in the juice of
limes, rinsed in water and dried under sunlight.
1 Able to resist applied temperature.
2 Himalayan rock salt.

Finally, ten more Saṁskāra could be undertaken if one

wished to fully activate all of mercury’s latent potential.
Taking this pathway, however, was no small feat: if you had
managed to successfully navigate the previous eight
Saṁskāra, ten new daunting tasks lay ahead. The
remaining ten Saṁskāra are: Gagan (swallowing), Ranjan
(dyeing), Chaaran (transmitting), Saaram (transmigration),
Garbhduti (discarding), Sankraman (interruption),
Bahyadruti (dissolving), Vedh (penetration), Jaarana
(oxidation) and Bhakshan (elevation). (For more
information about these practices, see the Bibliography.)
It’s not completely clear (from textual descriptions) if
completion of all 18 Saṁskāra elevated any remaining
material to an immortality grade of elixir; these additional
steps seem more to have been undertaken to facilitate the
transmutation of base metals. The initial eight Saṁskāra
seem to raise the potency of mercury to rasāyana, and from
there on the remaining ten operations awaken its gold-
making attributes.
Given some of the indifference shown toward gold-
making by masters of this science, it seems more likely that
the final grade may also have been prepared in lieu of an
immortality elixir, to make the body as gold, thwarting all
disease.16

7.4
Extraction of Mercury from Cinnabar
 ‘Hiṅgula is to be rubbed for one day with the lime juice
or lemon juice and then subjected to the process of
Urdhvapatāna (upward sublimation by means of
Vidyādhara yantra).17 Mercury thus obtained is pure
and free from all the blemishes and coverings. It may
be used in everything without being subjected to the
eight indispensable operations of mercury.’
Rasa Jala Nidhi

Damaru yantra: (1) sublimated mercury; (2) damp cloth; (3) earthen pots; (4)
joints between pots sealed with fire clay;18 (5) mercury vapour; (6) Hiṅgula
cakrika; (7) heat source One curious addition to the preparation of mercury
 asserts that material directly sublimated from cinnabar may be used in the
production of all medicines, even those of rasāyana status, without prior
processing (eight Saṁskāra). This statement is a little confusing as anyone
wishing to purify mercury to rasāyana grade would almost certainly pursue this
fast-track scenario, effectively removing all the headaches of the eight
Saṁskāra and, most essentially, mitigating huge losses of material.

Given the relative ease of sublimation it is strange that

access to cinnabar did not render the other methods
obsolete. One possible explanation for this has been the
question of availability. Some writers on Rasa/Vedic
Alchemy have questioned the sources of mercury available
during that period, suggesting a supply of imported
materials from the lands to the north/north-east
(Tibet/China), or north-west (Afghanistan) along the Silk
Road. It is possible that imported material was or had
become contaminated with secondary metals such as tin,
lead and arsenic.
Once any amalgam was formed, its purification then
became essential. Supplied in a sulphide form
(cinnabar/HgS), its purification became unnecessary (or at
least simpler19). It’s impossible to say in what condition
imported grades may have arrived – perhaps already
partially recovered material from previous mercurial
operations. Yougika dosha20 was considered a primary
affliction of mercury: material heavily laced with tin, lead
or both. Many purification practices were based on the
removal of these metals along with other metallic
contaminants. The adulteration of mercury was well
documented in those days as unscrupulous traders sought
extra profit by conjoining mercury with inferior metals to
increase its bulk. It may well have been this practice that
led to the introduction of Ashtasaṁskāra and subsequent
elaborate techniques employed to clean things up.

7.5
Ancient Tibetan Sources of Mercury

‘Gold is found in Tibet in very large quantities, and

often uncommonly pure. In the form of gold dust it is
procured in the beds of rivers, attached to small pieces
of stone, and sometimes it is found in large masses,
lumps, and irregular veins. Cinnabar, containing a large
portion of quicksilver, is a production of Tibet, and
might be advantageously extracted by distillation, if
fuel were more plentiful.’
The East India Gazetteer, Walter Hamilton

India is not known for any substantial mercurial reserves;

however, its northerly mountainous terrain certainly hosted
violent volcanic/geothermal activity in its not so distant
past.21 Allowing for this fact, it’s possible some pockets of
free mercury may also have formed into a number of stable
ores22 and been harvested over the course of time. That
being said, it’s almost certain that the majority of India’s
mercury utilised for alchemical purposes was imported
from lands beyond its current boarders.23
Tibet,24 also known as High Asia (or the roof of the
world), has long been known for its rich mineral deposits;
indeed, it’s been called the World’s Treasure Trove,25
saddling an impressive store of resources. These include
copper, iron, mica, potash, rock salt, borax, azurite,
graphite, lapis lazuli, lead, zinc, cinnabar and especially
gold, many of which are known to be associative minerals
of mercury. Naturally, Tibet’s untapped mineral wealth has
attracted the interest of successive empires throughout
history. Fortuitously it had been spared exploitation due to
its remoteness; however, sadly this run of good luck has
run out in the twenty-first century. In regard to mercury,
neighbouring Kyrgyzstan (to the north-west) boasts the
world’s second-largest resource of the liquid metal,
surpassed only by the Guizhou Mines in south-east China.

Kūkai and Tibet

In one of his more telling exploits, the eighth-century
Buddhist monk Kōbō-Daishi26 mentions his encounter with
the King of Dragons27 while performing a rain-making
ritual for the then Japanese tennō Junna. This short,
alchemically rich passage perhaps offers a clue to or
confirmation of the location of a once abundant source of
the precious liquid metal in those times.

‘By February 824 AD the weather in Japan had become

very dry. Emperor Junna28 petitioned Kūkai to perform
a rain ritual called Showwo-kyuko. After diligent work
performed for seven days still no rain had come.
Investigation revealed a rival monk named Shubin had
counteracted his ritual by subterfuge,29 seeking that
Kūkai fail before the eyes of the Tennō.
Kūkai, unrelenting, then continued in mantra,
summoning Paṇṇaka, the King of Dragons,30 having
made his journey from Munecchi (Manasarovar) Lake.
On seeing the dragon, all monks lowered their gaze and
the emperor bowed low before them, offering gifts.
Then the rains came and filled all lakes31 and ponds
until they overflowed. Most notably, Shinzen’en Pond
was given special attention by the Dragon King, telling
the assembled that as long as its waters were tended
Kyoto would prosper and not suffer from drought.’
The Illustrated Legends of Kōbō-Daishi

Situated to the south-east of Mount Kailash,32 Manasarovar

Lake on the Tibetan Plateau is a revered religious landmark
for its many visiting pilgrims, who still make this difficult
journey to the place of many names.33 This high altitude34
freshwater lake features prominently in the
folklore/legends of India, Nepal and Tibet, each portraying
its waters as having powerful curative/purifying effects
when ingested or bathed in. To bath in Manasarovar was
said to wash away the karmas of multiple lifetimes.
To the Hindu it is Lake Manasarovar (or the ‘Lake of
Brahma’35), for Buddhists it is Lake Anotatta, and Tibetans
call the lake Mapam-yum-tso, which translates to
something like ‘the Eternal Jade Lake’. One legend has it
that golden seeds were known to appear at its shore line,
whereas others talk of a giant lingam coming forth from its
waters.
In the Buddhist tradition, Anotatta was known to be
guarded by Paṇṇaka, a dragon king who would fiercely
protect the riches of the lake. A Bodhisattva himself,
Paṇṇaka also performed the custodial task of protecting
holy Buddha relics36 (a task often appointed to
Nāga/snakes/dragons). This sodality is a common sight in
Buddhist temples in Japan, where Ryu37 are commonly
carved upon wooden beams that enshrine its central
Buddha effigy.
Intimately linked to the lake, the solitary, pyramidal
snow-capped Kailash (also known as ‘the King of
Mountains’) is traditionally considered to be the abode of
Lord Shiva, preceptor of Rasa Shāstra, thought to be
meditating upon its summit for endless aeons. It’s said that
Shiva journeyed to Kailash after the churning of the
oceans38 to recover from the effects of poisoning. The
cooling waters of Manasarovar and the climate of Kailash
helped to relieve the heat of visha held in his throat.
Likewise, tales of Buddha Shakyamuni journeying to
Kailash with a large entourage of Arhats39 also abound,
with a later labelling of the mountain as ‘throne of the
Buddha’ clearly indicating its significance in the eyes of his
followers.
Vajrayāna40 Buddhism identified the mountain as the
stronghold of a wrathful emanation of the Buddha named
Cakrasaṃvara,41 consorted by Vajravarahi,42 closely
mirroring the interplay between the Hindu Shiva and
Shakti.43 Following in the footsteps of Shaivism44 the
Cakrasaṃvara Tantra employs the use of intoxicants in
ritualistic form (these being mainly alcoholic in nature),
said later to be transmuted into divine nectar. Most
commonly depicted as Vajra-wielding, blood-drinking and in
wild posture, this deity plays the white (male) element to
his consort Vajravarahi’s red (feminine) element.
As can be seen this particular area of southern Tibet45 is
particularly saturated with alchemical symbolism, rich with
the tales of abundant gold, cinnabar/quicksilver, dragons,
rejuvenation, hidden treasure and miraculous powers of
healing water, coupled with the abodes of immortal beings.
All of these are of course essential ingredients in any
alchemical tale. Given the value of cinnabar held by the
ancient world, it’s not surprising that any natural
occurrence of this mineral would be highly converted. How
better to dissuade potential rivals or fortune-seekers than
by installing a wrathful deity to oversee its safekeeping?
Mercury was an extremely useful commodity, prized not
only for its essential application in fire-gilding but also for
its potential healing/life-extending properties.

7.6
Common Purification of Mercury

‘Mercury is to be mixed with trikaṭu46 and boiled in

Dolā Yantra with the juice of kārpāsa leaf47 for one
 week. Thereafter it should be washed in exceedingly
soured kāñjī and duly heated.’
Rasārṇava

Prior to any application, mercury must first be purified, and

there are a number of techniques used in this regard. The
following outlines one common method undertaken in Sri
Lanka, one which I was able to witness and later employ to
great effect in additional mercurial preparations during my
tutelage. There are many variations on this practice, with
materials varying from region to region and the individual
preferences of each Rasashala (pharmacy).

Mercury purification method

Ingredients

500g Mercury

250g Himalayan pearl garlic

500g Betel leaves (Piper betle)

Triphala kwatha48

1. Garlic cloves49 are first washed and peeled and dried

in sunlight.
2. Each clove of garlic is then grated into a pulp and
squeezed/filtered to extract garlic juice.
3. Mercurial work advises the use of a kharal (see Part
II). This equipment is essentially a mortar and pestle
manufactured from a special type of black granite,
believed to be highly suited for purification practices.
4. Garlic juice is then added to 500g of unpurified
mercury in the kharal (as described) and triturated for
 9 hours, making sure to stir its contents in one
direction only for the whole process.50
5. Both mercury and garlic are continually triturated,
adding more garlic juice as necessary. After 9 hours
the mercury is ‘washed’ with a solution of vinegar to
help break and disperse any impurities and the garlic
residue.
6. In Asia the vinegar of choice is coconut; this clear
liquid is repeatedly added and agitated with the
mercury solution until only mercury remains. Final
removal of impurities is via a fine cotton cloth through
which the mercury is poured. The mercury is able to
pass through the cloth, absorbing any remaining
contamination. Excess vinegar is then allowed to
evaporate before continuing.
7. 500g of betel leaves (Piper betle) are then selected
and juiced. This is usually achieved by pounding fresh
leaves in an iron mortar and using a cotton cloth to
constrain and squeeze the juice from the macerated
material.
8. The juice extracted from the leaves is then added to
filtered mercury and again triturated for 9 hours.
During this period it is sometimes necessary to top up
any evaporated material.
9. After completing this period of trituration, the
mercury is again washed to remove the residue of the
plant juice and remove mala (waste) from the mercury.
10
. Coconut vinegar is then used to wash contaminants
from the mercury. Residue from betel leaves could
take three to four washes to clear. As before, the
remaining cleaned mercury is passed through a cotton
cloth to remove any remaining contaminant. Any
 excess vinegar is again allowed to evaporate before
continuing.
11
. The next stage of processing requires the use of
triphala kwatha, a decocted form of the powder of
three fruits, commonly known as triphala. Kwatha is
prepared by adding 60g of powdered Āmalakī,
Harītakī and Bibhītaki in equal quantities51 to 2.4
litres of water (about 8 cups). This is then reduced on
a mild heat, slowly evaporating the contents to 1 cup
(300ml).52 When complete, kwatha is added to
mercury and again triturated for 9 hours.
12
. Following trituration, mercury is again washed with a
solution of coconut vinegar and filtered through a
cotton cloth. Excess vinegar is allowed to evaporate
before storing the purified mercury in a glass bottle. If
this processing is followed stringently, purification
could be completed within 4–6 days.

7.7
Kajjali (Black Sulphide of Mercury)

To be used therapeutically, mercury has then to be

combined with purified sulphur (see Section 8.2) to form a
black sulphide; this process is known as Kajjali Bandha.53
Kajjali forms the base of many rasa medicines, or at least
helps further potentise their action.
The process of making the sulphide is fairly
straightforward: an equal quantity (1:1) of both materials is
ground in a black granite kharal. The process itself should
require around 8–9 hours of steady trituration, or such time
as until the two materials combine into a fine black
sulphide. As with purification of mercury, one direction of
trituration is recommended during the whole process.
The finished powder should be a totally flat matt finish
(without lustre). Rasa Shāstra texts recommend that this
operation should be continued for at least 9 hours to be
fully complete.
The final Kajjali should adhere to the following
descriptions:

SIGNS OF ACCEPTABLE KAJJALI

1. Slakshnatvam Smooth and non-irritating to mucous membranes
2. Kajjalabhas Black (looking like soot)
3. Filling the minute spaces on the fingertips (fingerprints)
Rekhapurnata
4. Loss of mercurial lustre
Nischandratvam
5. Anjana Minute particle size, suitable for collyrium (Anjana)
Sannibha
6. Loha When mixed with the juice of lemon and applied to gold
Pariksha sheet, mercury does not form an amalgam with gold
7. Agni Pariksha Fumes upon heating, leaving no ashes
8. Jala Pariksha Floats when sprinkled upon water

During the course of grinding, the material becomes very

powdery, tending to inescapably rise and spread out. It is
therefore advised to wear some sort of particle filter (mask)
to avoid accidental inhalation. There is some mention made
of water being lightly sprinkled over the kharal in an
attempt to dampen down the dust particles. Some mention
has also been made with reference to the ratio of mercury
to sulphur. These alternative mixes, including 2:1 and 10:1,
are implemented with other diverse and elaborate
manufacturing processes (i.e. Vakrānta Baddha54). When
Kajjali is to be heated to higher temperatures in Kūpīpākwa
other ratio adjustments are recommended, as in the cases
of Antardhūma,55 where a ratio of 1:3 is applied.
 Preparation of Kajjali (mercuric sulphide). Purified Pārada and Gandhaka are
triturated for approximately 9 hours or until the black sulphide of mercury is
without lustre Benefits of Kajjali

Benefits include yoga vāhin and rasāyana (potentising

other drugs and counteracting the effects of age). Kajjali is
not generally taken directly, although there appear to be
accounts of this being so. Typically, Kajjali is combined with
other herbal ingredients, subjected to additional bhavana
and prepared as Parpati or administered as part of complex
rasa formulations.
The most suitable anupāna for Kajjali is butter or honey.

7.8
Rasa Parpati
 Rasa Parpati

Perhaps one of the more common applications of Kajjali is

the preparation of Rasa Parpati. Parpati means ‘wafer’ or
‘flake’ and requires the liquefaction and rapid cooling of a
medium by compressing it between eranda or banana
leaves whilst molten. The most common material used for
Parpati is Kajjali/HgS.
Parpati are of four varieties:

1. Kajjali only (Pārada and Gandhaka).

2. In combination with various bhasma56 (usually metal).
3. In combination with plant/herbal materials.
4. Without the presence of Kajjali (as in Swetha Parpati).

In comparative studies on the effects of Kajjali and Rasa

Parpati (essentially both HgS), there are marked
differences in their effects, notably the consistency of stool
in patients during treatments. Kajjali, it seems, produces
softer/loose stools whereas Parpati hardens the stool. Rasa
Shāstra considers the application of heat to potentise
mercurial drugs (as in the case of Makara Dwaja), but this
is not always necessary as the majority of rasa formulations
use only Kajjali (black sulphide of mercury).

Rasa Parpati preparation method

Ingredients

Kajjali

Ghee (clarified butter)

Banana or eranda leaves

Gorvara (cow dung)

1. Selecting an iron karahi, heat and add a little ghee.

2. Using an iron spoon, collect an amount of Kajjali
(usually only one spoonful per heating) and tap the
contents into the karahi.
3. The relatively low heat will quickly melt the Kajjali,
after which it is removed and dropped onto a banana
left cushioned with cow dung. Upon contact with the
leaf a secondary tamping bundle (made of cow dung
wrapped in banana leaf) is firmly depressed on the
molten Kajjali, pressing it into a wafer/disc. (Note:
Heating this material is extremely hazardous,
exposing one to mercuric vapour and sulphur dioxide.
Traditionally the heat source for this operation was
kapota puṭa. See Section 6.7 in Part II for more
information.) 4. The resultant disc is collected from
the leaf and ground into a fine powder and stored.

There are considered to be three levels of heating (pakas)

in Parpati:
 1. Mrudupaka: Parpati remains soft and black after
heating (low heat exposure).
2. Madhyapaka: Parpati becomes brittle; when broken it
reveals a blackish interior with slight colouration (like
the feather of the peacock). This grade of Parpati is
the most common used.
3. Karapaka: Parpati looks slightly red and dry, with a
loss of its lustre.

Benefits of Rasa Parpati

Benefits include relief from diseases of the skin, anaemia,
fever, IBS/malabsorption, piles, fever, diarrhoea, dyspepsia,
ascites (peritoneal fluid excess), hepatitis and
splenomegaly (enlargement of the spleen), asthma,
persistent cough, ulcerative colitis, intestinal parasites and
hyperacidity.
The most suitable anupāna for Rasa Parpati is honey, milk
or ghee.

7.9
Makara Dwaja (Mercuric Sulphide)

‘Pārada and Gandhaka are turned into nectar and

poison according to the purpose of their use. When
they are taken to rule they act as nectar, but when they
are used without observing any rule they act like
poison.’
Rasanavakalpa

One popular preparation of mercuric sulphide is to heat it

steadily over a number of hours in a Kūpīpākwa, essentially
a glass bottle of specific shape and dimension, buried neck
deep in a vālukā yantra. The Kūpī jar is prepared by
embalming it in seven layers of cloth and clay, helping to
protect the fragile glass of the bottle from the high external
temperatures.
There are a number of different rasa medicines
(principally mercury-based compounds) prepared in this
manner, Makara Dwaja/Chandrodaya Rasa being one. This
particular rasa preparation has developed a strong
tradition of use in Āyurveda, being prized for its
rasāyana/immune-system-enhancing properties. After its
preparation the black sulphide of mercury is converted into
its red sulphide form. The resultant red crystals are
harvested from the neck of the bottle and ground into a fine
red powder. The potency of this remedy and others like it is
believed to remain almost indefinitely; indeed, some claim
it even improves with the passage of time.
Makara Dwaja remains one way of imprinting the highly
beneficial energetic of gold onto a remedy without the need
to reduce it to an oxide (bhasma) or colloidal form.
Combining a gold amalgam with sulphur and heating the
resultant powder to around 450–500ºC for around 12–14
hours alchemically fuses these elements into a dark red
powder that can be taken directly or itself then used in
more complex formulations.57
 (1) Venting fumes from Kūpī jar; (2) vālukā yantra/sand bath; (3) mercury
vapour and deposits of mercuric sulphide in the neck of the Kūpī; (4) protective
layering of cloth and clay; (5) mercury/gold/sulphur; (6) heat source Makara
Dwaja preparation method

Ingredients

1 part Swarna Patra (24 carat/gold sheet58)

8 parts Pārada (purified mercury)

16 parts Gandhaka (purified sulphur)

Kumārī (Aloe indica/barbadensis)

1. Generally the mixture ratio for Makara Dwaja is 1–8–

16. Starting with 5g of gold sheet, 40g of purified
mercury is added and triturated until all vestiges of
gold are amalgamated. Periodically during this
process of gold absorption the surface of mercury
appears to crust. This change in the material was
thought to indicate mercury ‘feeding’ on the gold.
After further trituration, the mercury will appear to
brighten and the absorption process will slow as the
mercury ‘digests’ its gold content.
2. After complete absorption the mercury becomes
saturated with gold and its movements become
erratic, almost peristaltic. The surface of the mercury
may even show slight signs of discolouration.
3. At this point 80g of purified sulphur is added and
triturated into a smooth Kajjali (black sulphide form of
mercury). The juice of aloe is then added to the Kajjali
and the material pasted and inserted into a pre-
prepared Kūpī jar.59
4. After placing the prepared material into a Kūpī jar, the
jar is then submerged neck-deep into a sand-bath. At
this first stage of heating (3–4 hours) the intensity of
heat is kept low until visible sulphur fumes emerge
from the bottle neck.
5. After 5–6 hours (second stage) the intensity of heat is
increased to medium level, the Kūpī being continually
studied for signs of sulphur fume cessation. This
absence of fumes usually requires the re-opening of
the bottle neck (now blocked with heavy sulphur
deposits). An iron bar/rod is carefully inserted into the
neck of the bottle and lowered until reaching its base.
When in position the rod is then slowly rotated,
 clearing the neck and agitating the contents. This
intermediate action is essential, making sure all
liquefied contents are fully mixed and interacting.
6. In the final 7–12 hours (third and final stage) the
intensity of heat is increased to its highest level. At
this point the Kūpī jar shows no signs of fumes. Finally
a plume of blue-coloured smoke, followed by a blue or
orange flame, should be seen. At this point all heating
is stopped; the opening of the bottle is then closed
with the use of a ceramic plug or tile.
7. The whole apparatus is then left to cool over a 24-hour
period.
8. Next day the Kūpī jar is retrieved and its outer
protective layers removed. Then, a piece of twine is
tied about the waist of the bottle, soaked in a
flammable liquid and set alight. Rapidly cooling the
burning twine (using a wet cloth) cleanly cracks the
bottle about its waist and exposes the upturned neck.
Here, below the neck line, a concentration of fumes
will have produced a thick coating of silvery/red
mercuric sulphide crystals.
Red crystals of mercuric sulphide accumulated about the neck of the Kūpī jar

9. These crystals are very carefully dislodged and finely

ground to produce a deep red-coloured powder. This
powder is then stored in an airtight glass bottle.

Makara Dwaja – XRD/EDX

Makara Dwaja/Mercuric Sulphide + Gold (XRD), author’s sample 1, 2005

Makara Dwaja/Mercuric Sulphide + Gold (XRD), sample 2, Sri Lanka 2005

 Makara Dwaja/Mercuric Sulphide + Gold (EDX), sample 3, India 2012

XRD/EDX analysis has been carried out on three separate

batches of Makara Dwaja. Each sample clearly shows that
mercury is present as well as carbon. The first sample,
which is highly attenuated, also indicates the presence of
the transition metal tantalum as well as polonium and
sulphur. However, the significance of their concentration
cannot be ascertained as they lie on the same spike as
mercury. As tantalum and polonium are rare elements, it is
likely that their concentrations in this sample are low. It is
also possible that other elements are present in trace
quantities but the attenuation is such that they cannot be
discerned.
Samples 2 and 3 are not attenuated to the same degree,
indicating that the sample has a lower concentration of the
dominant elements mercury and carbon. They also show
that other elements are present, albeit in low or trace
concentrations. Sample 2 indicates trace amounts of
copper as well as the very rare transition metal ruthenium
and polonium; whilst sample 3 indicates the presence of
trace amounts of molybdenum. Interestingly, samples 2 and
3 show no traces of sulphur, suggesting that the original
material may have been exposed to higher or more
prolonged temperatures, fully converting any sulphur
content into sulphur dioxide before being vented.
Generally, all three samples contain similar arrays of
detected elements with variations in trace elements. The
rare elements in these samples might also provide a clue as
to the original source of the mercury ore via placer60
deposits.

Benefits of Makara Dwaja

Benefits include strong rasāyana and aphrodisiac,
enhancing of the immune system, improving complexion,
strengthening the respiratory function, promoting
intelligence, improving agni (metabolic functioning) and
balancing the metabolism in general.
The most suitable anupāna for Makara Dwaja is honey,
betel leaf, warm milk and saffron or date palm jaggery. Due
to the heating nature of mercury, Makara Dwaja and other
similar mercurial remedies are deemed to be better suited
to their administration during the cooler winter months of
the year.

Regime whilst taking mercury drugs

Called Pathyas and Apathyas, there are strict lifestyle and
dietary regimes to be adhered to whilst taking mercurial
drugs:
• Pathyas/Indications: The body should be prepared by
the use of Pañcakarma therapies (see Section 1.9 in
Part I), the taking of milk, ghee, Śāli rice, ginger,
patola/pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica), kakamachi
herb/black nightshade (Solanum nigrum61), katuja
herb/bitter oleander (Holarrhena antidysenterica),
 bringjal/eggplant (Solanum melongena) and the flower
of the Kadali/banana tree (Musa paradisiaca).
• Apathyas/Contraindications: Day sleeping, cold water
bathing, avoidance of walking in cold winds/weather,
intake of pungent or fatty foods, alcohol, over-
indulgence in sex or engaging in conversation with
women,62 direct confrontation with others, anger/rage,
excessive physical activity/exhaustion, intense fasting
and the avoidance of sour, salty and pungent tastes.

7.10
Mercury

Planet and Metal

Celestially speaking, a strained relationship also exists

between gold (represented by the Sun) and mercury
(represented by the planet Mercury). Mercury’s close orbit
around the Sun exposes its surface to a blistering 427ºC for
58.6 sidereal Earth days (uncannily close to mercury’s
boiling point63). Planet Mercury (or Buddha64 as he is
known in Vedic Astrology) represents the prince of the
planetary court. His father the king (the Sun) is his eternal
keeper and watcher, never more than one astrological sign
away from him. Although Mercury’s sidereal year is a little
over 87 Earth days, his journey around the zodiac (from
Earth’s perspective) is approximately the same as that of
the Sun. Mercury’s extreme velocity through the heavens
earned him the title of celestial messenger and planet of
communication. When seen animated in a planetarium
model of the solar system, this old world view becomes
understandable. From an earthbound perspective, the Sun
makes his yearly round in the heavens, passing each of the
planets in turn. Planet Mercury (in close attendance)
appears to fly back and forth between the Sun and other
approaching/departing planets. This speed of movement
was also attributed to purified Pārada (mercury) upon
entering the body, seemingly able to penetrate and
communicate with all seven tissues (see Section 1 in Part
I), which were also likened in attribute to each of the seven
known planets.
‘Nano-Veda’ is a modern term coined to describe an
ancient Vedic view of the minute and subtle and its relation
to living matter. Mercury (the metal) is portrayed as being
all-pervasive and without boundaries. Planet Mercury also
has many of these same qualities (astrologically speaking):
he is the karaka65 planet for healing, emitting a subtle
green ray which penetrates all bodily tissues, seeking out
disease in the deepest recesses of the body. In Jyotish,
Buddha/Mercury shows his strongest affinity with the first
of the seven dhātus, rasa (see Section 1 in Part I). Rasa
dhātu is a pervasive medium that bathes and supports the
other six essential tissues (an aqueous medium, acting as
both communicator and regulator). Afflictions to planet
Mercury in a horoscope relate to the brain (mental
disturbances), weakness of the lungs and ailments of the
skin, all areas known to quickly absorb, or show signs of,
contamination in cases of mercury poisoning.
Planet Mercury rules the earth element (all things dense
and compact); he is also the planet of trade and
commerce66 – all intimately connected to the metal gold,
finance and ultimately the building of empires. Planet
Mercury is mutable in nature, rendering his association
with any planet likely to augment his qualities. Mercury
metal is considered yoga vāhin67 and therefore enhancing
the overall potency of any formulation. Both planet and
metal are said to represent or have all six tastes, something
unique to Mercury (see Section 1.7 in Part I).
Lastly, mercury metal has a rather strained association to
precious metals gold and silver, as he permanently plays a
sacrificial role in their liberation from their respective ores.
After becoming an amalgam with his parents (gold = father
or silver = mother), he is summarily dispatched (vaporised)
at high temperatures – eventually to re-condense when cool
and effectively be re-born (hence his association with
longevity/immortality).

7.11
Hiṅgula (Cinnabar)
Cinnabar was known as Hiṅgula in ancient India, Zhusha in China and Suigin in
Japan.
The Chinese character Dan 丹 is commonly used to represent mercury and the
colour red ‘Hiṅgula destroys disorders created by all three humours. It fuels
digestive fire, it is a strong rejuvenator and it cures all disease. It is an
aphrodisiac and has praiseworthy attributes in mārana procedures. Pārada
extracted from Hiṅgula attains a quality similar to Pārada which has undergone
mārana with Gandhaka.’

Rasa Ratna Samuccaya, Srī Vāgbhatāchārya

‘Cinnabar is the master of all creatures and stays in the

south, enjoying the name Chilong (red dragon) or
Zhuniao (red phoenix).’
Bencao Gangmu, Li Shizhen

‘Dan is the name of a stone, its character in Chinese

symbolises a piece of cinnabar in a well, the character
also means red. Taoist alchemists processing cinnabar
would release its mercury content and grind it with the
fat of pig, sheep and bull. This mixture was then
pounded with tong cao68 and using guanmu tong69 as a
wick, candles were fashioned and used to locate
treasures such as gold, silver and copper. The light
emitted from these candles was said to also reveal the
hiding places of devils and snakes.’
Bencao Gangmu, Li Shizhen

Cinnabar’s continued use in medical, artistic and

ceremonial practice appears almost everywhere in the
ancient world. Wooden structures were frequently doused
in its red pigment, preserving70 their timbers from the
elements; fabrics dyed using vermilion were worn by
administrating priests and attendants alike. The
sublimation of cinnabar was well known to the alchemists
of old, who saw this union of mercury and sulphur to be the
origin of all metals (mercury representing permanence and
sulphur impermanence). When cinnabar was heated in a
flame its strange silvery essence magically appeared in
small droplets; when re-combined with sulphur and again
heated it once more became the enigmatic vermilion-
coloured powder.
Cinnabar was thought to have supernatural power and in
time became known as Dragon’s or Phoenix Blood.71
Vermilion paint adorned both warship and warrior in
ancient Japan,72 and the country’s royalty were entombed
in red caskets73 to preserve them in the after-life. The red
pigment obtained upon grinding appeared to sustain its
brilliance of colour throughout the ages. Applied topically
to the skin this same red powder miraculously healed the
wounds of battle, sores and infections. Ingestion was
believed to return youth to the elderly and potentise the
infertile and barren.
A number of other materials bear the name Dragon’s
Blood and in some cases are partially substituted for the
use of cinnabar; these include red ochre/iron oxide,
minium/red lead and the highly fragrant herb Draconis
sanguis, also known as Daemonoropis resina. Tao Hongjing
(AD 456–536), Taoist master and alchemist, commented
upon the prescriptions of doctors seeking to profit from the
benefits of cinnabar. From his observations he noted the
frequent substitution of cinnabar with the red mineral
realgar (As2S2) and orpiment (As2S3). Cinnabar was richly
coveted by the Chinese alchemists, who all considered it
indispensable in the quest for greater longevity, if not
immortality.
Ko Hung74 comments on the miracle of this mineral in his
Baopuzi (Master who embraces simplicity) in connection
with a family named Liao, residing near Nanjing,75 who
boasted incredible longevity. It was further noted that when
this family eventually moved to another residence,
subsequent generations enjoyed only mediocre if not
shortened years of life. The new tenants in residence then
began to enjoy greater years of life expectancy after their
re-location. Seeking the source of this incredible good luck
they discovered that the well from which they drew their
drinking water was tainted with a reddish hue. Upon
further exploration of the well’s depths the family were
surprised to discover a large quantity of cinnabar slowly
leaching its (now identified) beneficial properties into their
water supply. Once this fact was uncovered, Ko Hung
began to wonder if a potentised form of the mineral could
be prepared as a drug of immortality.
Though thoughts on the use of cinnabar medically vary,
most agree it to be potent and of great value. In nearly all
cases it was thought to reduce heat in the body, improve
vision and consumption, increase energy levels and lift the
spirit. In Chinese medicine it is known for treating and
nourishing the five viscera: heart, lungs, liver, liver and
spleen. Rasa Shāstra considers cinnabar to be especially
useful in cases of diabetes, skin disease, high fever,
hepatitis and splenomegaly.

Hiṅgula purification methods

Method 1 (Rasa Shāstra)

Ingredients

250g Cinnabar

1kg Ginger root

Goat’s milk

1. 250g of cinnabar is selected, washed, dried and finely

ground to a red even powder.
 2. 200g of ginger root is peeled and grated and its juice
filtered using a fine cotton cloth.
3. Ginger juice is then added to the ground cinnabar and
triturated into a smooth red paste. The paste is then
continually ground for 1 hour.
4. After an hour, the remaining paste is dried in sunlight.
5. When fully dry, more ginger juice is added and the
whole process repeated.
6. Bhavana of cinnabar is undertaken seven times in
total.
7. Upon final drying, the finely powdered material is
again ground, and then stored in a glass bottle.
8. This method can be performed with either goat’s milk
or ginger juice. Rasa Shāstra advises that either is
suitable for the purification of cinnabar.

Method 2 (Classical Chinese Medicine)

Ingredients

250g Cinnabar

100g Gancao/Liquorice root (Radix glycyrrhizae)

96g Tian Kui/Heavenly mallow root76 (Semiaquilegia

adoxoides) 96g Ma Chi Xian/Purslane stems/root77
(Portulaca oleracea) 125g Qing Zhi Cao

125g Shan Xu Cao

Honey

1. A quantity of cinnabar is washed, dried and ground.

The grinding process is recommended to continue for
 three days, periodically wetting the powder with
scented water to dampen it and reduce weight loss
due to fine powdering.
2. From this ground material 5 Liang (250g) is selected
and decocted with 100g of liquorice root, 1 Yi (96g) of
heavenly mallow root and 96g of purslane.
3. The ingredients are then decocted at low temperature
for three days, after which time cinnabar is retrieved,
washed in water and dried under sunlight. Upon
drying, the powdered material is again ground.
4. The ground material is placed into a porcelain bottle
along with 125g of Qing Zhi Cao and Shan Xu Cao,78
then sealed and calcinated on a fire using 5kg of fuel.
After 24 hours the bottle is opened and its contents
retrieved.
5. Cinnabar powder is then stir-fried in honey and
formed into small pills (25–50mg).

Hiṅgula – XRD

Hiṅgula sample 1 (XRD), Pakistan 2008

 Hiṅgula sample 2 (XRD), author’s sample, Sri Lanka 2005

XRD analysis was carried out on two batches of Hiṅgula,

each sample clearly showing the presence of mercury. The
presence of carbon is not unexpected due to its preparation
method.79 This first analysis indicates the presence of the
post-transitional metals lead, molybdenum and ruthenium
and the metalloid polonium. As before, their significance or
concentration cannot be ascertained as they lie on the
same spike as mercury. As ruthenium and polonium are
both rare elements, it is unlikely that their concentration is
significant. Other elements detected include trace amounts
of arsenic, carbon, sodium and oxygen.
Sample 2 closely mirrors sample 1 but has a much higher
concentration of mercury (off scale). As with sample 1, the
presence of the post-transitional metal molybdenum and
the metalloid polonium appear on the same spike as
mercury, making it difficult to ascertain their
concentrations. Trace amounts of potassium and oxygen
were also detected.

Benefits of Hiṅgula
Benefits include strong rasāyana and aphrodisiac,
improving complexion, promoting intelligence, improving
agni and balancing metabolism.
The most suitable anupāna for Hiṅgula is milk, honey or
betel leaf juice.

Preparation of Kushta Sangraf

Preparation of Kushta Sangraf (cinnabar) with its nested crucibles. The inner
vessel contains cinnabar cakrika whilst the outer is filled with the ash of
Gaskralheba (Achyranthes aspera) and heated using the Gil Hikmat process
(5kg of cow dung cakes) I have included Kushta Sangraf in this subsection to
illustrate the effects of higher temperatures upon this material. Rasa Shāstra
 and CCM do not recommend any heating of Hiṅgula (cinnabar); however,
Unani/Tibb favours this method for preparing Kushta (bhasma) from its
sulphide form of mercury. What makes this particular approach to cinnabar
interesting is the Arabic introduction of nested crucibles, compacted with
carbon/ash, acting as an effective filtration system for escaping mercury
vapour.80

Kushta Sangraf is the preferred medicine for the elderly

and debilitated; it has strong rasāyana properties, and
strengthens the digestion/assimilation and nerves.

Ingredients

120g Sangraf Rumi (cinnabar)

Qs (quantity sufficient) Calotropis gigantea (crown

flower latex)

Qs Citrus limon (juice of lemons)

Qs Callicarpa arborea (beautyberry tree)

Ash from Achyranthes aspera (devil’s horsewhip)

1. 120g of cinnabar is first ground in the latex of Arka

(Calotropis gigantea) until a fine paste is achieved.
This is then dried under sunlight.
2. Upon drying, the cinnabar is re-ground and again
pasted with lemon juice or the juice of Kumhar
(Callicarpa arborea).
3. As the paste dries, cakrika are formed and dried in the
sun; these are then sealed in a crucible using the clay
and cloth method. The crucible is then allowed to dry
in sunlight.
4. Upon drying, the crucible is placed inside a second
crucible, the intermediate space being packed with
 the ash of Gaskralheba (Achyranthes aspera). This
second crucible is again sealed using the clay and
cloth method and dried under sunlight.
5. Upon drying, the crucible is given Gil Hikmat (puṭa),
using approximately 5kg of cow dung cakes. The
process of heating takes 2–3 hours with a slow
diminution of heat until the crucible’s retrieval 24
hours later.
6. When opening the inner crucible, its contents should
have converted the cakrika to a dull reddish/brown
colouration.
7. The cakrika are then ground into a fine Kushta, sieved
and stored in a glass bottle.

Kushta Sangraf – EDX

Kushta Sangraf (EDX), sample, 2012

EDX analysis was carried out on a sample of Kushta

Sangraf, which would be expected to have a high
concentration of mercury and sulphur, but showed mercury
to be absent from the prepared sample. This is most likely
due to the high temperatures to which the sample was
subjected in its preparation, resulting in complete
vaporisation of the mercury. The majority of the sulphur is
also likely to have been oxidised to sulphur dioxide (SO2 )
through the heating process. This particular sample
appears to be composed mostly of silicon, calcium and iron,
with trace amounts of sulphur, aluminium, phosphorus,
potassium and sodium, typical of rock-forming minerals.

Benefits of Kushta Sangraf

Benefits include removal of catarrh and indigestion. This
remedy is a strong rejuvenator for the elderly and useful in
cases of sexual debility.
The most suitable anupāna for Kushta Sangraf is butter,
cream or honey.

7.12
Summing Up and Dangers of Mercury

Considered a highly toxic element, mercury has had a long

history as both a medicine and poison. Pliny (the elder)
described how Roman slaves working the Almadén
Cinnabar mine in Spain constructed a type of primitive gas
mask in an attempt to enable them to survive the harsh
onslaught of its toxic dust. Recruitment to Almadén was
considered tantamount to a death sentence.
Over its long history of use, this metal has found its way
into hundreds of products ranging from batteries,
fluorescent tubes and anti-fouling paints to anti-bacterial
agents in vaccines. Its highly adaptive and flexible nature
has made mercury indispensable throughout the ages.
Recently, the demand for mercury has diminished due to
the advent of safer and more environmentally friendly
alternatives. Renewed techniques in reclamation have
allowed much of the mercury already in commercial
circulation to be resurrected. In addition there has been
growing worldwide awareness of this element’s ability to
pose a serious threat to human health. In this current
decade the largest producer is also its greatest consumer –
China, a country with abundant reserves of this metal,
along with a history of usage.
Humans exposed to mercury vapour will absorb about 80
per cent of the toxic gas via their respiratory system.
Mercury ingestion or absorption through the skin remains
relatively low, less than 2 per cent. After infiltrating the
body, mercury seems to coalesce directly in the brain,
spine, kidneys and liver. Mercury is a known neuro-toxin,
attacking both the autonomic and sympathetic nervous
systems, effectively extending its influence throughout the
entire body. Effects of exposure to high levels of mercury
include: degeneration of the mucous membranes, excessive
salivation, tremors, receding gum-lines, falling of teeth,
tachycardia, kidney damage, epileptic seizures, muscular
spasms, abdominal pain, impaired vision, impaired hearing,
vomiting, dementia and – in cases of prolonged exposure –
death.
On a more psychological note, mercury has a measurable
effect on one’s personality, causing a number of mental
states, including: depression, irritability, shyness, ADD,
religious euphoria, obsessive compulsive disorder, rage,
psychosis and isolationism. It was a combination of the
above traits that eventually led to the term ‘mad as a
hatter’, as nineteenth-century hat-makers using mercurous-
nitrate in their carroting processes (in which the pelts of
dead animals were matted together) were most likely to
develop these abnormalities after prolonged exposure to
the effects of mercury.
Potential health hazards via mercury have become
mainstream news over the last decade due to the revelation
that there may be a protracted toxicological effect from
exposure to amalgam fillings. Absorption into the
bloodstream is believed to occur via leached material in
saliva or mercury vapour inhaled directly from decaying
dental amalgam. A larger volume of work now exists on this
subject and the reader is advised to study claims made
against their use and the various rebuttals made in favour
of continued usage. For more information see
http://iaomt.org/mercury.

Detoxification and chelating mercuric deposits

in the body
The human body does have some ability to expunge heavy
metals; however, the problem is exposure, diet and
lifestyle. One of the best methods for the removal of
mercury is sweating, along with the ingestion of foods rich
in sulphur and selenium. Mercury’s strong attraction
toward the sulphur element means it will readily compete
with molecular structures in the body, trying to steal their
supply of sulphur. This indiscriminate harvesting of sulphur
in the body can render some structures dysfunctional.
Sulphur is an integral part of the human immune system,
functioning as an intracellular messenger. High amounts of
mercury present in the body will impede the reactivity of
the immune system, leaving the body open to attack from
internal and external pathogens. In addition there are
numerous modern chelating agents useful for the removal
of mercury and other heavy metals.
Interestingly, and not surprisingly, Rasa Shāstra also
outlines a number of treatment protocols for the removal of
improperly treated or excess mercury in the body. The
basic premise for removing these types of toxic material is
to employ the same technology as used for their
purification. There are a number of well-known toxicity-
reducing agents for mercury: single clove of garlic
(Himalayan pearl garlic), juice of Piper betle leaves, citrus
lemon juice, kanji/vinegar and goat’s milk. Most
importantly, purified sulphur can be employed, taken with
ghee (clarified butter or fresh milk), and often sweetened
with a little honey.
Citrus lemon and vinegar are both strong anti-oxidants
along with milk and ghee (each an excellent anupāna),
helping to create a kind of vigilante refuse system
patrolling within the body, looking for pathogens. As we
have seen, mercury has a unique ability to penetrate all
tissues, passing through cellular membranes and invading
hidden recesses. Luckily ghee and milk each have this
attribute, and in combination with selective herbs and
minerals (particularly sulphur) are able to neutralise
mercury, nourish damaged tissue and deliver the toxin back
into the body’s central elimination pathway, the digestive
tract. Āyurveda understood that something as simple as
taking good-quality dairy products, coupled with a mineral,
could (long term) successfully contribute to the removal of
visha (toxins).
The long-term use of honey-water is also prescribed.
Fresh honey should be diluted with a little warm water and
drunk first thing each morning, over a period of 2–4
months. This early method of detoxification would often be
prescribed for Pūrvakarma (pre-treatments) in cases of
extreme debility, where the body had already become
severely weakened due to an overload of āma (toxicity).
Shilajit (bitumen) is also employed in cases of mercury
poisoning; this material has long been understood to have a
special ability to absorb and digest Pārada, aiding in its
removal from the system. Shilajit also has a strong affinity
to the kidneys and urinary system, two areas likely to suffer
at the hands of mercury’s concentration. In conjunction
with the above medications, a strict diet is advised,
abundant in two of the six tastes,81 these being bitter82
(ether and air) and astringent (air and earth), both
exercising deep tissue cleansing.
 SECTION 8
MINERALS

8.1
Use of Mineral-based Medicines
 Preparation of Rasa Maanikya/Arsenic Trisulphide (As2S3) In this section we
take a closer look at three individual materials considered by Rasa Shāstra to
have powerful medicinal properties and discuss their various processing and
purification methods: 1. Gandhaka/Sulphur

2. Shilajit/Bitumen
3. Haritāla/Orpiment

Every mineral has alternative processing methods, and in

the following subsections a few different methods are
discussed, ranging from very basic grinding techniques to
the construction of yantra and puṭa to undertake more
sophisticated heating protocols. There are of course
guidelines for the purification and preparation of each
material, be it metal, mineral or gemstone, but as outlined
earlier availability of resources is key to understanding the
varied techniques of manufacture and also local and
regional variances making the best use of materials to
hand.
Finally, at the conclusion of each mineral I have
presented individualised graphs of chemical composition
after the aforementioned purification/processing
techniques. These samples represent final medicinal grades
that would normally be used individually or in more
complex formulae.
As with all base materials covered in Part III, each
individual item will have multiple methods of purification
and formulation. Each finished medicine will be augmented
with the use of a different anupāna to induce different
healing effects.

8.2
Sulphur
 ‘There was a powerful demon with long arms named
Lelihāna whose mass covered 264 miles of the
Himalayas; his body lay there after being killed by
Vishnu by his cakrika (discus). As he decomposed upon
the mountains his medas (muscle fat) became known as
Lelīhtaka (sulphur).’
Origins of Sulphur, Caraka Saṃhitā

Any cursory glance through textbooks on Vedic Alchemy

quickly reveals a large number of formulae supported by
the elemental union of mercury and sulphur, providing a
base of their potency and therapeutic value. As well as
being essential components of a formula, these two
elements could also be considered as anupāna, aiding in
the delivery of the complete formula, making sure it
reaches its final destination within the body.
Mercury, even in a purified state, is not advised to be
introduced into the bodily system without first being bound
to sulphur; this combination is essential and provides its
primary means of conversion, enhancing its compatibility
with the energetics of a ‘living’ organic system. Once given
access to this system, its ability to pass with ease between
layers of dhātu/srotas is unsurpassed.
Mercury’s unique quality of ‘all-pervasiveness’ explains
its ability to inflict so much damage on these same tissues
even when unpurified.
When unchecked and allowed to interact directly either
in an unpurified state or as vapour it quickly strikes at the
core level of the body’s operational systems, attacking the
autonomic and sympathetic nervous system (majjā dhātu).
Majjā, residing deep within the bone cavities, nerve
channels and cerebrospinal fluid, permits easy accessibility
to the most sensitive parts of the system, causing
irreparable damage. Conversely it was believed that
mercury, correctly purified and processed, gaining swift
entry to majjā dhātu, gets a free pass to these sensitive
highways of refined tissues, delivering its cargo of
nutritional goodies straight to the source and eliciting swift
changes in the state of those tissues.
Sulphur forming such a close relationship with mercury
in their synergistic dance forms many of the core concepts
in Vedic Alchemy, but this element has been recognised in
its own right for its powerful healing effects. In a short
section from the Caraka Saṃhitā lamenting upon the host
of skin diseases, we read: ‘Administration of Lelīhtaka
(sulphur) with the juice of jati (āmalakī), together with
honey, is the remedy par-excellence for the cure of
seventeen types of kustha (obstinate skin diseases
including leprosy).’
Use of Sulphur, Caraka Saṃhitā, Vol. III

Interestingly, it then goes on to say that this ability to

defeat diseases of the skin is matched only by maksika
dhātu (copper pyrite83) taken with cow’s urine.
This high status awarded to sulphur produced many
variations in its purification/processing techniques, many
more than can be included here; however, there are a few
methods that remain fairly consistent in the literature of
this science, and it is these that are addressed here.

Sulphur purification methods

Method 1 (used for quantities over 1kg)
Processing larger quantities of sulphur could get messy,
time-consuming and less effective in their purification
quality. Large-scale operations may well have favoured this
first method of purification, but for quantities of less than
1kg it may not have been practical.

Ingredients

1kg Gandhaka (powdered)

3–4 litres of raw milk

Copper wire

Two large earthenware vessels

Natural fibre (cloth) – fine weave

1. Sulphur crystals are powdered and finely sieved to

remove any coarse pieces of material or extraneous
matter.
2. A variation of an Adhahpatana yantra (see Part II) is
employed to apply temperature to the sulphur powder
without it burning. This simple procedure involves
digging a small earthen pit (1 in the illustration below)
and burying your vessel to its neck (2).
3. This vessel is then half filled with fresh milk. Securely
suspended84 above the waiting milk bath, a finely
woven cloth is secured and sulphur powder deposited
(4).
4. A secondary smaller upturned vessel (5) is placed over
the buried vessel; this will act as the heat shield for
the sulphur powder.
5. A quantity of cow dung cakes (6) are placed over the
outer surface of the exposed vessel and ignited.
6. Cow dung cakes generate a fairly high temperature,
but an air-cooled open space between the burning
cakes and the sulphur/cloth (7) remains close enough
to melt the powdered sulphur (119ºC), but at the same
time ensure the cloth remains unburnt.
7. As the sulphur slowly liquefies it will drip small
droplets (8) out through the cloth, dropping into the
waiting milk below.
 8. The quantity of cow dung cakes is dependent on size
of vessel, so for the purposes of this example a
working figure of 40 cakes will be assumed, this
taking about 1½ hours to exhaust its fuel and be
reduced to ash.
9. After cooling, the lower vessel is carefully excavated
and its contents retrieved. Usually water is added to
the milk and slowly poured off; as this gets repeated
the milk becomes transparent and the small pills of
sulphur (9) can be seen at the bottom of the vessel.
Multiple washing in clean water should remove any
remaining milk solids.
10
. The sulphur pills can be spread out on absorbent
paper and dried under sunlight. When all moisture has
evaporated, the pills are ground in a ceramic mortar,
returning the sulphur to a fine yellow powder, smelling
slightly sweet and milky.

This whole process is repeated three times, but in practice

many modern pharmacies perform it only once. There are
conflicting ideas about the amount of times this process
needs to be undertaken; my own experience seems to show
that once is adequate, but like all rasa preparations, the
more the merrier. As we will see in method 2, multiple
processing can extend to three figures.
 Sulphur processing: method 1

Method 2 (used for quantities under 1kg)

Ingredients

500g Gandhaka (powdered)

2–3 litres of raw milk

Natural fibre (cloth) – fine weave

Ghee (clarified butter85)

Method 2 is suitable for smaller quantities of sulphur and is

relatively quick to prepare without the need for more
sophistication. This second method relies upon the use of
ghee as a fluid medium in which to dissolve sulphur and
then its quick solidification by immersing it into cow’s milk:
1. An iron pan (1 in the illustration below) is slowly heated,
containing a small quantity of ghee (usually one-third of the
weight of sulphur powder).
2. The melted ghee is removed from the heat and the
sulphur powder added, mixing thoroughly until a
creamy paste is formed.
3. An additional pot (2) is then prepared, half filled with
fresh room temperature milk, its top covered with a
medium weave natural cloth (3), and secured in
position. It is important that this cloth does not sag
into the milk, so it is slightly stretched across the
opening of the pan.
4. The pan containing both ghee and sulphur is then
returned to the heat until the sulphur becomes liquid
and semi-transparent just below the surface of the
ghee. As the sulphur starts to turn from yellow to
orange (like the colour of a rich yolk) the heat is
discontinued and the pan removed from the heat.
(Note: If the sulphur is over-heated it will start to
become a darker shade of red and thicken.) This new
appearance signals a thickening of viscosity and a
physical appearance akin to menstrual blood. If over-
cooked, the sulphur is to be allowed to cool and
solidify in the ghee – attempting to continue at this
point would render the heated sulphur too coarse to
pass through the cloth on top of the second pan.
5. Assuming the colour temperature of the sulphur is
correct (yolk coloured), the heated material is now
slowly poured through the cloth of the second pan,
into the waiting milk (4). A slow pouring rate allows
the molten sulphur to pass through the cloth
membrane with backing up (5).
 6. The mass of solidified sulphur (6) now collects beneath
the milk and cools. From here it is then retrieved,
washed and dried before regrinding into a fine
powder. Usually this process is repeated at least three
times for minimum purification, six times for an
internal medicinal grade and up to 100 times to render
sulphur without blemish. It is said this many
processings render the material odourless.

Variations of this method include substituting the mediums

into which the liquefied sulphur is poured. These include:
bhringaraj leaf juice, Dattura leaf juice, goat’s milk, onion
juice and aloe vera gel. Also, karanja (Indian beech oil) and
eranda (castor oil) may be used in place of ghee.
In an interesting paper published in Āyurveda: Science of
Life,86 Dr Damodar Joshi carried out a series of four
separate experiments using the above methods of
purification to ascertain which of the above mediums were
having the greatest effect upon the sulphur sample. The
then purified samples were subjected to XRD analysis to
correlate these results, as shown in the table below. The
end result seems to be homogeneous.
 Sulphur processing: method 2

DIFFERENT METHODS OF GANDHAKA PURIFICATION

Method Material XRD
loss
1. 100g powdered Heated and poured 15g All samples showed
sulphur mixed with 25g into bhringaraj the removal of trace
ghee juice (×6) elements Cr, Mn
and Zn after
2. 100g powdered Heated and poured 15g
purification
sulphur mixed with 25ml into goat’s milk
Indian beech oil and (×3) and Dattura
25ml castor oil juice (×3)
3. 100g powdered Heated and poured 25g
sulphur mixed with 25g into aloe gel (×5)
ghee and onion juice1
(×5)
4. 100g powdered Heated and poured 15g
sulphur mixed with 25g into cow’s milk
ghee (×6)
1 Rathu Luunu (Asian variety of small red onion).
Note: (XRD) crude samples of sulphur powder contained Al, Fe, Cu, C and
traces of Cr, Mn, Zn.

Method 3 (used for quantities under 250g)

Ingredients

250g Gandhaka (powdered)

Raw milk or bhringaraj decoction

This method is most suitable for very small quantities of

sulphur and is ‘good weather’ dependent. The method
relies upon the use of milk (raw if possible87) or bhringaraj
decoction and a lot of grinding with a pestle and mortar.
Although not generally used, it is sometimes employed in
an emergency where stocks of purified sulphur have run
low and where weather restrictions (access to sunlight) are
not an issue.

1. Sulphur powder is finely ground in a ceramic mortar

and a small quantity of fresh milk/bhringaraj decoction
added and triturated into a milky paste.
2. More milk/bhringaraj decoction is added and the mass
stirred for about 1 hour.
3. The mortar is left under sunlight until the milk has
evaporated and the mixture is again dry.
4. A second amount of raw milk or bhringaraj decoction
is added and again triturated into a paste, again
stirred for 1 hour and the mixture left to evaporate
until dry.
 5. The above process is repeated another five times
(seven times in total).
6. Upon the last drying of sulphur the remaining powder
is washed in warm water and lemon juice to remove
any remaining milk solids. Usually 4–5 washes would
be performed to clear any remaining deposits. Failure
to remove milk solids can lead to mould forming on
the powder.

Naturally occurring sulphur

Many of the world’s largest sulphur-producing countries
extract or recover the element from by-products of natural
gas and petroleum. Native sulphur samples recovered from
hot water springs, acid crater lakes and thermal volcanic
vents tend to be rich in minerals, metals and trace
elements, the most notable of these being arsenic,
antimony, copper, nickel, selenium, tin, lead and
molybdenum. Subsequent extraction of sulphur from
minerals such as cinnabar, orpiment and realgar probably
indicated to those adept at Rasa Shāstra that
contamination of these materials was likely to be a problem
and thus they developed suitable extraction methods to
eliminate their presence. Given the visha/poisonous
qualities already ascribed to some of the above, it is
therefore not surprising that the purification of natively
obtained samples of sulphur was subjected to stringent
shodhana practices.
Until recently the most commonly used method of
sulphur extraction was via the Frasch process in which
super-heated water is pumped at high pressure into rich
deposits of subterranean sulphur, liquefying the material
and forcing the displaced material back up toward the
surface. This process produces a high grade of sulphur,
already in some respects purified.88
 Sulphur XRD

The sample of sulphur shown in the illustration above was

purified in July 2009 in the UK using method 2 (as
previously outlined), repeatedly immersed into fresh milk
six times. As can be seen from the graph, no
contaminations of toxic heavy metals are present. The
analysis (XRD) reveals this sample to be unadulterated
sulphur with trace amounts of carbon, boron and oxygen.
Boron (commonly a constituent of tourmaline) is often
found near active volcanic areas. Likewise, sulphur is
commonly obtained from these same areas of geothermal
activity.

Benefits of sulphur
Sulphur is an essential element in the body, playing an
important role in the structure of fat, bone and muscle.
Sulphur is also an integral part of the human immune
system, functioning as an intracellular messenger. Some of
the main health benefits associated with sulphur include an
affinity with diseases involving the skin, liver and digestive
process. Typical conditions include: itching, leprosy,
impaired digestion, excess of mucus, high āma, intestinal
parasites, fevers and mercury poisoning.

8.3
Bitumen

Although mercury takes centre stage in Rasa Shāstra,

Shilajit89 (Asphaltum puniabiunum) seems to have earned
high praise in much of the Āyurvedic/alchemical literature,
being heralded as a cure for almost every disease. Its use
as a medicinal substance is very old and, indeed, Caraka
devotes an entire section to its medicinal power in his
Saṃhitā, as does Susrutha in his treatise on diabetes: ‘This
is an elixir for long life and happiness. It prevents ageing
and diseases. It is an excellent drug for producing
sturdiness of the body. It also promotes medhā (intellect),
smṛti (memory) and Dhana (wealth). While taking this
recipe a person should live on milk.’
Shilajit Rasāyana, Caraka Saṃhitā

‘A kind of gelatinous substance secreted from the sides

of the mountains when they have become heated by the
rays of the sun in the months of Jyestha and Áshádha.
This substance is what is known as Shilajit and it cures
all distempers of the body.’
Shilajit: Its Origin and Properties, Susrutha Saṃhitā

‘In the days of yore, when the ocean was being churned
with the mountain Mandara, the sweat of this mountain
came in contact with Soma (nectar). This substance
with innumerable properties called Shilajit should then
be useful to the creatures of the earth; this was the
desire of the gods. Because of the heat of the summer
sun, it exudes from the mountains.’
Iatro-Chemistry of Āyurveda/Rasa Shāstra
Both Caraka and Susrutha mention various grades of this
material, usually ascribing its potency and taste (rasa) to
metals found in its immediate environment. Six metals are
described in association: tin, lead, copper, silver, gold and
black-iron.90 Efficacy of metal/Shilajit follows the same
association, tin having lesser potency and iron having the
greater medicinal benefit. Identification of high purity is
established by meeting the following criteria: Shilajit
should be black, glossy, heavy and devoid of sandy
particles; material should smell like the urine of a cow.
Most modern supplies of this material have already
undergone some level of purification, insofar as being
dissolved in water and filtered. This process removes any
small stones or sand lodged within it. Usually it can be
purchased in hard brittle blocks (suitable for powdering), a
dark brown malleable variety and a sticky black resin (ideal
for decocting with other drugs). Scientific analysis91 of
these grades has prompted some scientists to categorise
them as: hard/brittle (high exposure), brown/malleable
(medium exposure) and black/sticky (low exposure). The
term ‘exposure’ refers to environmental factors that modify
the formation and maturity of Shilajit: the humus reserve
and its absorption rates of plant exudation, the rate of this
material’s decomposition and, lastly, the formation rate of
fresh humus itself.
Scientifically there are different ideas about the true
identity of this material, many of which are in agreement
about an organic source for its formation, with likely
candidates including latex from Euphorbia royleana Boiss
and Trifolium repens Linn. Others prefer to see Shilajit as
having a more primordial origin, referring to it as a
fossilised plant mineral exposed by the continuing elevation
of the Himalayas. There have been a number of tests
undertaken over the years trying to answer this question,
one of the last to do so concluding its origins to be organic.
Due to its significant amounts of bioactive compounds,
Shilajit appears to be a collective mass of humus (organic
carbon), fulvic acid, xylose (wood sugars), plant latex,
glucose, arabinose (monosaccharide), anti-oxidant lipids,
trace minerals and anti-bacterial tannoids suspended in a
resinous water-soluble form.

Bitumen purification method

The process of purification is itself quite simple, but like
many other rasa procedures is weather dependent – warm,
bright weather is essential. Wherever possible, native rock
is used. It is advisable to purify this material regardless of
origin (if in doubt – purify).

Ingredients

1kg Shilajit (rock)

Filtered water

1 litre Triphala decoction

Two large earthenware vessels

Natural fibre/muslin (cloth)

Large baking tray

 Dolā yantra

1. Larger pieces of rock are broken up and wrapped in a

coarse weave cloth. The pottali bag (1) is then
immersed in hot water for about 1½ hours on a
medium flame using the Dolā yantra method.92 A large
pot (4) filled with the prescribed decoction is heated
until boiling and then allowed to simmer. Using a
wooden batten, a pottali (1) is then suspended by the
use of vine/string (2) into the decoction and heated.
2. During this time any bitumen within the rock melts
and dissolves into the water leaving only the
stones/sand/grit of the rock (usually a mixture of
micaceous limestone and silicates). After heating, the
partially evaporated water is allowed to cool slightly
and its pottali bag removed (after giving it one last
squeeze to get any remaining Shilajit out).
3. The contents of the pot are then poured into a flat-
bottomed frying pan and gently heated to evaporate
the remaining water. As the last of the water is
removed the remaining thick black tar is the final yield
from the original rock. The last of the water is usually
allowed to dry off in sunlight and the bitumen scraped
into a holding container to allow the rest of the
equipment to be cleaned. The exact amount of
extracted material resin will vary from different
grades of Shilajit rock so it’s impossible to say how
much each extraction will release.
4. A quantity of triphala decoction is prepared at a ratio
of 4 litres of filtered water to 500mg of triphala
powder mixed and reduced to 1 litre of finished
decoction. A decoction of this sort could take
somewhere between 3 and 4 hours to prepare and
itself be filtered prior to use.
5. Melt a small amount of ghee into a large iron pan and
add the triphala decoction. Raise this to boiling point,
and add 500g of Shilajit and stir into the fluid until
dissolved (this process might take somewhere
between 20 and 30 minutes).
6. After absorption is complete, remove the Shilajit from
the heat and allow to cool for 15 minutes (or until cool
to the touch) before undertaking the next step.
 7. The Shilajit is then filtered through a fine cotton cloth
into a second vessel to strain extraneous material from
the resin. Due to rapid cooling of the material and its
consequent thickening, filtering cloths have to be
replaced in quick succession.
8. After filtration is complete, pour the Shilajit into a flat-
bottomed pan and expose to sunlight over a period of
several days, dependent upon the weather. During the
slow process of evaporation, the surface of the drying
material will crust on the surface. It is this crust that
is then skimmed off and collected on a ceramic plate
lightly coated in ghee (this prevents sticking). This
process is repeated until all the contents of the pan
are dried up and removed. Dried Shilajit can be
difficult to remove, so it is always soaked in warm
water to re-liquefy it.
9. The now-dried pieces of Shilajit are then separated
from the plate using a spatula and broken into smaller
pieces. With more surface area exposed, these pieces
are then left exposed to sunlight until brittle.
10
. When fully brittle, pieces of Shilajit are then reduced
into a fine powder in a stone mortar.
11
. Finely ground material powder can be stored almost
indefinitely in a glass jar (preferably amber-coloured
glass).

Steps 1–7 above outline the purification procedure for the

brittle variety of Shilajit; the resinous grades of this
material will remain soft and almost impossible to powder.
These grades are either decocted into other resins such as
Guggulu (Commiphora mukul) or cut with powders such as
ground lime or herbal churna such as triphala and
Ashwaganda.
A secondary method of processing the malleable variety
is to repeat steps 1–7 and then return the liquefied mass of
Shilajit and triphala decoction to a very low heat and gently
cook off the remaining liquid content. The resulting purified
resin should be allowed to dry out under sunlight before
being stored in an airtight glass jar.

Analysis of bitumen
I was lucky enough to obtain some unrefined rock mined in
Pakistan and from this was able to extract unrefined
Shilajit. This extracted resin was then purified using
traditional methods (boiling it in triphala decoction). These
rocks held a surprising quantity of resin, much greater than
expected. Upon heating in hot water the Shilajit rock
quickly disintegrated into soft resin, micaceous limestone,
sand and other extraneous matter.

Bitumen (XRD) sample 1

 Bitumen (XRD) sample 2

The illustrations above show analysis of two samples of

Shilajit, which are seen to be rich in carbon, calcium and
potassium, with trace elements of sodium, iron, silicon,
magnesium and sulphur. Sample 1 was procured in Sri
Lanka, but had been sourced from a company based in the
Punjab (India); sample 2 was obtained direct from India
(source unknown). Both tests revealed similar properties,
although sample 2 contained slightly higher levels of
carbon and iron. Given the catalytic properties of carbon it
is of little surprise that this material is well known for its
anti-oxidant properties as well as being an effective free-
radical scavenger. Shilajit over the centuries has proven
itself (at least within the context of Āyurveda) to be an
invaluable conglomeration of minerals in a water-soluble
form and one that is highly nutritive. Likewise, carbon, iron
and calcium are essential elements that help build, support
and maintain the integrity of the bodily tissues.
Benefits of bitumen
Some of the main health benefits associated with Shilajit
include an affinity with the kidney, skeletal and urinary
systems. Typical conditions that benefit from the use of this
material include: kidney stones, high Vāta, high blood
sugar/diabetes, asthma, piles, nausea, leprosy, excessive
tissue growth, cough and oedema.

8.4
Arsenic Trisulphide

‘Hiranya-Kaśipu, the golden-haired demon, was killed

by Lord Narasimha at dusk. The vomit of this demon
became Haritāla which came out from his armpits. This
demon was also known for indulging in alcohol and
after his death, falling from his armpits came Manohvā
(that which pleases the mind), also known as Manah
Śhilā.’93
Mythological Origin of Haritāla and Manah Shilā

Often called the king of poisons, arsenic has a long history

of use as both killer and curer. The trisulphide form of
arsenic is called Orpiment or, as it’s known in Rasa
Shāstra, Haritāla. Loosely translated the name means
yellow-leafed. This amply describes Haritāla in its best
grade, being leafy,94 golden, heavy and slightly oily/greasy.
Arsenic is highly toxic and was often used to great effect in
the assassinations of kings, hence its name king’s yellow. It
was highly favoured for its stunning yellow colouration,
making it a firm favourite with artists seeking a vibrant
yellow pigment before its substitution with cadmium yellow
as late as the 1900s.

Arsenic purification methods

Warning: extremely hazardous material.
Given the high toxicity of this material its purification
methods are varied and relatively involved; the most
common methods employed require the following
materials: Ingredients

50–100g Haritāla (orpiment/yellow arsenic)

Juice of kushmanda (ash pumpkin/Benincasa hispida

Linn)

Cold pressed sesame seed oil

Lime water (calcium carbonate)

Kanji (rice vinegar)

Ash of Tila (Sesamum indicum)

Triphala decoction

Borax (sodium borate)

Method 1

1. A large kushmanda is selected and halved. Using a

coconut scraper, its contents are removed and the
pulp collected. The pulp is then placed into a clean
cloth and squeezed, collecting the expressed juice.
2. Enough juice is collected to three-quarters fill a small
earthenware pot.
3. Selecting 50–100g of Haritāla, the material is broken
into smaller manageable pieces, around 0.5cm (not to
be powdered), and placed into a pottali bag (see
Section 8.3) and given Dolā yantra.
 4. The pottali bag containing the now-reduced Haritāla is
lowered into the kushmanda juice and slowly heated
until boiling, then simmered for 6 hours, taking time
to check the liquid levels throughout and topping up
as necessary.
5. After this heating process is completed, the pottali is
removed from the kushmanda juice and the contents
washed in warm water infused with some borax
(sodium borate) and dried.
6. Haritāla, once purified, is ground into a fine powder
and stored in an airtight amber-coloured glass jar. If
purified Haritāla is being used to produce Rasa
Maanikya, reduction to powder is not necessary.

Method 2

1. The juice of kushmanda is again collected and filtered

to remove any free-floating pieces of material.
2. Using an iron mortar, 50–100g of Haritāla is selected
and ground into a fine powder.
3. Kushmanda juice is added and triturated with Haritāla
powder until a yellow, creamy paste is formed. This is
continually ground for 1 hour or until the liquid
content has evaporated.
4. The above process is repeated seven times in total.
5. Haritāla, once purified, is ground into a fine powder
and stored in an airtight amber-coloured glass jar.

Method 3

1. Reduced Haritāla pieces (not powdered) are placed

into a pottali bag and given Dolā yantra for 3 hours.
This process is repeated four times in different
 solutions: (1) kushmanda juice, (2) lime water,95 (3)
sesame seed oil and triphala decoction (1 part sesame
seed oil: 2 parts triphala), and (4) kanji.96
2. Between Dolā yantra, pieces of Haritāla are removed
from the pottali bag and washed in a solution of warm
water and borax.
3. The final material is washed, dried and powdered
before being stored in an amber-coloured glass jar. If
purified Haritāla is being used to produce Rasa
Maanikya, reduction to powder is not necessary.

Method 4

1. Reduced Haritāla pieces (not powdered) are placed

into a pottali bag and immersed into the juice of
kushmanda, lime water, sesame seed oil or triphala
decoction and kanji for seven days each.
2. These liquids are changed daily.
3. Between soaking in each medium, remove the pieces
of Haritāla from the pottali bag and wash in a solution
of warm water and borax.
4. Wash and dry the purified material before storing in
an amber-coloured glass jar. If purified Haritāla is
being used to produce Rasa Maanikya, reduction to
powder is not necessary.

Alternatives to decoctions for purification of Haritāla

include using Ksara (alkaline ash) of incinerated Tila
(Sesamum indicum) mixed with water in place of kanji. It
has also been mentioned that a mixture of 1:1 lime water
and kanji is acceptable (see point 1 in method 3).

Benefits of arsenic
Some of the main health benefits associated with Haritāla
include an affinity with diseases involving the skin and
auto-immune system disorders (including some types of
cancer). Typical conditions include: eczema, psoriasis,
urticaria, syphilis, gout, anal fistula, high fever and
haemophilia.

8.5
Rasa Maanikya

Maanikya means ‘colour of ruby’, and its use here denotes

the crystallised form or Haritāla after exposure to high
heat, either directly in an open flame, heated in a crucible
or using Kūpīpākwa.97 Rasa Maanikya is a commonly
prepared Rasa Shāstra drug used mostly for the treatment
of: fevers, persistent cough, asthma, piles, fistula, skin
disease and general rejuvenation of bodily tissues.

Rasa Maanikya preparation methods

Mica sheet

1. Purified Haritāla pieces are selected (ideally rice-grain

size).
2. Small sections of mica are cut (single sheet) and a few
grains of Haritāla are then sandwiched between two
sheets (allowing a good margin around these).
Normally sheets could then be drawn together using
copper wire, although this tradition has been replaced
by the modern use of staples (see illustration below).
3. Once secured between the thin mica sheets, Haritāla
is exposed to an open flame and heated until red-hot.
As the heat builds, the material will liquidise into a
 dark red mass, spreading outward from the centre of
the sheets.
4. When fully dissolved, hold the sheet up to the light;
any dark areas show pieces not fully heated.
5. If the mass between the mica sheets seems evenly
spread, leave the contents to cool and crystallise.
6. When the sheets are parted again, flat polished
surfaces looking like ruby are ejected into a mortar
and ground to a fine yellow/vermilion powder.

Mica sheet with small pieces of purified arsenic sandwiched in between

Crucible

1. A flat-bottomed crucible is lined with a mica sheet (1

in the illustration below [Rasa Maanikya 1]) and small
 pieces of purified Haritāla (2) are laid upon the
surface.
2. The crucible is then carefully sealed using clay and
cloth and allowed to dry. (Note: There is an open
crucible variation of this method; however, this gives
rise to direct contact with escaping vapours.) 3. Once
the seal between the upper and lower lids of the
crucible is dried it is heated slowly upon a gas burner
(3).
4. Heating is usually maintained for 1½ hours, slowly
increasing the temperature at regular intervals to
avoid thermal shock to the crucible.
5. After the heating time has expired, the crucible is
allowed to fully cool. Upon opening, the dark red
crystal on the surface of the mica sheet can be
detached, broken and ground to a fine powder and
stored.

A secondary method of preparation can also be employed,

reducing direct heat upon the material (see Rasa Maanikya
2 illustration). This method using vālukā yantra is
preferable as it both reduces exposure to escaping fumes
and allows the crucible to be heated more evenly.
Rasa Maanikya 1

Rasa Maanikya 2
Kūpīpākwa As with all Rasa Maanikya preparations,
Haritāla is first purified prior to its use.

1. Vālukā yantra is first prepared and a suitable glass

bottle (Kūpī jar) is wrapped with seven layers of cloth
and clay (1 in the illustration below [Rasa Maanikya
3]).
2. Purified Haritāla is then placed into the Kūpī jar (2).
3. Vālukā yantra is then slowly heated, periodically
checking the temperature (this is primarily gauged by
the emission of sulphur fumes). Modern methods of
manufacture allow for the use of pyrometers, etc.
(Note: When heated this material produces highly
toxic fumes including sulphur dioxide and arsine.) 4.
Haritāla melts at around 350ºC and boils at 550ºC.
5. The duration of heating is dependent upon a number
of factors including the size of the sand-bath, the
heating capacity of the burner (gas or traditional
wood), and the distance between the heat source and
the bottom of the buried Kūpī jar. As the heat slowly
percolates up through the sand (3), the material’s
temperature is elevated in stages and with uniformity,
protecting the integrity of the glass.
6. Visible sulphur fumes signal the end of the process;
this sign can be expected after around 5–6 hours of
incremented but continual heating. As mentioned
previously, this process is now a little more controlled
by the use of thermal gauges, monitoring the sand’s
temperature. The ideal temperature of the sand-bath
should be somewhere between 450 and 500ºC.
7. After the heating stage is complete the apparatus is
allowed to stand for 24 hours before retrieval of the
finished medicine. For the opening of Kūpī see Section
7, earlier in Part III. Rasa Maanikya is then harvested
 from the bottom of the jar, the glass container making
for easy removal of the red crystalline material.
8. The Maanikya is then ground and stored in an amber-
coloured glass jar.

Rasa Maanikya 3

Rasa Maanikya – XRD

 Rasa Maanikya XRD

The XRD analysis of Rasa Maanikya shows this sample to

mainly consist of arsenic, sulphur, carbon and boron, all
commonly found in areas of geothermal activity. The
analysis also detected small amounts of polonium and
stibnite. This possible trace of polonium (a rare element
associated with bismuth) appears here on the same peak as
sulphur; however, it is almost certainly in minute quantities
due to its rarity. The traces of stibnite present are again
minute and not altogether unexpected, as arsenic deposits
are quite often associated with ores of iron, silver and
antimony.
 SECTION 9
METALS

9.1
Use of Metal-based Medicines
 Purification of copper sheet using rock salt, lemon juice and kāñjī (vinegar)
‘Very thin copper sheets are to be coated with the milk of Vajrī (Snuhi) and salt.
Place these upon fire and, when fully heated, dip into the juice of Nirgundi.
Repeat this process of immersing the heated copper sheets seven times.’

Rasendra Maṅgalam

In this section we take a closer look at the processing

methods of three dhātu (metals). As discussed in Part I,
metals were graded into a caste system. Metals such as
gold and silver were deemed sudha (pure), copper and tin
were puti (impure) brass and bronze were misra
(alloys/mixed), etc. These delineations were based on
observations of the metals once they had been heated, cast
and cooled – signs of impurities, subsequent oxidation and
strength of alloys gave rise to their categorisation.
 Given the importance of metallurgy and the progression
of metal-working technology, it is a fair assumption that the
early use of herbo-mineral-metallic medicines sprang from
pioneering developments in the sophistication of metal-
working apparatus, which became capable of maintaining
high heat for extended periods. The synergy between
ancient metal-working and ceramic technology provided
the means with which to experiment with combinations of
dhātu.
Due to their resilient nature, metals require a high level
of processing to reduce them to a state whereby it is
possible to administer them into the bodily tissues. This
section outlines some of the basic principles of metal
conversion using techniques probably developed by ancient
metal-workers who discovered the effects of combining
various solutions and minerals with each of the metals
through their daily work. As pure metals and alloys were
seen to be resistant to the elements and the passage of
time, it comes as no surprise that attempts were made to
capture and concentrate these imperishable qualities into
some type of elixir that would imbue the tissues of the
human body with the same undying properties.
In the following subsections on dhātu I have selected
three commonly prepared materials, each sufficiently
different in their methodologies of purification to give the
reader a good grounding in the kind of techniques that
might be used to purify different grades/castes of metal. All
three metals (copper, tin and zinc) are highly useful, much-
prized medicines in their own right and individually find
their way into many popular rasa remedies. Each has a
unique character, behaving in very different ways. When
processing any dhātu it soon becomes apparent that
masters of this science really developed an intimate
relationship with metals, or at least integrated a great
appreciation of metal from those that regularly worked
these metals.
 As with all base materials covered in this part of the
book, each individual item has multiple methods of
purification and formulation, and each finished medicine
can be augmented using a different anupāna to induce
different healing effects.

9.2
Copper

‘Copper is bitter and astringent in taste; its effective

taste after digestion is sweet. It is hot by nature, useful
in treating disorders of Pitta and Kapha humours with
āma, stomach disorders and dermatosis, as well as
microbial disorders. It purifies both upper and lower
body (by inducing vomiting and loose motions), it is
useful in obesity, it increases appetite and cures
difficult-to-treat forms of tuberculosis and anaemia. It is
good for ophthalmic health and has scraping
properties.’
Rasa Ratna Samucchya

Copper was thought to have excellent curative properties,

and generally regarded as an almost semi-precious metal,
superseded only by gold and silver. The highest grade of
copper was called Nepalaka (‘of Nepalese origin’) and
highly favoured for its ability to resist high temperatures
and, cosmetically, its deep red colouration. Copper was also
known for its toxic effects if incorrectly processed; indeed,
many of the minerals containing copper were also treated
with the same precautionary approach, often requiring
extra fail-safe levels of purification built into their extended
processing, examples of these being copper sulphate,
bornite and copper pyrite.
This description from Rasendra Sāra Saṅgraha highlights
the dangers of copper: ‘Visha is not the only poison, Tamra
is visha. Visha has only one dosha, but Tamra has eight,
hence Tamra should be subjected to proper shodhana
before its administration as a medicine.’

Copper is the favourite metal of Shukra graha (planet

Venus); its enmity metals (Ariloha) are zinc and iron.
Copper is an excellent agent for cleaning the subtle
channels of the body, having a strong scraping effect. Water
left to stand in copper vessels becomes greatly energised.
Most commonly copper is alloyed with tin and zinc,
producing bronze and brass (curative metals in
themselves). Copper is one of the few essential metals
required by the body to maintain optimum health levels. Its
presence catalyses a number of important bodily functions,
including: enzyme production, pigmentation of the skin,
maintaining the elasticity of connective tissues and aiding
in the production of anti-inflammatory agents. Higher
levels of copper in the body tend to imbalance liver
functioning, creating digestive disorders and creating
muscle fatigue. Overabundances of copper levels are
usually re-balanced by ingesting zinc-rich foods or zinc
supplements.

Copper purification method

Method for quantities of 200g
The amounts specified in this section of the book probably
more accurately reflect traditionally prepared amounts. For
example, 200g of copper is a small amount to process when
you consider that modern pharmacies process batches of
many kilos at any one time.

Ingredients

200g Tamra sheet

50g Purified Gandhaka

50g Purified Hiṅgula

1 Suran root (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius)

Rock salt

Lemon juice

Coconut vinegar (Pol Vinakiri)

1. The juice of several lemons is extracted and mixed

with rock salt, then ground in a mortar until finely
pasted.
2. 200g of high-grade thin copper sheet (Nepalaka) is
selected and washed to remove any surface
contamination/grease.
3. The paste of lemon juice and salt is then brushed upon
both faces and allowed to stand until verdigris (cupric
carbonate) starts to form.
4. Using a pair of tongs, individual sheets of copper are
heated until red-hot and then quenched in coconut
vinegar. This procedure is repeated seven times (total)
for each sheet processed.
5. After processing, the sheet is washed and allowed to
dry. At this stage the copper will have shrunk, looking
slightly withered and deep red in colouration.
6. Using a flat-bottomed crucible, a number of sheets are
regimentally laid down inside (see first illustration on
page 237).
7. Purified Gandhaka and Hiṅgula98 are then ground
together and lightly sprinkled over the resting sheets
of copper (1). Fresh sheets are then laid over the top
 at an angle of 90º, this alternate stacking and
powdering continuing for all sheets.
8. The crucible is then carefully sealed using clay and
cloth, trying not to disturb the stacked sheets inside.
When dry the crucible is placed into a puṭa (varaha –
see Section 6.6 in Part II). Heating then takes place,
incinerating 200–300 cow dung cakes, producing a
temperature of around 800–900ºC.
9. After a cooling period of 24 hours, the crucible is
removed and the contents examined. If the correct
temperature has been achieved, the contents should
yield a darkened brown powder – copper oxide (CuO).
Under-heating would reveal signs of copper sheet;
over-heating would liquefy and fuse the contents with
the crucible.
10
. The contents of the crucible are then removed and
ground with lemon juice in a ceramic mortar until well
pasted. This paste is then allowed to dry until stable to
form cakrika (small round discs) and placed into a new
crucible – see second illustration on page 237.
11
. Copper cakrika are then again heated in varaha puṭa,
and left for 24 hours to cool. Upon opening, the
cakrika are retrieved and once more ground with
lemon juice until well pasted. This process is repeated
12–15 times (total), rendering a light brown/reddish
powder.
12
. One final stage of purification is then employed, called
amṛītakarana (‘to make like nectar’; see illustration on
page 238). The remaining copper is again mixed with
lemon juice and moulded into a ball. A section is then
 hollowed out of a suran root (1) to accommodate the
now-balled copper (2). The removed top section is
then returned to its original position acting as a plug
(3). Finally, small wooden staves are used to secure
the lid in place (4).
13
. The suran root is then wrapped using cloth and clay;
usually 4–5 layers are sufficient. Each layer must be
fully dry before attempting to apply the next layer.
When complete, the root is dried fully under sunlight
before attempting to heat.
14
. This final treatment employs the use of kukkuta puṭa,
and a heating duration of about 1 hour. During this
process the suran root softens inside, its juice being
absorbed by the copper ball. As heating continues, the
temperature starts to drive off the root’s moisture,
drawing toxins from the copper ball at the centre of
the root and dispersing it into the flesh of the root.
15
. After cooling, the copper ball is again retrieved from
the suran root and washed in warm water to free the
copper from any remaining organic material. Left to
stand in a bowl of water, the copper eventually collects
at the base from where the water content is decanted
off and fresh water added. Usually 2–3 washes are
performed.
16
. The remaining copper bhasma (alchemical ash) is
allowed to fully dry before storing in a suitable
container.
Copper sheet is staggered inside the crucible, interspersed with a mixture of
ground
Gandhaka (sulphur) and Hiṅgula (cinnabar)

Cakrika (1) positioning inside crucible

A suran root is used to remove any last vestiges of toxicity in a process known
as amṛītakarana. Whilst cooking inside this root, its juices permeate into
copper placed inside and draw out its visha (poison) Benefits of copper

Some of the main health benefits associated with copper

include an affinity with diseases involving the blood,
liver/spleen and skin. Typical conditions include: anaemia,
abdominal disease, piles, fever, leprosy, cough, asthma,
oedema, hyperacidity, consumption, catarrh, parasitic
infections (worms), colic, obesity, gastritis, colic, poisoning,
and diseases of the eye.
Suitable anupāna for copper includes honey or ghee.

9.3
Tin

‘Tin has a bitter taste, is hot in potency. It is drying and

hence increases Vāta dosha. It cures urinary disorders,
 Kapha disorders, acts on adipose tissue and is
anthelmintic as well.’
Rasa Ratna Samucchya

‘Vanga (tin) which is soft, unctuous and melts quickly, is

heavy and emits no sound upon beating and of khuraka
variety is best.’
Rasendra Sāra Saṅgraha In Rasa Shāstra, tin is
another metal considered to be puti (impure). Its
purification process is slightly different to that of
copper. Like many of the remaining metals, tin uses the
system of dhalana (the heating and subsequent pouring
of the molten metal into various liquid mediums).

Tin is the favourite metal of Guru graha (planet Jupiter);

its enmity metal (Ariloha) is silver. Most commonly tin is
alloyed with copper, producing bronze. Tin is considered to
remove/heal all (20) Āyurvedically known types of urinary
diseases. Tin is also prescribed for diseases of the inner
ear, particularly tinnitus. The planet Jupiter controls the
element ether, and hence its agent metal tin was seen to
have an affinity toward space/sound and hearing
(pervasiveness). Used in excess, tin can aggravate Vāta
dosha (its action tends to reduce medas/fat).
Tin (as a trace element) affects the body’s growth rate –
having some degree of control in our ‘expansion’ is another
factor which energetically connects this metal to Jupiter, a
planet of corpulence. Lower levels of tin impede both
physical and mental development combined with
debilitation of the adrenal system. Healthy levels of tin help
ward off anxiety, depression, fatigue and low vitality, and
help support both the thyroid and adrenal functionality.

Tin purification method

Method for quantities of 200g
Ingredients

200g Vanga sheet

150g Gaskralheba (Achyranthus aspera)

1 litre Nirgundi (Vitex negundo)

1 litre Taila (sesame seed oil)

1 litre Takra (curd/buttermilk)

1 litre Gomutra (cow’s urine)

1 litre Kanji (rice vinegar)

1 litre Kulatha (horse gram)

Haridra (turmeric)

Godugdha (raw milk)

1. 200g of tin is washed and dried (sheet or bar).

2. Pithara yantra is then prepared (see illustration on
page 242) by mixing the juice of nirgundi with a
quantity of haridra. This mixture is sometimes
substituted for the five liquids – sesame seed oil,
buttermilk, cow’s urine, rice vinegar and horse gram
decoction. Usually this method is adopted in the event
that fresh nirgundi cannot be obtained; although these
five liquids are more readily available, molten tin must
be poured into each liquid seven times – making the
total procedure 35 operations. Preferably nirgundi and
haridra are used.
3. Tin is first melted in an iron ladle over mild heat
(232°C) until liquid.
4. Molten tin is quickly poured into pithara yantra and
liquid therein. Protective garments are worn for this
part of the processing; the high temperature of the tin
makes it liable to spit.
5. Cooling is almost instantaneous, so the solidified tin
can be quickly retrieved and washed in warm water.
This process is repeated three times in total.
6. The next phase of processing requires tin to be re-
heated in a flat-bottomed iron pan until it liquefies.
Usually a long iron spoon is used to agitate the
mixture as it melts.
7. To this molten mass the dried herb apamarga, also
called Gaskralheba (Achyranthus aspera), is added. As
the dried herb catches light and burns it is slowly
added to the tin and mixed. The dried herb is
continually added until all vestiges of tin are absorbed
into the ash of the incinerated herb.
8. The remaining material is simply called tin-ash and is
washed in cool water and the sediment allowed to
settle. When settled, the excess water is poured off
and the remaining material is dried on absorbent
paper under sunlight.
9. When dry, the tin-ash is ground in a granite mortar
with raw milk until a semi-solid paste is achieved. This
is then moulded into crude cakrika, dried and placed
inside a crucible. (Note: At this stage of the processing
some texts advise the addition of purified Haritāla and
the latex of Arka; this remains just one variation in the
10
production of tin bhasma.) . Using clay and cloth the
crucible is then sealed, dried and heated in a puṭa
(laghu).
11
. After 24 hours the crucible is retrieved and its
contents removed. The heated tin-ash is again
removed and triturated with milk99 until a smooth
paste is achieved. This is re-formed into cakrika and
dried before re-sealing into a second crucible.
12
. The crucible is again exposed to puṭa (laghu) and left
to cool for 24 hours. After this period the contents are
again removed and reground using milk as the
grinding medium. This process is repeated seven
times in total (one for each of the seven Rishis100).
13
. After final puṭa the material is retrieved and the
cakrika ground into a fine light-grey-coloured bhasma.
Material is then stored in an amber-coloured glass jar
away from direct sunlight. It should also be mentioned
that the procedure for the purification of lead metal is
identical to tin.
 Cross-section of pithara yantra. The tapering aperture contains the
explosive force of molten tin hitting its liquid content

Benefits of tin
Some of the main health benefits associated with tin
include an affinity with diseases involving the urinary tract,
thyroid gland or pancreas. Specific conditions benefited by
tin include: diabetes, anaemia, swellings, urinary disorders,
kidney stones, abdominal bloating, piles, eczema and
psoriasis.
Suitable anupāna for tin includes honey or ghee.

9.4
Zinc

In Rasa Shāstra, zinc is considered to be puti (impure) and

is used mostly in conjunction with copper in the
manufacture of brass. Though this metal has no definite
affinity to a planetary lord, its appearance, action and
dosha strongly align it to the planet’s Guru (Jupiter) and
Shukra (Venus). Zinc was primarily obtained from zinc
carbonate (ZnCO3) Calamine/Smithsonite; it appears in its
native form as a Maha Rasa (Rasaka). Its prominence in
Maha Rasa adds high status to its medicinal powers and its
importance as an accompanying mineral for mercurial
works.
As mentioned previously, zinc is often used to rebalance
an over-abundance of copper in the body. As a trace
mineral zinc is highly important for a number of enzyme
functions including the formation of DNA/RNA, the
production of T-cells (white blood cells) and the removal of
free radicals. The body contains somewhere between 2 and
3g of zinc, mostly deposited in the bones, liver, eyes and
kidneys. Zinc levels in the body have been shown to
radically affect the HCl in the stomach as well as reducing
the body’s ability to utilise essential fatty acids. Indirectly
these knock-on effects can result in hormonal and nervous
system deficiencies leading toward an anxious disposition
and feelings of depression. Zinc in Rasa Shāstra is also
seen as a panacea for infertility and low libido; this metal in
its oxide form finds its way into many formulations that
improve the strength of shukra (reproductive fluids) and
ultimately ojas (immune system support/rejuvenation). As
can be seen from the above there are many biochemical
similarities between modern research and ancient intuition.

Zinc purification methods

Method for quantities of 200g
Considering the vigorous processing involved, 200g of zinc
is a relatively small amount of material to process; it’s
possible to lose 50 per cent of the material during
shodahana.

Method 1

Ingredients

200g Yasada

70g Kaffir (Citrus hystrix) or 70g Gaskralheba

(Achyranthus aspera)

Godugdha (raw milk)

Kumārī (aloe vera)

 Gas furnace and palika yantra (iron ladle) used to melt zinc

1. The zinc is rinsed in water and dried.

2. Zinc is first heated101 in an iron ladle until liquid, and
then poured into raw milk (see illustration above). This
process is repeated 21 times, using fresh milk each
time.
3. After processing, the remaining material is washed
and dried.
4. The remaining zinc is again heated in a flat-bottomed
iron pan until liquefied.
5. Kaffir102 leaves are then added to the liquefied metal
and stirred until the contents are reduced to ash.
 Leaves are continually added until the zinc becomes
assimilated into the growing ash content of the pan.
6. The remaining zinc-ash is then rinsed in a clear
container with water and allowed to settle, before
pouring the excess water off. This process is then
repeated about four times. After repeated washes the
zinc-ash will no longer cloud the water. After rinsing,
the final material is allowed to fully dry.
7. The dried zinc-ash is then ground in a granite pestle
and mortar, with the addition of aloe vera gel. The
pasted ingredients are then formed into cakrika and
dried before being sealed into an earthen crucible.
The crucible is sealed using the application of cloth
and clay and allowed to fully dry.
8. When dry, the crucible is heated in a gaja puṭa and
allowed to cool for a period of 24 hours. Zinc’s melting
point is 416ºC, and it oxidises into a pale yellow/white
powder at temperatures over 900°C. After opening the
crucible tiny beads of zinc can sometimes be detected,
adhering to the inside surface of the crucible.
9. The cakrika are then removed and reground using an
iron or granite mortar. When finely powdered, the
material is then ground with fresh gel from the aloe
plant. The mixture is continually ground for
approximately 1 hour or until a thick paste has
formed.
10
. The paste is then re-formed into cakrika and dried.
These cakrika are again sealed into a crucible and
heated in the same manner. After heating a second
time the material is again subjected to the identical
procedure. This rotation of heating, grinding and re-
heating is repeated seven times in total.
 11
. The final bhasma retrieved is finely ground using a
ceramic mortar for about 1 hour, sieved and stored in
an amber-coloured glass jar.

Due to the high loss of material during shodhana, a second

procedure for its purification has been given below.
Although a viable substitute, the bhasma yielded from this
method remains inferior (in the author’s opinion).

Method 2

Ingredients

200g Yasada (powdered 99.9% pure)

70g Kaffir (Citrus hystrix) or 70g Gaskralheba

(Achyranthus aspera)

Godugdha (raw milk)

Kumārī (aloe vera)

1. 200g of powdered zinc is first washed with water and

dried.
2. The zinc powder is then ground with fresh milk for 1
hour, after which it is allowed to air-dry.
3. Fresh milk is again added and the process of grinding
is continued for an additional 1 hour. Steps 2–3 are
repeated seven times in total.
4. The zinc paste is washed in a clear container and
allowed to settle. The excess water can then be
removed and the process repeated 2–3 times.
5. The zinc paste is then air-dried and collected.
 6. Using a flat-bottomed iron pan, the zinc is heated until
liquefied. Kaffir leaves are then slowly added and
incinerated. This process is continued until the ash is
of sufficient quantity to consume the zinc. The
resultant material is called zinc-ash.
7. The zinc-ash is then washed in water following steps
6–11 in the previous method of production.

Benefits of zinc
Some of the main health benefits associated with zinc
include an affinity with diseases involving the eyes,
digestive tract and reproductive system. Specific conditions
benefited by zinc include: abdominal distension, diabetes,
urinary disorders, skin diseases, consumption, loss of
appetite and impaired vision.
Suitable anupāna for zinc includes honey, milk, butter or
cream.
 SECTION 10
GEMSTONES

10.1
Origins and Use of Gemstone-based Medicines
 Nilama/blue sapphires prior to processing

During the most ancient of times there lived a terrifying

demon named Bala (meaning ‘strength’). So powerful did
he become that he managed to defeat even the gods and
their armies from heaven. Having at least one good quality,
he assured the gods that even though he had usurped their
positions he would still offer his support in any Yagya they
saw fit to perform and upon this he gave his word.
The gods immediately decided to perform a sacred Yagya
to enable them to recover their lost kingdom and set about
making all the necessary preparations. At last, things were
all but ready; only one last detail remained – who would
step forward and give up their life to become the sacrifice,
as without this act the ritual would not be successful. After
great deliberation the gods concluded that none of them
would be able to fulfil this task and went dejectedly to Bala,
and with lowered heads said woefully, ‘Alas, we cannot
perform the Yagya, as none among us is of the high status
required by this ritual. It appears You are the only one
honoured enough to be considered.’
Remembering his promise to the displaced gods and
demigods, Bala stepped forward and promptly offered
himself as sacrifice, so that this Yagya might proceed.
However, upon the instant of his death his slain body
shimmered and became transparent and then all the
colours of a rainbow, looking like ice. His whole body had
become a gemstone. Realising that this last noble act of the
demon had transformed his body, the gods, seeking to
display this marvellous prize, decided to move the glass-
like corpse to a safer location. But as the body was lifted it
suddenly shattered into countless pieces and flew in every
direction. Over time these pieces of the once great demon
found their ways deep into the earth, rivers, mountains and
lakes, eventually to be recovered in a multitude of colours,
forms and hardness of gemstones.
As with all base materials covered in this part of the
book, each individual item will have multiple methods of
purification and formulation. Each finished medicine will be
augmented with the use of a different anupāna to induce
different healing effects.

10.2
Diamond

‘Diamond is a bestower of long life, a tonic, an allayer

of the three derangements (namely Vāta, Pitta and
Kapha), a killer of all ailments, a fixer of mercury, a
subduer of death – in short it is like nectar… Vajra
 bhasma increases life span, induces wellbeing,
enhances strength, beauty and eradicates disease and
untimely death. Vajra bhasma has been attributed to
many more therapeutic qualities.’
Rasendra Sāra Saṅgraha ‘Diamond is to be roasted
over fire until it becomes as lustrous as the fire.
Afterwards this roasted diamond is to be immersed in
the oil of Kankalakhecari (one of five precious plants)…
The diamond, on being immersed ten times in the oil of
Kankalakhecari, is reduced to ashes (calyx). This
method is also to be applied for reducing the ripe seed
of gold (hemapakvabija) ripened by its heating to ash
(calyx).’

Rasanavakalpa

All aspects of medical alchemy are fascinating, but for my

own part the most alluring is the use of gemstones in a
medicinal capacity. These substances, so highly prized
throughout history, seem an unlikely candidate for
medicines and yet they remain some of the most effective
remedies in the arsenal of rasa preparations.
The curative power of gemstones has been known about
for millennia, from the simple act of wearing a stone
ornamentally, to their soaking in liquids (water, milk or
alcohol), to the extraction of their essence, or their
reduction in fire to a fine bhasma.
Generally, the processing of all gemstones is broken
down into two categories: bhasma (ash) or pisti (finely
ground powders). The methodology remains quite
consistent across all the stones except diamond, which has
its own unique purification methods. As diamond is
considered to be the king of gems it is not surprising that
this particular stone has been singled out for special
treatment. As with all alchemical preparations there are
many different variations to their eventual reduction, and
the few listed here are by no means exclusive – they are the
ones the author has experimented with and found to give
good results.
It is said that as the gods secured amrita from the milky
oceans a few drops of the nectar fell upon the earth. These
were miraculously transformed into one of nature’s hardest
substances – diamonds. These stones are considered to be
the most potent of all ratnas, finding use in many
formulations that attempt to tackle the most debilitating
diseases. Diamonds are associated with Shukra both in the
guise as the graha Venus and the dhātu supporting ojas
(immunity). Prepared correctly, Hiraka Bhasma is thought
to be capable of treating all illness in the body. However,
finding material of the highest quality is no easy task, and if
by chance you should find this stone it’s hard to send such
a prize back into the temperatures from which it was
birthed.

Diamond purification methods

Method 1 (used for quantities of 75g)

Ingredients

75g Hiraka (diamond)

75g Purified Haritāla (orpiment)

75g Purified Manah Shila (realgar)

75g Purified sulphur

Kulatha/horsegram (Macrotyloma uniflorum) decoction

Snuhi (Euphorbia ligularis) latex

1. 75g of clear diamonds are collected and soaked in a
solution of ground rock salt and warm water for 24
hours, then removed and dried.
2. Pieces of diamond are placed into a graphite crucible
and heated until red hot. Using iron tongs the contents
of the crucible are then emptied into a decoction of
kulatha.103 This process is repeated 20–30 times,
although ancient texts advise it to be repeated 100
times. In practice the material becomes quite brittle
when quenched in a decoction of kulatha. This part of
the process is undertaken to physically weaken the
structure of the diamond as well as purifying the
stone.
3. The purified diamond is then powdered in an iron
mortar and ground well; this is then added to an equal
quantity of orpiment, realgar and sulphur (all
previously having undergone their prescribed
purification techniques104). To these mixed powders a
small quantity of kulatha decoction or Snuhi latex is
added and triturated until a smooth paste, usually
ground for 1 hour. Upon completion the material is
allowed to dry a little and then be formed into cakrika
and air-dried. These are then sealed into a crucible
(using clay and cloth methods) and heated to around
1000ºC (see Section 6.6).
4. After 24 hours the crucible is removed and the
contents taken out. Due to the high sulphur content of
the crucible (orpiment, realgar and sulphur itself),
some of the cakrika will have expanded or become
misshapen due to the liquidation and evaporation of
the escaping sulphur. Usually the crucible is blackened
with sulphur deposits, with the addition of orange to
red sulphur crystals on the upper lid of the crucible.
 5. Having carefully removed the cakrika, more kulatha
decoction is added and the cakrika reground. Both
powder and decoction are ground for 1 hour and again
allowed to dry before re-forming new cakrika. When
dry, the cakrika are again sealed in a crucible and
heated in maha puṭa. This last process is repeated 14
times in total or until a fine white ash is achieved.
6. The final cakrika removed after the 14 puṭa are finely
ground using a ceramic mortar and sieved. The
completed bhasma is stored in an amber-coloured
glass jar.

Method 2 (used for quantities of 75g)

Ingredients

75g Hiraka (diamond)

75g Purified Haritāla (orpiment)

75g Purified Manah Shila (realgar)

Kulatha/horsegram (Macrotyloma uniflorum) decoction

Sudha (lime water)

1. 75g of clear diamonds are collected and soaked in a

solution of ground rock salt and warm water for 24
hours, then removed and dried.
2. Diamond pieces are steamed in a decoction of kulatha
for 3 hours using the Dolā yantra method or soaked in
lime water for 48 hours.
3. After purification, the diamond pieces are washed,
dried and heated until red hot using a carbon graphite
crucible. The material is then quenched in kulatha
 decoction or lime water 20–30 times. Here again it
was originally recommended that this process be
repeated 100 times.
4. The resultant material is pulverised and triturated
with equal amounts of orpiment and realgar along
with a kulatha decoction (to be used as both a binding
agent and grinding medium). Typically the mixture
would be ground for 1 hour and formed into cakrika.
Upon drying, the cakrika are then sealed into a
crucible (using clay and cloth) and heated to around
1000ºC.
5. The final preparation methods from here on follow
steps 4–6 of the previous method.

Diamond – XRD

Diamond bhasma sample using XRD analysis

This analysis of diamond bhasma confirmed it to be
overwhelmingly carbon and oxygen with minute trace
amounts of magnesium and silicon. The analysis shows no
surprises or contamination in this particular batch of
Hiraka Bhasma.

Benefits of diamond
Carbon is an essential element in the living organism,
forming part of the DNA molecule. Diamonds represent one
of nature’s purest forms of carbon. Historically, diamonds
were considered to be the most potent of all gems, hence
their association with Venus, planet of potency and physical
beauty. Diamond bhasma finds good use in cases of
extreme debilitation where the body’s immune system has
begun to collapse. Most commonly, diamond is indicated in
cases of: cancer, tumours, impotency, AIDS, diabetes,
anaemia, diminished eyesight, learning disorders, urinary
infections, skin diseases and oedema.
Suitable anupāna for diamond includes ghee, milk, cream
or jaggery.

10.3
Red Agate

A subgroup of chalcedony that is available in a wide variety

of colours, this amorphous silicate mineral (enriched with a
ferrous content) finds much favour with practitioners of
Unani. Often agate displays a distinctive colour banding
when cut and polished. The red variety of this material is
thought to have the greater medicinal effect, prepared in
either pisti or bhasma form.

Red agate purification methods

Method 1

Ingredients

200g Akika/Aqeeq (red agate) Pisti

Gulāba Jala (rosewater)

1. 200g of agate material is broken into small pieces and

soaked in a solution of warm salt water for 24 hours.
2. Once removed, the pieces are dried and powdered
with an iron mortar. Distilled rosewater (organic only)
is then added to the powder and triturated into a
smooth paste. Ideally 15–20 hours is an acceptable
amount of grinding to meet the requirements of a
pisti. Toward the end of this period the iron mortar
should be replaced in favour of a ceramic one.
3. After grinding, a small amount of ground pisti is
placed upon the tongue and rolled about the mouth
and teeth to feel for grittiness. Pisti should not feel
scratchy; its particle size should be small enough to fill
the indentations of the fingerprints when rolled
between the fingertips.
4. When complete, pisti should be stored in an amber-
coloured glass jar.

Method 2

Ingredients

200g Akika/Aqeeq (red agate) Bhasma

Gulāba Jala (rosewater)

 25 Iklil-u-Malik seeds (white lotus)

1. 200g of agate material is broken into small pieces and

soaked in a solution of warm salt water for 24 hours.
2. Once removed, the pieces are dried and powdered
with an iron mortar. Distilled rosewater (organic only)
is then added to the powder and triturated into a
smooth paste for approximately 1 hour. The paste is
then allowed to dry until cakrika can be formed.
3. Cakrika are then sealed into a crucible and heated to
800ºC. After 24 hours the crucible is retrieved and
opened.
4. One handful (about 25 seeds) of white lotus is then
soaked for 30 minutes in 500ml of mineral water. After
soaking, the seeds are heated in the water and its
contents are reduced to 200ml. The decoction is
allowed to cool and is filtered with a fine muslin cloth.
5. Agate cakrika are then ground in a ceramic mortar,
adding the decoction of lotus seed. The mixture is then
triturated for about 1 hour, after which its liquid
content is allowed to evaporate and cakrika re-formed.
These are then re-sealed into a crucible and heated
again to around 800ºC.
6. This process is continued until a light pink/white
bhasma is formed. The material is then sieved and
stored in an amber-coloured glass jar.

Red agate – EDX

 Red agate bhasma sample using EDX analysis

This analysis of red agate revealed the test sample to be

mostly silicon, iron, carbon and potassium. The chemical
composition of pure agate is SiO2 (almost identical to
quartz but of different molecular structure). Various
impurities in the crystal structure of agate produce the
different intensities and variations of colour. This particular
specimen was the red variety and as such obtains its
redness in the form of its iron impurities.

Benefits of red agate

Benefits include addressing heart disease, internal
bleeding, infertility, insanity, menorrhea, general debility,
urinary calculi and weakness of the gums, teeth and jaw.
Agate is seen to have a special affinity with the heart and
brain; it is considered to have a nutritive/rasāyana effect
upon both.
Suitable anupāna for red agate include honey, milk or
butter.

10.4
Blue Sapphire

This gemstone is traditionally prepared as either pisti or

bhasma.

Blue sapphire purification methods

Method 1

Ingredients

100g of Nilama (blue sapphire)

Gulāba Jala (rosewater)

1. 100g of blue sapphire is collected and broken into

smaller, manageable pieces which are then soaked in a
solution of warm water and rock salt for 24 hours.
2. After removal, the pieces are dried and reduced to a
fine powder using an iron mortar. Rosewater is then
added to the ground powder and triturated for
approximately 15–20 hours, replenishing the water as
and when necessary. The Nilama Pisti eventually
reduces to a bluish-white powder.
3. The pisti is usually placed upon the tongue to roll
around the mouth to check its composition. If the
powder feels gritty or scratchy it requires additional
grinding. If the material feels smooth in the mouth and
fills one’s fingerprint indentations after being rolled
between the forefinger and thumb, it shows the pisti
to be sufficiently ground.
4. The completed pisti is then to be stored in an amber-
coloured glass bottle.

Method 2
Ingredients

100g of Nilama (blue sapphire)

100g Purified Haritāla (orpiment)

100g Purified Manah Shila (realgar)

100g Purified sulphur

Kulatha/horsegram (Macrotyloma uniflorum) decoction

Lemon juice

1. 100g of blue sapphire is collected and broken into

smaller, manageable pieces which are then soaked in a
solution of warm water and rock salt for 24 hours.
2. Pieces of sapphire are then collected and suspended
into the juice of limes or lemon and boiled using the
Dolā yantra method for 3 hours.
3. After removal, the pieces are dried and reduced to a
fine powder using an iron mortar.
4. A decoction of horsegram105 is prepared and strained.
The beans are then discarded and their liquid is used
as a medium in which to triturate the powdered
sapphire. Grinding is continued until the liquid has
evaporated and only a paste remains (usually after
about 1 hour). This paste is then allowed to fully dry in
sunlight, at which point another decoction of
horsegram bean is prepared and again added to the
dried paste. This whole process is repeated seven
times in total. After processing is complete the
resultant powder is finely ground.
5. Equal quantities of orpiment, realgar and sulphur
(previously purified) are then added to the powdered
 gemstone/horsegram and triturated with the juice of
lemons for 1 hour or until the material is smooth and
without texture.
6. The resultant mixture is then formed into cakrika and
sealed into a crucible (using clay and cloth). When dry,
this crucible is heated in a gaja puṭa (850–900ºC) and
allowed to cool over a 24-hour period. Upon cooling,
the contents are removed and reground into a fine
powder.
7. Lemon juice is added and triturated for 1 hour and
cakrika re-made. Steps 5–6 of this process are
repeated eight times until a fine grey-white ash is
achieved.
8. The finally prepared bhasma is stored in an amber-
coloured glass jar.

Blue sapphire – EDX

 Blue sapphire bhasma sample using EDX analysis

The chemical formula for sapphire is Al2O3. Sapphire falls

into the category of corundum gems; others include: ruby,
topaz, emerald and amethyst. In this particular analysis the
material shows itself to be predominantly aluminium, iron
and silicon. Aluminium is the major component of this
gemstone, a very common element representing about 8
per cent of the earth’s crust. The higher levels of iron
might well be indicative of this gem’s particular
appearance (a Blue Star sapphire from Sri Lanka) – this
stone is well known for its smoky purple/blue colouration.
Trace elements include: carbon, sodium and ytterbium. The
last of these, ytterbium, is most commonly recovered from
monazite and is a lanthanoid (a rare-earth element), further
reducing the likelihood of its concentration in this sample.

Benefits of blue sapphire

Benefits include addressing arthritis, brain dysfunction,
improves agni, −V −P diseases, tuberculosis, infertility,
skin diseases, consumption, poisons and general debility; it
is considered to have strong rasāyana/nutritive effects.
Sapphire was seen to represent Shani graha (planet
Saturn) and as such was thought to calm or remove
ailments presided over by this feared planetary deity.
Saturn is the planet of sickness, old age and death; his gaze
was thought to be highly inauspicious, bringing dryness,
debility and pain to the tissues of the body. Saturn is Vāta
by nature and his influence slowly increases with age. The
use of blue sapphire was thought to avert his gaze or
enhance the more desirable qualities of Shani graha such
as: fruition of all good karma, reliability, endurance and,
most importantly, extended longevity.
Suitable anupāna for blue sapphire includes honey or
milk.
SECTION 11
ANIMAL PRODUCTS

11.1

Use of Animal Products as

Medicines

Mrga Śrnga (fallow deer horn) prior to processing

 ‘Mṛgavarga (deer) are categorised as hariṇa (antelope),
kurañga (a type of deer), ṛksa (white footed antelope), gokarṇa
(deer/antelope), mṛgamatrika (red coloured deer), śambara
(deer with branched horns) and caruṣka (gazelle), all are
known as mṛga.’
Aṣṭāñga Hṛdayam

Some of the most favoured and accessible materials in Rasa

Shāstra are those referred to as ‘drugs of animal origin’. Most
commonly these can be categorised as calcium carbonates: cowrie
shell, pearl, mother of pearl, conch shell, corals (red and white
varieties) and cuttlefish bone. Animal horns such as deer, antelope,
cow and sheep have a slightly different chemical composition,
although CaCO3 constitutes the greater part of their composition.
Agnijara (ambergris) is really in a league of its own in terms of
therapeutics, availability and cost (see Appendix 2 for more
information). All of these materials are derived from living matter
and therefore have a great affinity with our own tissues, making
them easily absorbed. This close chemical connection is probably
one reason why their presence is common in many rasa
formulations.
For the ancients a good number of these materials were easily
available to be collected from beaches, shallow pools, seawater and
less-foreboding forests. Unfortunately, due to modern
indiscriminate harvesting, many of these same items have become
scarce and in some cases endangered, making their collection
prohibited.
I should like to stress at this point that the following descriptions
of materials and preparation techniques are not to be taken as an
endorsement for removal of these items from nature. This
information is solely for academic purposes and is considered by
the author to be reference material only. That being said, many of
these materials hold a time-honoured position as potent
medicines/life extenders in the formulary of Rasa Shāstra as well
as in many other cultures. It is because of this that their inclusion
in this work is essential.
As with all base materials covered in this part of the book, each
individual item will have multiple methods of purification and
formulation. Each finished medicine will be augmented with the
use of a different anupāna to induce different healing effects.
 11.2
Deer Horn

The word Śrnga commonly means horn and was used to refer to a
number of different varieties used in a medicinal capacity. These
were often burnt and their fumes inhaled in cases of lung disease,
or used as Śrnga yantra for the process of blood-letting.106 The
bhasma obtained from the calcinations of deer or antelope horns
were particularly prized for their potency, both as strong
aphrodisiacs and as circulatory stimulants. Śrnga makes an
excellent tonic for the heart, simultaneously rejuvenating and
improving circulatory functioning. The secondary effects of this
calcinated material show a strong affinity toward the respiratory
system, helping to improve the overall strength and capacity of the
lungs as well as having a strong demuculant property in cases of
high Kapha (phlegmatic congestion).

Deer horn purification methods

Method 1

Ingredients

1.5kg Mrga Śrnga (deer/antelope horn)

4 litres Pol Vinakiri (coconut vinegar)

Bhringaraj decoction (Eclipta alba)

Arka (Calotropis gigantea)

Kumārī (aloe vera)

Godugdha (raw milk)

1. Cut horn is usually boiled in vinegar for 1–2 hours and then
washed thoroughly with clean water. After drying, the reduced
pieces of horn are placed into a crucible and sealed using clay
and cloth.
 2. The crucible is then heated in a gaja-sized puṭa (850–900ºC).
After heating, the crucible is allowed to cool for 24 hours
before opening.
3. Upon removal, each incinerated section of horn is ground into
powder and sieved to remove any contaminants. The now
powdered horn is then ground with milk for 1 hour and then
re-formed into cakrika. In some texts the use of Arka latex or
Kumārī is also advised. Both of these will tend to lighten the
colour of the finished bhasma, suggesting that their use adds
more potency in cases of coronary disorders.
4. Cakrika are then resealed into a crucible and heated a second
time, using the same method as previously mentioned. Upon
removal, cakrika are ground a third time with bhringaraj
decoction for 1 hour. After it has been dried, the resultant
paste is again formed into new cakrika. This process of
trituration, remaking cakrika and heating, is performed a total
of three times. However, in practice the material usually
requires a fourth puṭa. The final bhasma should be somewhere
between tan and brown in colouration.
5. The final bhasma can be sieved and stored in an amber-
coloured glass jar.

Method 2 (white/light-grey-coloured bhasma)

Method 2 describes a variation of deer horn purification and
calcification in which the end product is a white bhasma. The white
bhasma has similar effects to its regular dark brown counterpart;
however, its potency in the treatment of heart conditions is
generally accepted to have better therapeutic effects.

Ingredients

1.5kg Mrga Śrnga (deer/antelope horn)

Katura Murunga (Sesbania grandiflora)

Godugdha (raw milk)

1. Short lengths of deer horn are cut then shredded along their
grain.
 2. These short slivers are then soaked in Katura Murunga leaf
juice for three days.
3. The soaked pieces of horn, once removed, are washed with
water and allowed to air-dry.
4. The pieces of deer horn are then placed into a crucible and
sealed with cloth and clay. This is then allowed to dry and
given one gaja puṭa and allowed 24 hours to fully cool.
5. Upon opening the crucible, the pieces of deer horn are
removed and finely powdered. The powdered material is then
mixed with milk and triturated for 1 hour and re-formed into
new cakrika.
6. Dried cakrika are again sealed into a crucible and heated in a
gaja puṭa. Steps 4–5 are repeated three times in total,
eventually producing a white/light-grey-coloured bhasma.
7. When complete, the bhasma is stored in an amber-coloured
glass jar.

Deer horn – XRD

Deer horn bhasma sample using XRD analysis

The XRD analysis of the deer horn bhasma shows it to be

comprised of calcium and phosphorus, with the trace elements
potassium and carbon. The presence of carbon should be expected
due to the process of heating organic material in a low-oxygen
environment, restricting the amount of carbon converted into
carbon dioxide (CO2). After the incineration of the bone mass, the
only remaining elements are its metals (potassium, phosphorus and
calcium). All three are essential elements for life and metabolism.
Potassium salts are thought to lower blood pressure; phosphorus
and calcium combine to form calcium phosphate, essential for the
maintenance of bones and the transportation of lipids (fats) in the
body, all areas closely associated with good cardio-vascular
functioning.

Benefits of deer horn

Deer horn is almost exclusively used in bhasma form and is highly
efficacious in cases of heart disease, TB, pleurisy, diseases of the
eyes, pain in the sides of the chest, sinus problems, migraine,
cough and chronic hiccups. Applied topically (after being boiled in
milk) it helps reduce swelling. There are some reports that indicate
that inhalation of fumes whilst burning Śrnga (horns) has a
beneficial effect in cases of hiccups and asthma.
Suitable anupāna for deer horn includes butter, milk or ghee.

11.3
Pearl

A selection of pearls including Akoya baroque and Biwa freshwater

 ‘Pearls are easily digestible, cold in potency, sweet in effective
taste. They enhance lustre of the skin, vision and digestive
power. They counter the effects of toxins; they have a mild
purgative action.’
Rasa Ratna Samuccaya, Srī Vāgbhatāchārya

Pearls are considered ratna (a precious gemstone) and were highly

prized for their medicinal potency, their scarcity only elevating the
attributes. The selection criteria for pearls included the following
pre-requisites: large, lustrous, heavy, white, spherical, cool to the
touch, watery in nature and clear faced (without any blemish), all
of which might be difficult to find even in the highest quality of
cultured pearl.
Although the following information primarily concerns itself with
the processing of pearls, all methods outlined should be considered
identical for those of oyster shell (Ostrea concha), abalone shell
(Haliotidis concha) and most commonly mother of pearl
(Margaritiferae concha). These were all considered to be
substitutes in the absence of pearl. Therapeutically speaking, all
substitutes are of lower potency; however, their inferiority would
be overcome by the use of higher or more frequent doses.
For the ancients it was perhaps a laborious if not hazardous task
of hunting about in the deep waters to find perfect specimens.
However, this task has been negated by the modernising of the
pearl industry as nearly all materials supplied for medicinal
preparations are cultured. Principally, cultured pearls are sourced
from countries including China, Japan, Indonesia, Thailand and,
recently, Tahiti. The bulk of freshwater pearls (also known as
sweetwater pearls) are from China.
Modern pearl farming107 was developed by a Japanese pioneer
named Kokichi Mikimoto (1858–1954), who helped perfect the
Akoya method using the mollusc Pinctada fucata Martensii. With
the advent of cultured marine pearls the task of obtaining good-
quality specimens became far less problematic. Today many
countries around the world have adopted similar methods of
intensive farming, offering a bewildering array of pearls in every
size, shape and colour. Although Japan retains a respected name
for larger marine pearls, the Chinese are without doubt the world
leaders in the production of freshwater pearls (cultured in both the
freshwater mussels Hyriopsis cumingi and Hyriopsis schlegeli).
 From an Āyurvedic point of view, marine cultured pearls would
be considered inferior to the naturally occurring variety. The
insertion of a pre-engineered bead nucleus108 into the living tissue
of a mollusc (stimulating the formation of nacre) would be
considered a violation of the animal and ultimately undesirable
karma. The insertion process is in itself an extremely difficult
procedure, likely to kill the mollusc without a high level of skill and
practice. Once the bead and mantle tissue are successfully in
position, a pearl sac is formed and the creature begins to deposit
nacre over the bead in successive layers, in an attempt to soothe
the aggravation formed by its presence. The whole process of pearl
formation can take anywhere from 1 to 2 years. The final
harvesting of the pearl sac signals the end of the creature as its
shell is forced apart and its contents forcibly removed.
With the advent of mass production and improved techniques,
manufacturers have honed their wares, increased their stocks and
quadrupled their available varieties. Experimentation with
bleaching agents, dyes, silver nitrate and even gamma radiation
has been used to subtly change the look of the modern pearl. With
the introduction of faux-pearls,109 buyers have begun to favour
cultured pearls with a natural untreated look. Luckily this trend
has also improved the availability of medicinal-grade pearls, and
ultimately the quality of any resultant bhasma or pisti made from
the ashes of their nacre.
Over the past few years the world demand for pearls has
decreased, partly for economic reasons but mostly due to over-
production. In an effort to re-stimulate interest in the pearl trade,
some farmers have shifted their attention to more specialised
markets, developing exciting new ranges and varieties including
conch and abalone pearls.
With continued improvement in production methods, spotting
lower-grade and faux-pearls has become something of a problem,
requiring a highly trained eye to pick out the undesirable
imposters. Early imitations could usually be detected by lightly
rubbing their nacre upon one’s own teeth (the genuine article
tends to feel gritty against tooth enamel). Inspection of the drilled
hole is another area to be studied in detail. Larger holes are
commonly seen in fakes, as genuine pearls are valued by their
overall weight. Large purchasers will often utilise X-ray technology
when checking batches. Under magnification, X-ray images quickly
reveal the successive layering of nacre (like rings on a cross-
section of tree trunk) to the pearl’s core or to its bead nucleus.
These studies show how the pearl was formed and its density of
nacre.

Highly simplified guide to nacresation110 as imaged by X-ray: (1) multiple spherical

layers penetrating to a large bead nucleus indicate a cultured marine pearl; (2)
successive asymmetrical/ovular layers penetrating to a smaller nucleus indicate a wild
marine pearl; (3) asymmetrical/ovular layers with no nucleus indicate a freshwater pearl
Most commercially produced pearls worldwide adhere to an AAA grading system in an
effort to help standardise overall aesthetics (see table below).

AAA GRADING SYSTEM

AAA High lustre (metallic and non-metallic), almost perfectly spherical, virtually
blemish-free (95%) perfect surface
AA+ Some irregularity (very slightly oval in shape), virtually blemish-free with surface
imperfections only detectable by close inspection, 90 per cent perfect surface
AA Off-round (uneven when rolled), up to 20 per cent surface blemishes, of average
lustre
A Lowest jewellery grade (ovular in profile, detectable from distance), surface
imperfections 25 per cent+, lower overall lustre

Nacre
This highly attractive feature of some molluscs is formed by the
secretion of semi-opaque types of calcium carbonate (including
conchiolin). This stable organic matrix forms a lattice upon which
mineral aggregates adhere then crystallise under successive layers
of nacre (hexagonal platelets of aragonite). Eventually these
deposits form a highly durable crack-free exterior. Due to the
translucency of this material, light striking its surface is refracted
at different wavelengths, rendering the classic iridescent metallic
lustre commonly seen on pearls and the interiors of mollusc shells.

Marine or freshwater?
Rasa Shāstra states its preference for pearls obtained from the
ocean, but nowadays marine-cultured samples include an artificial
bead nucleus. Freshwater varieties do not rely on a bead to form,
consequently having a greater density of nacre. As all pearl-
bearing molluscs can be naturally seeded, so to speak (by injury or
contamination111 of their mantle tissue), the composition of any
subsequent pearls would be 100 per cent nacre. Herein lays the
trade-off between the ocean-bound mollusc with its artificially
crafted nucleus and its freshwater cousin growing solid nacre
pearls from inserted mantle tissue.
In Vedic Astrology and Rasa Shāstra, pearls are directly
associated with Chandra (the Moon) and its nectar (Soma), both
being connected to longevity and rejuvenation. Pearls naturally
rejuvenate the body through their emolliating effect (soothing
mucous membranes). The ancients recognised the power of the
Moon on the oceans, its ability to control the tides. Seawater was
evaporated to collect its precious salt, and this taste was known to
enkindle digestive fire as well as increasing water retention in the
tissues. Both pearl bhasma and pisti were known to balance
irregularities of agni (the digestive fire), allowing toxins to be
burnt up in the tissues. Pearls were also cooling (like moonlight)
and used to reduce fever, and were also considered to be a potent
aphrodisiac as the god of the Moon was traditionally associated
with fertility.
Locating naturally occurring sea pearls is not a viable option for
most (a rare if not impossible task these days). Currently most
preparations use pearls prepared from cultured sources. Under
normal circumstances during purification, the bead nucleus is
removed prior to powdering, leaving only its shell of nacre. It has
been the author’s experience that well-prepared cultured
freshwater pearls can give excellent results that often rival their
oceanic contemporaries.

Pearl purification methods

Method 1 (pisti)
 Ingredients

200g Mukta (cultured saltwater pearls)

Gulāba Jala (rosewater)

1. The pearls are first bathed in warm water and washed to

remove any surface contaminants.
2. The washed pearls are then boiled in a solution of Pol Vinakiri
(coconut vinegar112) for 3 hours, allowed to cool and again
washed in water.
3. The dried pearls are reduced (broken) using an iron mortar
and pounded into a fine powder. Freshly distilled rosewater is
added to the ground powder and continually ground until
smooth and even in texture. As the rosewater evaporates, a
fresh quantity is added and reground.
4. Ideally pisti requires between 15 and 20 hours of trituration.
Toward the final third of its reduction the pearl paste is
transferred to a ceramic mortar.
5. The final pisti powder is sieved and stored in an amber-
coloured glass jar.

Method 2 (bhasma)

Ingredients

200g Mukta (cultured saltwater pearls)

4 litres White grape vinegar

Gulāba Jala (rosewater)

Godugdha (raw milk)

1. The pearls are first washed well in warm water to remove any
surface contaminants.
2. The pearls are then soaked in fresh yoghurt for three
successive days, changing the yoghurt each day. At the end of
this period pearls are removed, washed in warm water and
 then dried. (Note: Some textbooks advise lemon juice as a
substitution for yoghurt if yoghurt is not available.) 3. After
drying, pearls can be broken up using an iron mortar or
placed whole directly into a crucible to be heated at high
temperature.
4. Using clay and cloth, the purified pearls are sealed into a
crucible and heated in laghu puṭa and allowed to cool over a
24-hour period. Upon removal the pearls should be sufficiently
brittle as to be powdered easily.
5. The pearl powder is then triturated in raw milk or the gel of
aloe vera for 1 hour. The ground material is then allowed to
dry a little until cakrika can be made, these then being dried
and again sealed into a crucible and again heated in laghu
puṭa.
6. Following steps 4–5 the pearls are processed four times in
total, each time using either milk or aloe vera. The finely
powdered bhasma achieved at the end of the processing is
sieved and stored in an amber-coloured glass jar.

Pearl – XRD

Pearl bhasma sample using XRD analysis shows it to be a concentration of calcium,

sodium and trace elements of sulphur and iron This analysis of pearl bhasma shows it to
contain the elements calcium, potassium, carbon and chlorine with the trace elements
iron, sodium, phosphorus and sulphur. The primary elements associated with pearl are
calcium and carbon (CaCO3 ), and this is reflected in the XRD (including nacre113). Both
elements are essential for life and biological functioning, fulfilling the dual roles of
 housekeeper and maintenance man, bonding with unwanted elements in the body and
aiding in their removal, whilst ensuring the structural integrity of the tissues. The
remaining trace elements in the sample are indicative of those found in a marine
environment.

Benefits of pearl
Pearl is unique and highly efficacious in the form of a pisti. Pearls
ground in organic rosewater and dried under the cooling rays of
the Moon (called Chandra puṭa) are extremely useful for high
fevers, diminished eyesight, excessive cough, poisoning, impaired
digestion, inflammation, asthma, general debility, stomach
disorders, bone disorders, heart disease, excess sweating, asthma
and bronchitis. Pearl pisti and bhasma is considered to be an anti-
visha in cases of lead poisoning. It is also thought to be an
aphrodisiac.
Suitable anupāna for pearl includes milk, butter, cream or
jaggery.

Moti (eight sacred pearls)

‘Pearls are found in the temples of elephants and wild boars, in

conch-shells, in oysters, in the hoods of cobras and in the
hollow stems of bamboo. The origin of a species of pearls is
ascribed to thunder. Pearls found in oyster shells abound in
numbers and are usually included within the category of gems.’
Garuda Purana

The ancients identified eight types of pearls and their

corresponding values. While some existing samples are to be
found, their use appears to be mainly ceremonial/decorative. These
auspicious items remain highly prized, frequently finding their way
into protective talismans/jewellery, often worn by royalty. The
following information is included as reference material only. The
descriptions of Moti have been taken from the Garuda Purana.114

EIGHT TYPES OF MOTI

Name Description
1. Chandra Genuine marine pearl, capable of being pierced from end to end. Lustrous,
Moti large, white and heavy, auspicious for the use of pisti and bhasma.
(Oyster)
2. Found in the entrails of conch, their pearls are seldom spherical and often
Shankha devoid of lustre. Colouration of the conch pearl often matches the interior of
Moti their host.
(Conch)
3. Nāga Recovered from the hoods of the King Cobra. Nāga Moti are said to emit
Moti effulgence. Upon repeated washing these pearls obtain the lustre of a well-
(Cobra) polished sword.
4. Varaha Found in the temples of wild boar, marble-sized and of dark colouration.
Moti Typically Varaha Moti are said to be devoid of lustre.
(Boar)
5. Gaja Large, brown and heavy, often seen with a distinctive hemispheric division
Moti upon its surface, also devoid of lustre.
(Elephant)
Name Description
6. Venu Found in the stems of bamboo, ovular and rough in appearance (thought to
Moti look like petrified wood). These pearls are without definite colour and are
(Bamboo) lustreless.
7. Matsya Recovered from the mouths of fish or whales, spherical and of a yellowish
Moti (Fish) hue.
8. Akash Formed in celestial realms during thunderstorms. These are the most
Moti (Sky) illustrious of pearls, outshining all others.
Note: Oyster, conch and fish pearls were said to increase appetite and improve the
powers of digestion (all pearls found growing in the ocean help strengthen digestive
organs). Elephant pearls provide immunity from all disease. Snake, elephant and boar
pearls increase one’s wealth and social status. Pearls from the sky show that one is
favoured by the gods and destined for greatness.

Note: Pearl experts remain sceptical about the existence of

numbers 3–8, with questions often being raised about their
authenticity. It has been suggested that the latterly referred to
‘pearls’ might be Mustika or what are more commonly known as
Bezoar stones. The origin of these stones was thought to be from
the gallbladders, stomachs and intestines of mammals (perhaps
similar to the formation of ambergris in sperm whales). Bezoar
stones frequently find favour in Unani and Indian formulations,
referred to as Calculus bovis or the gallstone of cattle.

11.4
Peacock Feather
This interesting form of bhasma derives from the tail feathers of
the beautiful Indian Peafowl or Peacock (Pavo cristatus). The high
intensity of colours displayed by the refraction of light upon their
feathers has fascinated countless generations, ensuring this bird
features highly in the myths and legends across Asia. Peacocks are
highly venerated and are frequently portrayed bearing a number of
different deities, most notably Maha-Mayuri (the Peacock King),
seated upon the back of a golden peacock. Feathers of this bird are
placed upon altars or displayed on shrines during fire ceremonies
(Homa).
Peacocks are renowned for their ability to mitigate poisons
(visha115) due to their ability to consume poisonous snakes, spiders
and insects. This ability was in turn seen to pass to their bodily
tissues and ultimately their feathers. Likewise, other materials
displaying peacock colours were also thought have the same
attributes, for example Sasyaka (copper sulphate/bornite), used in
Rasa Shāstra to purge the body of poison. Juice extracted from the
meat of peacocks was also used to bathe the eyes, helping to
restore vision. This practice may have arisen through the doctrine
of signatures, seeing the ‘eyes’ on their tail feathers as an
indication for their use in a medicinal capacity on the human eye.

Peacock feather purification method

Ingredients

15–20 Mayūr Piccha (peacock feathers)

30g Ghee (clarified butter)

20g Madhu (honey)

Kumārī (aloe vera)

1. A number of good feathers are selected for radiance of colour

and evenness of form. The feathers should be free from
blemishes and free from insects.
2. Once selected, the feather is clipped so that only the top two-
thirds remains. A deep pan of hot water is prepared and the
 remaining part of the feather is soaked for 15 minutes. After
soaking, the feathers are removed and air-dried.
3. The spines of the feathers are separated from the quill. The
remaining quill is then cut into short lengths. As much as
possible the remaining material is further reduced into small
pieces.
4. 30g of ghee is then added to a flat iron pan and heated until
liquefied. On a medium heat the reduced feather material is
then added. These contents are then stirred until well mixed
and the feathers are well coated with ghee and starting to
agglutinate.
5. To this mass the 20g of honey is added and again stirred,
working quickly so as not to allow any honey to carbonate.
When the ghee and honey are absorbed, the heating is
complete.
6. The finished material is allowed to cool in the open air. While
cooling, a small quantity (to suit) of aloe gel is prepared and
added to the cooked material. This is then triturated into an
even paste in a ceramic mortar for about 1 hour.
7. After mixing, the material is allowed to air-dry until pliable
enough to mould into cakrika. These are then made and
allowed to fully air-dry.
8. The cakrika are then sealed into a crucible using clay and
cloth (2). When dry, the crucible is placed upon 20–30 cow
dung cakes (3) and incinerated (see illustration below).
9. Heating only requires 1 hour before the process is complete,
after which time the crucible is allowed to fully cool before
opening.
10
. The cakrika are then removed (1) and reground in a ceramic
mortar. The finished bhasma is then stored in an amber-
coloured glass jar.
Puṭa for peacock feather bhasma. The crucible is placed upon 20–30 cow dung cakes and
heated for about 1 hour and allowed to cool over a 2–3-hour period.

Peacock feather – XRD

Peacock feather bhasma sample using XRD analysis

The XRD analysis of peacock feather bhasma shows it to be

comprised of calcium and potassium, with trace elements of
sodium and sulphur. Carbon may or may not be present depending
on the degree of incineration in its preparation. The bhasma is
mainly composed of calcium, with the same health benefits implied
as for pearl and deer horn. The trace of sulphur found in the
analysis probably originates from the feather’s natural sulphur
content in its amino acids (as in human hair). Aloe gel (used in its
preparation) could be another possible source of this trace
element.

Note: In 1996 gamma-ray spectrometry (GRS) undertaken in

India116 detected high levels of copper, manganese and zinc in
Mayūr Piccha bhasma; the same result also indicated the presence
of mercury. In 2010 I prepared this medicine and submitted a
sample for XRD analysis, which subsequently showed none of the
aforementioned elements to be present.
How and why mercury was detected in the original 1996
experiment remains unclear. It is possible that the medicine
became contaminated during its processing or that there could
have been an issue with calibration/attenuation of the
spectrometry equipment. One likely explanation might be
environmental sources. In recent years there have been
environmental concerns raised over the increased instances of
peacock poisoning due to contaminated crops/seeds treated with
mercury-based pesticides. This would certainly go a long way to
explaining the results of the 1996 analysis. Detectable levels of
manganese, zinc and copper may not be irregular due their being
essential elements; again their presence would be expected at
some level of attenuation.

Ancient and modern thoughts on peacock tail feathers

Due to the colours seen in the plumage of this bird, it was thought
the peacock had concentrations of copper in its feather, a metal
already known to oxidise into vivid blue/green colours. One recipe
in Rasa Jala Nidhi suggests how copper may be extracted from the
feathers of this animal, advising that the remains of the feather
(once incinerated with ghee and honey) are mixed with a number
of materials including Guggulu, borax, natron, honey and gunja,117
then heated to a high temperature in a blind crucible, eventually
exuding a copper-like material known as Nagatamram.
Subsequent research carried out in 2003 seems now to have
confirmed that the iridescent characteristics of peacock feathers
are most likely to be the result of its reflective properties, rather
than pigmentation inherent in its structuring: ‘Researchers found
that the feathers’ bright colours are produced not by pigments, but
rather by tiny, intricate two-dimensional crystal-like structures.
Slight alterations in the spacing of these microscopic structures
cause different wavelengths of light to be filtered and reflected,
creating the feathers’ many different iridescent hues.’
‘Peacock Plumage Secrets Uncovered’, National Geographic
News, 17 October 2003

Benefits of peacock feather

All of the former being said, bhasma made from the feathers of a
peacock is a highly efficacious drug when used in cases of
bronchial debility and hiccups. Other indications for its use
include: accidental poisoning, removal of toxins, asthma, chronic
colitis and all general weakness of the lungs (Mayūr Piccha is
considered an excellent rasāyana for the lungs).
The most suitable anupāna for Mayūr Piccha is ghee, long pepper
and honey.
 SECTION 12

PLANTS

12.1
Use of Plant-based Medicines

Datura metel Linn (Krishna ‘black’ Dattura)

‘Poison, if taken in the prescribed way, is an increaser of

vitality and curer and preventer of diseases and senility. It is an
increaser of the properties, good or evil, of a thing which is
taken with it. It pacifies all three dosha, is nutritious, and
increases semen. The demerits of salutary poisons are removed
by their purification. Poisons are, therefore, to be duly purified,
before they are used as medicines.’
Rasa Jala Nidhi
After having made our way through mercury, minerals, metals,
gemstones and animal products, we finally arrive at the plant
kingdom, a category termed visha/upavisha. As previously
discussed in Section 3 of Part I, plants are some of the most readily
available sources of poison in the wilds of the forest. There are a
number of visha materials utilised in Rasa Shāstra, but in this
section we shall limit ourselves to three particular specimens of
higher merit.
As with all base materials covered in this part of the book, each
individual item will have multiple methods of purification and
formulation. Each finished medicine will be augmented with the
use of a different anupāna to induce different healing effects.

12.2
Dattura

‘Dhattura increases intoxication, complexion, hunger and Vāyu.

It cures fever and leprosy. It is astringent, sweet, bitter,
warming and heavy. It destroys lice, boils, phlegm, itching,
worms and poison.’
Rasa Jala Nidhi

Considered as god’s plant, Dattura is closely aligned with Lord

Shiva (the principal deity of Indian alchemy118), and so is
automatically elevated to a position of high standing. Consequently
Dattura appears in many rasa formulations as a direct ingredient
or juiced as a binding medium in which to triturate ingredients.
The plants (including seeds) are highly toxic and are always
purified prior to internal consumption. Externally the juice from its
leaves could be applied directly in cases of alopecia; or mixed with
a little dried turmeric powder and pasted directly upon the skin in
cases of lesion, boil or inflammation.
The oil extracted from the seed of Dattura is analgesic and
antispasmodic, but due to its potency is first infused into a carrier
oil119 (usually sesame) prior to direct application. Purified seeds
(see later) are slowly heated in oil for about 30 minutes and then
allowed to cool. The oil is then poured off and any remaining
materials (seeds) are ground. Decanted oil and ground seeds are
then reunited and left to stand for a few days. With the deepening
of oil colouration all solids are then filtered off, using a fine cloth.
The oil itself is applied to the extremities in cases of arthritic pain
and inflammation, avoiding the head area due to its potency. The
oil from Dattura seeds is also extracted using the Patala yantra
method (see Section 12.4, later in this section).
Most often the black variety (Datura metel/fastuosa) is favoured
for its healing qualities; however, the white variety (Datura
stramonium) can sometimes be used in the absence of other
varieties. Although commonly appearing in the pharmacopeia of
Āyurvedic physicians, this plant also plays a more metaphysical
role in alchemical endeavours, the juice harvested from its leaves
and stem being used in the fixation (Murchana) of mercury during
its transformation process.
In contrast to these high alchemical procedures, the benefits of
Dattura include the use of its dried leaves incorporated into
medicinal cigarettes and inhaled in cases of debilitating asthma.
These very same leaves could also be steamed inside cloth pottali
bags to be gently tamped upon the exterior of the body during
Pañcakarma therapy, in an effort to relieve the effects of high Vāta.
This plant was also known to the ancients for its narcotic
properties, having had its essences extracted for the purpose of
immobilising helpless victims at the mercy of the unscrupulous and
unsavoury.
Dattura is but one in a number of alkaloids known to the
therapeutic pharmacopeia of Āyurveda. Other notable plants
bearing this substance include Nux vomica (Quaker buttons),
Papaver somniferum (opium poppy) and Aconitum napellus
(aconite), coincidently all are arranged accordingly in the category
of upavisha or lesser poisons. These were eclipsed only by the two
primary forms of visha, Sarpa-Visha and Vatsanābha (cobra venom
and aconite tuber respectively).
Dattura contains a number of tropane alkaloids including
Scopolamine, Atropine and Hyoscyamine (also known as daturine).
Daturine is both a stimulant and a parasympathetic inhibitor,
essentially dampening nerve impulses (hence its analgesic effects).
Under the effects of Dattura (low dosage) the body and limbs
experience heaviness/tiredness, a drying of the palate and
hoarseness of voice, with a high probability of blurred vision.
Higher dosages produce acute memory loss, muscle spasm, an
increase in body heat, visual hallucinations and finally difficult
respiration.
In Western herbalism tinctures of Datura stramonium were often
used to pacify lunatics around the full moon (stramonium means
‘inclined to madness’). Ironically the plant’s narcotic content is
known to widely vary throughout a 24-hour period, often
intensifying in alkaloids around the full moon. This intensification
of hallucinogens is also accompanied by the full flowering of the
plant and the release of its famed intoxicating aroma. This
observation was undoubtedly noted by the ancients to be more
confirmation of the plant’s connection to Shiva (typically the bearer
of the crescent moon), the deity Soma and the Moon’s nectar of
immortality.

Dattura purification method

Ingredients

75g Dattura seeds (Datura stramonium Linn/Datura metel

Linn)

1 litre Gomutra (cow’s urine)

Godugdha (raw milk)

1. 75g of Dattura seeds are collected and placed into a pottali

(cloth bag) and suspended into a container filled with fresh
cow’s urine.
2. The pottali is then allowed to soak for 24–48 hours exposed to
sunlight.
3. After soaking, the pottali is retrieved and its contents
removed. Dattura seeds are then washed in warm water. Once
clean, the seeds are laid out on absorbent paper to dry and
also to select the larger examples in the batch.
4. The next step is to remove the seed husk. Traditionally this is
done by lightly grinding a few seeds in an iron mortar. When
ground, the seeds are placed in fine cloth and aggressively
rubbed together in an effort to further remove any remaining
husk. During their preparation, the seeds require a final
 sorting through, removing any remaining husk still clinging to
the seed.
5. Another method for husk removal is to select a dozen seeds
and lightly strike them individually with a pestle in a ceramic
mortar. This then splits the husk and allows the seed to be
parted from its casing. On the whole, Dattura seeds are
extremely strong and their preparation requires a lot of
patience and diligence. Due to the high potency of the seed
only minute quantities are required and so large batches of
purified material are not always necessary. As husked seeds
are likely to remain potent for some time, batches can be kept
small and purified and powdered as required.
6. Once the husks have been removed the seeds are boiled in
fresh milk using the Dolā yantra method of purification. The
seeds are continually boiled for 3 hours, occasionally topping
up the reduced milk level.
7. After boiling, the seeds are removed from the pottali bag and
washed in cool water and dried.
8. After drying, the seeds are initially ground using a granite
mortar (coarse ground) and then swapped to a porcelain
mortar to finely powder the material.
9. The powdered Dattura is stored in an amber-coloured glass
jar. This material has a shelf life of over a year without any
noticeable loss of potency.

Benefits of Dattura
Dattura reduces abdominal swelling, asthma, bronchitis, intestinal
parasites, eczema, lower back pain, earache, rheumatism, gout,
colic pain, fever and hair loss (alopecia). It improves liver
functioning and calms the nervous system.
The most commonly used anupāna for Dattura is raw milk
sweetened with honey.

12.3
Aconite
 Vatsanābha (Aconitum napellus) tubers prior to purification

‘Like good and bad, day and night, light and darkness, gods
and demons, “Visha and Amrita” also have their origins from
the same stem in creation and are like two diverse sides of the
same leaf. After various shodhana treatments, Visha is devoid
of its evil, demerits and becomes restorer and stabiliser of
health, the dispeller of disease.’
Visha in Āyurveda

Aconitum is unique within the category of visha (poisons), as it

shares this category with one other, the venom of the cobra. This
high association with the ‘King of Poisons’ shows how much
respect was given to the use of aconite root (in its medicinal form).
It is also a warning as to its deadly effects if used improperly. Just
as cobra venom and aconite had the potential to grant life,
incorrect usage was just as likely to bring death. Indeed, some
texts even extol the use of these two visha as exceeding the
potency of mercurial preparations, should they be unable to
restore health to the afflicted. That being said, like the
aforementioned Dattura, Vatsanābha/aconite (a name that means
‘like the umbilicus of a calf’) finds its way into hundreds of rasa
formulations – indeed a truly versatile healer.
 It is believed that the use of this plant stemmed from knowledge
of Himalayan aconite species, with early commentators from these
climes describing their observations of its effect in medicinal
application. Modern species categorisation of aconite (belonging to
the family Rannunculaceae), and growing in temperate zones
worldwide, has determined there to be over 100 different varieties
of the plant, ranging from those of a highly toxic nature to
completely inert.
Today those traders in India who are still supplying this
medicinal root sell a mixture termed Bachhnāga. Upon closer
inspection this assemblage shows itself to include a variety of
tubers including Aconitum napellus, ferox, lycoctonum,
chasmanthum, palmatum and heterophyllum. 120 Overall, three
species are favoured and accordingly ascribed beneficial medicinal
power in the following order: Aconitum ferox, chasmanthum and
napellus. Due to their latent toxicity and need of shodhana
(purification) prior to use, many modern pharmacies no longer
carry this most ancient of remedies. Vatsanābha roots are usually
recovered in late winter or early spring; new plants propagate from
seed but also renew themselves via a ‘daughter root’ grown off the
main root. The daughter root will lay dormant until the spring and
re-establish the plant the following year, each new main root
lasting a single season only. As a general rule no other plants will
grow near it; it favours slightly moist ground and seeks out the
shade of larger overhanging trees. All tubers are whitish upon
extraction, and tend to darken due to processing. Once harvested,
the tuber (unprocessed) will quickly deteriorate, attracting fungus
and insects – to keep it fresh it is advised to be swaddled in a fine
cloth impregnated with red mustard seed oil.
Unpurified aconite was known to depress the functioning of the
heart; however, once purified this action was reversed. This
switching of roles is quite common to visha substances: poisonous
in their raw state, yet able to counteract the ill effects of other
poisons once purified. The benefic properties of aconite were also
called upon to remedy the venomous bites of both scorpion121 and
serpent, an honorific quality that perhaps helped elevate it to visha
status, rivalled only by the Sarpa-Visha (cobra venom).
Most visha produce some levels of heating in the body, and in this
respect aconite is no different. During a longer therapeutic course
known as Vishakalpa,122 the patient would consume smaller
amounts of this drug over extended periods in an effort to cleanse
and rejuvenate the bodily tissues. The performance of these highly
intense programmes required strict codes of conduct. Generally a
treatment would be recommended to commence in the cooler
seasons, supported by a diet of cooling foods. An absence of
heating spices was also to be observed by the patient, whilst
drinking plenty of cooling fluids. After a preliminary period of
purgation the devitalised tissues would then be nourished with
foods such as ghee, butter, milk, honey, rice and wheat, after
stimulating the immune system by the slow introduction of toxins.
As with all visha there are a number of different methods of
purification and preparation, but generally the urine of the cow is
favoured for this purpose. A close second would be the use of raw
milk, often being used as a medium in which to boil these
materials. Mustā (Cyperus rotundus), Marica (Piper nigrum),
Gandhaka (sulphur), Parsik Yavani (Hyoscyamus niger), Vaccha
(Acorus calamus) and Tankana (borax) are other materials known
to have neutralising effects upon visha. Borax is particularly
interesting, as its combination (by equal weight) is advised to be
mixed with any visha, then incinerated (usually laghu puṭa). The
final herbo-mineral bhasma could be administered in minute
quantities, having also the benefit of a greatly increased shelf life.

Aconite in Chinese medicine

‘There is no substance on earth that is more toxic than Chicken

Poison (jidu; an ancient term for Chuanwu/Wutou aconite), yet
a good physician collects and stores it away to be used for
medicinal purposes.’
The Aconite Papers, Heiner Fruehauf

Chinese medicine also holds a particular reverence for the root of

aconite, noting its profound ability to expel internal coldness and
pathogenic dampness whilst tonifying yang. Indeed, aconite is
sometimes known as ‘The Flagship of Chinese Medicine’.
Aconite was known to be hot, bitter and extremely drying in
action, but the king of herbs was not without its dangers.
Preparation and minute dosages were taught to be of prime
importance, even taking into account seasonal variations123 of the
herb as well as a prospective patient’s constitutional
differences.124 Genuine aconite is said to originate from Sichuan
Province where prime medicinal examples of the plant (Aconitum
carmichaelii/kusnezoffii) are harvested. Although the plant is found
in other provinces, this area has remained dedicated to the
production of this highly specialised medicinal crop for more than
2000 years.
The use of aconite in China is ancient – tales of the plant’s kill-or-
cure reputation are rife in its folklore and legends. Taoist
aesthetics considered it to be a plant of immense potential in their
quest for physical immortality as well as the more mundane uses in
their daily pharmacopeia, used mostly to keep their bodies in good
health whilst exposed to a life in the wilderness.
Prior to use, aconite was subjected to a number of purification
practices (some say as many as 70 different types of post-
harvesting techniques were known) to help reduce the
concentration of its principal alkaloid aconitum. Once processing
was completed, aconite was considered to be pre-eminent amongst
contemporary herbal treatments. Aconite was known to be useful
for the following disorders: rheumatic conditions, neuralgia,
cholera, dysentery, paralysis, abdominal hernia, broken bones,
headaches, eczema, contusions, bruises and burns (if pasted and
applied externally).

Aconite purification method

Ingredient

75g Vatsanābha tuber (Aconitum napellus/ferox)

1. The harvested tuber is carefully washed in warm water to

remove any extraneous material and dried.
2. When dried, the tuber is submerged into mustard seed oil
(containing a little ground rock salt) and then left to soak for
seven days.
3. Upon removal the tuber will have blackened. Excess oil is then
removed and the tuber cut into thin discs and placed into a
cloth pottali.
4. Using the Dolā yantra method, the sliced pieces of tuber are
then immersed into cow’s urine or raw milk and boiled. Using
 the urine method requires approximately 3 hours of heating;
its equivalent in milk requires 6 hours.
5. After cooking is complete the pottali is removed and its
contents thoroughly washed and dried. Additional full drying
takes place in the open air under strong sunlight.
6. When the material is dry, the pieces of tuber are initially
reduced in a granite mortar and then swapped to a ceramic
one in the latter stages of grinding.
7. The final light-coloured powder is then sieved and stored in an
amber-coloured glass jar. Powdered aconite has a shelf life of
about a year without any loss of potency.

Benefits of aconite
Aconite is useful in cases of rheumatism, heart disease, gout,
asthma, bronchitis, piles, fever, earache, sciatica, lumbago and
inflammation. It improves digestion and destroys āma. It reduces
excess VK and is a general rejuvenative for the body (rasāyana).
The most commonly used anupāna for aconite is raw milk, honey,
chyawanprash or triphala.

12.4

Bhallātaka (Bhilawan Nut)

 Bhallātaka or marking nut (Semecarpus anacardium)

‘Fruits of Bhallātaka are tīkṣṇa (sharp), pākī (corrosive) and

like fire (agni sama), but when prepared accordingly to
prescribed methods they work like amṛta (ambrosia).’
Caraka Saṃhitā

‘Ripe fruits of Bhallātaka are sweet when digested, light,

astringent, digestive, soothing, acrid, warm, a reducer of fat,
purgative, increaser of retentive faculties and an increaser of
hunger. They destroy phlegm, vāyu, sores, udara-roga, leprosy,
piles, chronic diarrhoea, Gulma, dropsy, intestinal obstructions,
fever and worms.’
Rasa Jala Nidhi

According to the Caraka Saṃhitā, nothing enkindles digestive fire

as effectively as Bhallātaka, and certainly this remarkable nut finds
its way into many formulations, particularly those favouring a
rasāyana action. Bhallātaka is considered to have some visha
properties, although its effect may not manifest in all that cross its
path. Those susceptible to its toxin will show signs of skin irritation
almost immediately. That being said, it is generally advised that
when working with marking nut (the common name for
Bhallātaka), it is advantageous to wear some kind of skin
protection and avoid direct contact or accidental splashes.
When discussed in textbooks on rasa remedies, its beneficial
effects of Bhallātaka are almost always accompanied by a warning
about its irritant effects. The following extract is a typical example:
‘Swelling and irritation, due to Bhallātaka poison, is pacified by the
external application of butter, sesame (tila) milk and khanda gurh
(molasses).’
Rasa Jala Nidhi

Bhallātaka is a close cousin of the cashew (Anacardiaceae family)

and is found in many parts of Asia, extending as far south as
northern Australia. The tree has long been a source of profitable
medicine and good lumber. Analysis of the nut’s nutritional value
reveals a high calorific content with high concentrations of
phosphorus, magnesium and calcium. When ripe, its black tarry oil
can be sequestered from the pericarp by breaking its surface and
applying pressure. Freshly harvested nuts are dropped into water
and retrieved if sinking, and discarded if floating. Sinking nuts are
generally heavier and contain more of the precious oil. The black
exudate is also known as Bhilawan oil125 and was most commonly
used to inscribe identification marks onto fabric (hence the name
‘marking nut’). The oil is non-water-soluble but can be removed
using a mild solution of alcohol or detergent. To fix the oil onto
fabric it is immersed in a solution of Tankana (borax), Kanksi
(alum) or sudha (lime water).
Bhallātaka was famous all across the ancient world, being used
to treat a number of disorders, but was particularly renowned for
its effectiveness in treating diseases of the skin. Once purified, this
remedy could even be successful in less-developed cases of leprosy
(considered an incurable condition in many ancient cultures).
Bhallātaka was also renowned for its use as a fertiliser, especially
for the propogation of methi (fenugreek). Large amounts of the nut
would be harvested, macerated and ploughed into the land. The
mashed nuts were also decocted into diluted cow’s urine, to be
used as an irrigation agent and pesticide.
Bhallātaka was long known to be a strong rejuvenate and found
its way into a number of preparations as well as being eaten
directly (by some constitutionally strong individuals). As in the case
of aconite, those living in close proximity to this material often
developed higher levels of resistance to its toxicity. Once purified
the oil was thought to increase immunity, promote strength, and
regenerate and rejuvenate bodily tissues. When used in
combination with secondary carrier oils such as sesame, the oil of
Bhallātaka would help keep one’s hair lustrous and free from early
greying. One common method of ingesting the nut would be to boil
it in milk. Other recipes mention the nuts being stripped of their
shells and lightly fried in ghee or butter, mashed and served with
rice kanji (rice porridge). This method of intake was advised in
cases of severe fatigue or long-term convalescence.
Bhilawan oil was also extracted by boiling pierced nutshells in
milk. After the leeched oil was suspended in the milk, the decoction
was filtered and the nuts discarded (or macerated for fertiliser).
The remaining milk was then added to ghee and slowly heated.
During this secondary cooking process any remaining water and
milk solids were removed, leaving only ghee and infused Bhilawan
oil. Finally, the oil was filtered and allowed to solidify, in some
cases being additionally sweetened with jaggery. Alternatively, the
oil of the nut would be extracted by boiling pierced or spliced
shells in hot water and carefully combing the exudate from the
surface of the water. This could then be heated on a low flame or
dried naturally under sunlight.
The remaining sticky oil was added to melted butter and allowed
to solidify. Again, jaggery could be added to sweeten the final
mixture, counteracting the oil’s tīkṣṇa nature. The ratio of
Bhallātaka oil to butter was adjusted in accordance with its
therapeutic effect.126 The resultant mixture required careful
administration, as higher dosage and increased frequency of use
was not without side effects in some patients.

Diagram of basic Patala yantra: (1) Bhallātaka nuts; (2) seven layers of clay and cloth
surrounding glass jar to protect from heat; (3) external heat source/cow dung cakes; (4)
metal grill retaining nuts; (5) glass jar below ground level; (6) exudate oil Another method
of Bhilawan oil extraction was by Patala yantra (see illustration above); this method is a
common procedure for a number of different nuts and seeds and is quite effective, but it
is also labour intensive and time consuming. ‘Patala’ means below ground, and ‘yantra’
refers to the apparatus. The principle of collecting the oil is quite simple a concentrated
external heat source causes the nuts to swell and exude their oil downward into a
collection vessel below ground level. Shielded from the heat source above, the collected
oil is harvested after the heating process is complete. Once extracted, the oil is further
purified by decocting into milk or cow’s urine, eventually to be recombined with other oils
such as ghee or sesame.
 Both oil and ghee can be applied topically, or taken internally as
avaleha127 and medicated ghee’s. Final preparations of Bhilawan
oil include Bhallātaka Taila (medicated oil), Amritabhallātaka Grtha
(ghee) and the Tibb formulation Hab Diq-ul-atfal.

This apparatus represents a crude form of Patala yantra, in this case being used to
extract pine resin, but the principle remains the same. Here firewood was used in place of
cow dung cakes. Left: Firewood was moved progressively closer to the clay pot containing
shreds of pine bark. Right: The clay pot is later removed to expose the subterranean
chamber now holding the exudate oil The effects of Bhallātaka oil were known to be fast-
acting – it was often said that once touched upon the soles of the feet its effects could be
felt instantaneously in the head and vice versa. Purified forms of this oil were favoured in
external application/paste. When heated with sesame oil, Greek pitch (Pix græca) and
beeswax, it could be applied to the feet in cases of dryness and cracking of the skin.
Bhallātaka Taila (medicated sesame oil infused with Bhilawan oil) could be used internally
and externally; taken orally this oil was especially useful in cases of asthma and non-
bleeding piles.

Modern scientific studies are rediscovering the potential of this

humble nut, including some of its anti-carcinogenic properties.
Recent pharmacological/therapeutic studies performed in India
showed that the use of purified Bhallātaka improved life
expectancy of those suffering from various types of cancer,
including leukaemia (a particular cancer known to benefit from the
use of Bhallātaka).
There are a number of recommended shodhana techniques for
Bhallātaka, with some methods favouring purification via decoction
(partially leeching oil from the nut); others by direct toxic
neutralisation of the oil. The following two methods outline each
approach.

Bhallātaka purification methods

Method 1

Ingredients

200g Bhallātaka/Bilader (Semecarpus anacardium)

Cow’s urine or milk

1. 200g of Bhallātaka nuts are washed in warm water and sorted

according to their ability to float or sink in water. Floating
nuts are discarded; nuts with a greater concentration of oil
will sink in water.
2. Using a pair of heavy scissors or sharp knife the stalk is
removed along with the pericarp. Some texts advise this
casing to be stripped away by abrasion upon a flat stone.
(Note: At this point some form of skin protection should be
worn to protect exposed skin.) Hands should be coated with
ghee or coconut oil before preparation of Bhallātaka.
3. Once stripped the nuts are wrapped in a cloth and suspended
in cow’s urine or milk for 3 hours and boiled using the Dolā
yantra (pottali) method.
4. After cooking, blackened liquid is drained off and the
remaining nuts removed, rinsed and air-dried.
5. After fully drying, the nuts are ground into a fine black
powder, sieved and stored in an amber-coloured glass jar.

Method 2

Ingredients

200g Bhallātaka (Semecarpus anacardium)

200g Kithul jaggery (date palm sugar)

Triphala powder
 1. 200g of Bhallātaka nuts are washed in warm water and sorted
according to their ability to float or sink. Floating nuts are
discarded; nuts with a greater concentration of oil will sink in
water.
2. Using a pair of heavy scissors or sharp knife the stalk is
removed. (Note: At this point some form of skin protection
should be worn to protect exposed skin.) Hands should be
coated with ghee or coconut oil before preparation of
Bhallātaka.
3. Using an iron mortar, the remaining nut is reduced to a soft
pulp.
4. An equal quantity of Kithul jaggery is then grated and mixed
into the pulped Bhallātaka. The two materials are then
pounded together into a soft pliable mass.
5. A little ghee or coconut oil is then applied to the hands and,
breaking off small amounts of the mixture, pills are rolled and
air-dried. Sometimes pills are rolled in lime to aid in their
dying and reduce their heating quality.
6. When complete, finished pills are stored in an amber-coloured
glass jar.

Benefits of Bhallātaka
Purified marking nut is useful in the treatment of piles, splenic
disorders, persistent skin diseases, abdominal bloating, obesity,
nervous system/brain tonic (rasāyana), Majjā dhātu (bone marrow),
asthma, poisonous bites, allergic reactions, leucoderma, swollen
joints (osteoarthritis), worms (parasites) and various types of
cancer.
Bhallātaka is most frequently employed in the treatment of skin
disorders, from dry scaly skin to discolourations, dermatitis and the
removal of warts. In cases of haemorrhoids, marking nut is
particularly effective as an internal medicine; however, overuse can
exacerbate the condition. Prolonged use of this medicine can lead
to itchiness and/or painful urination, either of these signs
indicating that its use is to be ceased immediately. Ironically,
continual exposure to the oil of this nut eventually tends to cause
skin conditions such as dermatitis or cirrhosis.
 The most commonly used anupāna for Bhallātaka is cool raw milk
sweetened with jaggery; this also happens to be its most frequently
used remedy for any adverse effect. As noted in the previous
overview, Bhallātaka is extremely heating and tends to easily
aggravate those of a Pitta constitution. Anyone therefore showing
any of the signs common to those of Pitta dosha is advised to avoid
medicines containing this ingredient.

 
 SECTION 13

THE LIVING TRADITION OF HERBO-

MINERAL MEDICINES

13.1
Rasa Formulae

‘Visha destroys life, is vyavāyī (spreads quickly all over the

body), vikāśī (causes loss of Ojas and looseness of joints),
āgneya (acts like fire), mitigates vāta and kapha, yogavāhi
(increases the qualities and potency of a substance with which
it is combined), and madāvaham (causes profound metal
disorders).’
Bhāvaprakāśa Pūrvakhanda, Bhāvamiśra

Disclaimer: The formulations mentioned in this subsection are for

academic interest only and are not designed to be reproduced in
part or in whole. These remedies form part of a living tradition of
herbo-mineral medicines that continue to be practised in Asia and
the Middle East in both Āyurvedic and Unani/Tibb traditions.

In this subsection we take a look at some individual materials

(some covered in the previous sections of Part II) and see how each
were and still are incorporated into traditionally prepared
formulae. Every material within a formula has unique properties,
and these often require being balanced or counteracted, depending
upon individual strengths or synergistic energetics. When used in
conjunction, some materials such as jade (Sangeyasab) and agate
(Akika) support each other, as do bitumen (Shilajit) and Guggulu
(Commiphora mukul). The opposite is true for Gandhaka (sulphur)
and Loha (iron), which tend to counteract one another unless
Kajjali128 (black sulphide of mercury) is first prepared as a carrier
medium.
Each rasa has its own general indications/properties, but specific
formulae were developed to treat specific conditions.129 These
formulations can be interesting to dissect, as understanding the
individual energetics of different ingredients builds more
familiarity with herbo-metallic preparations.
This subsection skims only briefly over the surface of rasa
formulation – there are hundreds if not thousands of formulae in
existence, each with its own cultural variations, practitioner
preferences, general availability and material grades.130 Out of this
great diversity I have selected some formulae that not only use
each sample material, but also play an important part in its
therapeutic value.
All rasa materials indicated with an asterisk would have been
purified prior to their inclusion in any formula. Please note that not
all rasa ingredients marked in this subsection have been detailed in
this book in regard to their separate purification methods. For
more information about the individual practices of these
purification techniques see my previous work, Rasa Shāstra: The
Art of Vedic Alchemy, volumes 1–4.

Cinnabar (Hiṅgula)
FORMULA: HIṄGULEŚWARA RASA
Qty Sanskrit English Herb/Latin of plant name
1 part Hiṅgula* Cinnabar (mercuric sulphide)
1 part Vatsanābha* Aconite (root) Aconitum napellus
1 part Pippali Long pepper (fruits) Piper longum

Method All ingredients are ground together and bound with a

little acacia gum pasted in water. Small pills are individually rolled
and left to dry in sunlight.

Anupāna Honey
Dosage 125mg

Uses Vāta Jwara (Vāta type of fever usually accumulating in the

spring and autumn – between seasons). Erratic symptoms, general
fatigue, dryness and stiffness of limbs, feeling cold, constipation
and dry stools, dry skin and darkness around the eyes.

Hiṅgula −VPK, improves digestion, rasāyana, reduces fever,

destroys āma Vāta.131

Vatsanābha Balances VPK, improves digestion, heating, reduces

fever.

Sulphur (Gandhaka)
FORMULA: GANDHAKA RASĀYANA
Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
1 part Gandhaka Sulphur (element)
1 part Jaggery Palm sugar

BHAVANA MATERIALS (×7 EACH)

Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
1 Godugdha Milk
part
1 Nagakesara Cobras saffron Mesua ferrea
part
1 Ela Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum
part
1 Ardraka Ginger (juice) Zingiber officinale
part
1 Tamalpatra Bay leaf (juice) Cinnamomum tejpata
part
1 Āmalakī Triphala (kwatha1) Emblica officinalis, Terminalia chebula,
part Harītakī Terminalia belerica
Bibhītaki
1 Bhringaraj False daisy Eclipta alba
part (kwatha)
1 Tvak Cinnamon bark Cinnamomum zeylanicum
part (kwatha)
1 Kwatha = Sanskrit term for decoction.
Method Sulphur is first given bhavana with milk infused with saffron and cardamom,
then ginger juice and fresh bay leaves, followed by a decoction of triphala, bhringaraj,
sunthi and tvak. Gandhaka is then mixed with an equal quantity of jaggery, rolled into
pills and dried under sunlight.

Anupāna Milk

Dosage 125mg

Uses Toxic blood, skin diseases, high āma, poor digestion and
assimilation; reduces arthritic conditions, reduces Pitta.

Sulphur Rasāyana, −V −K, improves digestion, burns up toxics,

bonds with free radicals, yoga vāhin132 and aphrodisiac.

Bitumen (Shilajit)
FORMULA: CHANDRAPRABHA VATI (250MG TABLET)
Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
Shilajit* Bitumen
57.6mg
Guggulu* Indian myrrh Commiphora mukul
57.6mg
Kalkandu Rock candy
28.8mg
Loha Iron (oxide)
14.4mg Bhasma*

Tabasheer Bamboo manna

7.2mg (resin)

Nagadandi Wild muell (root) Baliospermum montanum1

7.2mg
Trivruta Morning glory Operculina turpethum
7.2mg (root)
 Tamalpatra Indian bay leaf Cinnamomum tejpata
7.2mg
Ela Cardamom (fruit) Elettaria cardamomum
7.2mg
Tvak Cinnamon (bark) Cinnamomum zeylanicum
7.2mg
Āmalakī Triphala (churna2) Emblica officinalis, Terminalia
5.4mg Harītakī
Bibhītaki
chebula, Terminalia belerica

Sarji Ksara Sodium carbonate

1.8mg
Dhanyaka Coriander (seeds) Coriandrum sativum
1.8mg
Daruharidra Indian burberry Berberis aristata
1.8mg (stem)

Kalanamak Black salt

1.8mg
Swarna Chalcopyrite
1.8mg Maksika* (copper sulphide)

Yavaksara Potassium
1.8mg carbonate

Saindhava Rock salt

1.8mg Lavaṇa

Haridra Turmeric (rhizome) Curcuma longa

1.8mg
 Bhunimba Kirata (whole Swertia chirata
1.8mg plant)

Kachura Zedoary (rhizome) Curcuma zedoaria

1.8mg
Chitraka Ceylon leadwort Plumbago zeylanica
1.8mg (root)

Chavya Thai long pepper Piper chaba

1.8mg (fruit)

Mustaka Nutgrass (rhizome) Cyperus rotundus

1.8mg
Ativisha Aconite (root) Aconitium heterphyllum
1.8mg
Gajapippali Large long pepper Scindapsus officinalis
1.8mg (fruit)

Devadaru Cedar wood (bark) Cedrus devdara

1.8mg
Pippali Long pepper (fruit) Piper longum
1.8mg
Pippalimula Long pepper (root) Piper longum
1.8mg
Vaccha Sweet flag Acorus calamus
1.8mg (rhizome)

Maricha Black pepper Piper nigrum

1.8mg (fruit)
 1.8mg Shunthi Dried ginger
(rhizome)
Zingiber officinale

Vidanga Embilia (fruits) Ebelia ribes

1.8mg
1 Sometimes substituted for Jayapāla seeds (Croton tiglium).
2 Churna = dried/powdered drugs.

Method Variations of Chandraprabha Vati formula vary between

35 and 37 ingredients. Plant materials are first powdered and
decoctions prepared as required. The final mass is ground and
kneaded into pills until they can be rolled without sticking to the
hand. The rolled pills are then placed in a shady but warm area to
dry.

Anupāna Warm water or milk

Dosage 250mg

Uses Rasāyana of urinary tract, diabetes, obesity, anaemia, piles,

skin diseases and eye disorders, poor digestion/assimilation, kidney
stones.

Shilajit General rasāyana, but working specifically on the kidneys

and urinary system, beneficial in cases of diabetes, gallstones,
kidney stones, anaemia, tuberculosis, oedema, gout and heart
disease.

Guggulu133 General rasāyana, reduces and lightens the body,

removes arthritic pain, gout, scrapes āma from the joints, reduces
swelling and excess mucus, useful in cases of diabetes.

Loha Bhasma Blood rasāyana, reduces free radicals and improves

vision, useful for the treatment of anaemia, consumption, worms,
obesity, oedema, liver disease, diabetes, lipoma and piles.

Swarna Maksika Bhasma134 Cancer, anaemia, skin disease, piles,

tuberculosis, loss of taste, digestive disorders, abdominal pain,
rasāyana, promotes bone marrow, yoga vāhin.
Lapis Lazuli (Rajavarta)
FORMULA: RAJAVARTA RASA
Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
1 part Rajavarta* Lapis lazuli
1 part Rasa Sindoora* Mercuric sulphide
1 part Tamra Bhasma* Copper (oxide)
1 part Yastimadhu Liquorice (churna) Glycyrrhiza glabra

Method Rajavarta, Rasa Sindoora, Tamra Bhasma and Yastimadhu

are ground together and lightly roasted in ghee (clarified butter) in
an iron frying pan. The paste formed is rolled into a pill the size of
a raktika135 seed.

Anupāna Honey, ghee or jaggery

Dosage 125mg

Uses Removal of toxins, restoration of tissues, cleansing of

thoughts, the breaking of addictions (alcoholism).

Rajavarta Brain tonic, promotes digestion, heals diabetes, urinary

disorders, tuberculosis, useful in cases of asthma, and controls
vomiting.

Rasa Sindoora Aphrodisiac, promotes intelligence, rasāyana

(reduces the effects of ageing), general tonic.

Tamra Bhasma Ascites, anaemia, piles, skin disease, bronchitis,

asthma, tuberculosis, chronic rhinitis, gastritis, colic pain, oedema,
liver disease and goitre.

Arsenic Trisulphide (Haritāla)

FORMULA: RASA MAANIKYA
Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
1 part Haritāla* Arsenic trisulphide

Method Pieces of purified Haritāla are sandwiched between thin

sheets of Abhraka (mica) and heated in a medium flame until their
sulphur content is liquefied. Once cooled, the red crystallised
content can be removed and ground. Maanikya implies its
similarity to ruby in appearance.

Anupāna Honey or ghee

Dosage 125–250mg

Uses Brain tonic, anti-carcinogen, reduces fever, gout, chronic

bronchitis, cures syphilis, fistula, sinusitis, chronic diseases of the
skin.

Haritāla Fevers, haemophilia, syphilis, gout, fistula, skin disease,

fever and urticaria, diabetes, paralysis (facial), rheumatism and
arthritis.

Serpentine (Nagapashana)
FORMULA: JAWAHAR MOHRA BHASMA
Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
1 part Nagapashana* Magnesium silicate
1 part Kutki Hellbore (rhizome) Picororhiza kurrao
1 part Arka* Crown flower (latex) Calotropis gigantea
1 part Arjuna Arjun tree (kwatha) Terminalia arjuna

Method Purified Nagapashana is ground with juice from Kutki,

Arka latex or Arjuna decoction. Cakrika are made and then
calcinated. This process is repeated seven times until a fine reddish
ash is achieved.

Anupāna Apple juice

Dosage 125–250mg

Uses Cardiac rasāyana and liver tonic.

Nagapashana Rasāyana for heart and brain, liver tonic, antidote

for visha/snake bite/poisons, reduces vomiting, promotes happiness
and strength of bodily organs.
Arka Anti-inflammatory, spermicidal agent, used in the treatment
of bronchial asthma, lesions, sores, inner ear infections, ulcers,
abdominal diseases, digestive parasites and a general rejuvenative.

Copper (Tamra)
FORMULA: TAMRA PARPATI
Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
3 parts Tamra Bhasma* Copper (oxide)
9 parts Kajjali* Mercuric sulphide
1 part Vatsanābha* Aconite (root) Aconitum napellus

Method Kajjali is prepared from Pārada and Gandhaka and ground

with Tamra Bhasma and Vatsanābha. The ingredients are then
heated in an iron ladle on a mild flame until melted. The contents
are then carefully poured onto a flattened banana leaf (supported
with compacted cow dung) and pressed flat using a small packet
made of banana leaf wrapped around a small amount of cow dung.
This method of manufacture is known as Parpati (see Part II).

Anupāna Varies according to condition (see Uses).

Dosage 125–250mg

Uses Chronic colitis (taken with triphala and honey), urinary pain,
anaemia (taken with castor oil), skin conditions including
leucoderma and fungal infections (taken with powdered Vaccha
(Acorus calamus)).

Individual ingredients have been previously covered.

Tin (Vanga)
FORMULA: MADUKADI CURNA
Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
125mg Vanga Bhasma* Tin (oxide)
2g Yastimadhu Liquorice (churna) Glycyrrhiza glabra
2g Haridra Turmeric (rhizome) Curcuma longa
Method The ingredients are ground together and mixed with the
juice of pulped Arka leaves (Calotropis procera) or Kumārī (aloe
vera).

Anupāna Milk

Dosage As above

Uses Severe anaemia.

Vanga Paralysis, urinary tract infections, premature ejaculation,

consumption, worms, diabetes, excessive sweating, dermatitis,
inner ear infections, vertigo and tinnitus.

Zinc (Yasada)
FORMULA: KUSHTA MUSALLUS (UNANI)
Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
10g Yasada* Zinc (oxide)
10g Vanga* Tin (oxide)
10g Nāga* Lead (oxide)
250g Khasabeeja* Opium poppy (dried) Papaver somniferum

Method Equal quantities of the three metals are heated at high

temperature until liquid. This liquid is then poured into an iron
container filled with mustard seed oil. This process is repeated
seven times. The resulting mixture is then heated again in an iron
pan until liquid and 250g of dried Khasabeeja added a little at a
time until the metallic mass is mixed in amongst the ash from the
dried plant material. Yoghurt is then added to the ash and mixed
into a paste thick enough to mould into cakrika, which are then
dried under the sun and sealed into a crucible and calcinated at
around 900ºC. After cooling, the cakrika are removed from the
crucible and powdered. Yoghurt is again added to the powdered
material and cakrika again formed and dried. The cakrika are once
again sealed into a crucible and calcinated. This last process is
repeated five times in total until a yellowish/white bhasma is
formed.
Anupāna Butter or Majun Asad Khurma (a pre-formulated Unani
medicine); see ingredients below:

FORMULA: MAJUN ASAD KHURMA (10G SERVING APPROX.)

Qty Arabic/Unani Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
288g Satawar Wild asparagus Asparagus racemosus
144g Maghze Funduq Hazelnut Corylus aveliana
144g Maghze Chilghoza Pine nuts Pinus gerardiana
144g Maghze Badam Almonds Prunus amygdalus
29g Maghze Pambadana Indian cotton plant Gossypium indicum
14g Qaranfal Cloves Myrtus caryophyllus
7g Jaiphal Nutmeg Myristica fragrans
7g Bisbasa Red avril (nutmeg) Myristica fragrans
6g Qand Safed Sugar cane Saccharum officinarum
Samaghe Arabi Gum arabic Acacia arabica
1.5g
Arad Khurma Date palm sugar Phoenix dactylifera
1.5g
Singhara Khushk Water chestnuts Trapa bispinosa
1.5g

Dosage 60–125mg

Uses Sexual debilitation, premature ejaculation, low sperm count,

nocturnal emissions; increases ojas.136

Yasada −P −K, diseases of the eye, diabetes, anaemia, bronchial

asthma, all types of skin disease, throat infections, chronic wounds,
tonsillitis, fistula and stomatitis.

Nāga Menorrhagia, piles, diabetes, urinary infections and seminal

debility.

Khasabeeja Calms the nervous system, analgesic, reduces

diarrhoea and restlessness and improves sleep.
Diamond (Hiraka) and Quartz (Sphatika)
Note: Quartz is sometimes substituted for diamond; however, the
potency of the drug is greatly reduced.

FORMULA: BHUTANKUSA RASA

Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
⅓ part Hiraka Bhasma* Diamond (element)
1 part Kajjali* Mercuric sulphide
1 part Loha Bhasma* Iron (oxide)
1 part Abhraka Bhasma* Mica (silicate)
1 part Tamra Bhasma* Copper (oxide)
1 part Mukta Bhasma* Pearl (calcium carbonate)
1 part Manah Shila* Arsenic disulphate
1 part Haritāla* Arsenic trisulphide
1 part Sasyaka* Copper sulphate
1 part Rasanjana*1 Oxide of mercury (yellow)
1 part Samudra Phena* Cuttle fish bone
1 part Shilajit* Bitumen
1 part Souviranjana* Antimony sulphide
1 part Saindhava Lavaṇa Rock salt
1 There is no agreement about the true nature of this material. It is believed by some to
be a yellow oxide of mercury.

BHAVANA MATERIALS (×7 EACH)

Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
Qs Bhringaraj False daisy (juice) Eclipta alba
Qs Chitraka Ceylon leadwort (juice) Plumbago zeylanica
Qs Snuhi Milk hedge (latex) Euphorbia ligularis
Note: Qs = Quantity sufficient.

Method All materials are triturated in the juice of bhringaraj,

Chitraka and latex of Snuhi. From the mixture a balled mass is
prepared and placed into a crucible and heated to 900ºC. The
resultant material is ground into a fine powder for medicinal usage.

Anupāna Ginger juice

Dosage 125–250mg
Uses Madness and mental seizures (believed to be caused by
earthbound restless spirits).

Hiraka −VPK, increases longevity, destroys disease, improves

digestion, removes diabetes, fatigue, wasting, anaemia, vertigo,
tuberculosis, inflammation and improves immunity.

Kajjali Rasāyana/increases longevity.

Abhraka Cough, asthma, anaemia, tuberculosis, fever, diabetes (all

types), gastritis, piles, heart disease, vertigo, colic pain and
urticaria.

Mukta Controls fever, promotes healthy bones, heals tuberculosis,

asthma, bronchitis, heart disease, promotes vision, improves
digestion, general rasāyana and cures respiratory diseases.

Manah Shila Chronic bronchitis, chronic fever, bronchial asthma,

itching, anaemia, tuberculosis and worms.

Sasyaka Eye disease, poisoning, skin disease (leucoderma),

parasitic infestations (worms) and ulcers.

Samudra Phena Heals skin, reduces mineral deficiency in silica,

iron and phosphoric acid, and heals earache.

Souviranjana Myopia, hypermetropia, cataract, conjunctivitis,

glaucoma, ulcers, bleeding disorders, menorrhagia, excessive
hiccups and poisoning.

Agate (Akika)
FORMULA: AKIKA BHASMA (AGATE,1 JADE AND PEARL)
Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
1 part Akika Agate (silicate)
1 part Sangeyasab Bhasma Jade (aluminium silicate)
1 part Mukta Pisti Pearl (calcium carbonate)
1 All types of chalcedony are acceptable: onyx, agate and quartz. Rasa Shāstra
considers the red variety to have the highest potency.
Method Akika and Sangeyasab are ground together and mixed
with a small amount of apple juice, made into cakrika and
calcinated in a sealed crucible. The cakrika are then retrieved and
re-ground with Mukta Pisti. The ground material is then mixed with
a little apple juice and made into pills.

Anupāna Jaggery

Dosage 60–125mg

Uses Heart and intestinal tonic with anti-consumptive properties,

rasāyana for eyesight, gives strength to jaw and teeth.

Akika −P, rasāyana for the heart, stops bleeding, removes urinary
calculi, prevents haemorrhages, promotes good vision and strong
teeth.

Sangeyasab Heart disease, colic pain, urinary disorders, urinary

calculus, gastric pain and dysentery, rasāyana for reproductive
organs.

Blue Sapphire (Nilama)

Note: This amazing formula seems to have thrown everything into
one mixture, with all nine graha being represented by their
respective gemstones. Formulations such as this one would only
have been practical if stocks of ingredients had been built up over
time. The daunting task of making something of this complexity
could run into many months of toil. These types of formula show a
deep level of commitment and that the end did justify the means. It
is almost inconceivable to imagine that these types of medicine are
still manufactured today, yet they are. This type of formulation can
be more costly to produce, yet certain manufacturers do still take it
upon themselves to make it using traditional methods.

Method Part 1
All ingredients except deer musk, camphor and saffron are
triturated until well mixed.

FORMULA: NAVA RATNA RAJA MRGANKA RASA

Qty Sanskrit Common name Graha/planet
1 Vaiduryam Cat’s eye (aluminium oxide) Ketu/southern node
part Bhasma*
2 Kajjali* Mercuric sulphide Nine gemstones = nine
parts planets only
1 Swarna Bhasma* Gold (oxide)
part
1 Rajata Bhasma* Silver (oxide)
part
1 Rasaka Bhasma* Zinc (oxide)
part
1 Tarksya Bhasma* Emerald (aluminium silicate) Buddha/Mercury
part
1 Hiraka Bhasma* Diamond (carbon) Shukra/Venus
part
1 Pushparaga Topaz (aluminium silicate) Guru/Jupiter
part Bhasma*
1 Nilama Bhasma* Sapphire (aluminium oxide) Shani/Saturn
part
1 Maanikya Ruby (aluminium oxide) Surya/Sun
part Bhasma*
1 Chandrakanta* Moonstone (aluminium Chandra/Moon
part silicate)
1 Pravala Bhasma* Coral (calcium carbonate) Kuja/Mars
part
1 Gomeda Bhasma* Hessonite (aluminium silicate) Rahu/northern node
part
1 Kanta Pashana* Magnetic iron ore (oxide) Nine gemstones = nine
part planets only
1 Vanga Bhasma* Tin (oxide)
part
1 Nāga Bhasma* Lead (oxide)
part
1 Vimala Bhasma* Iron pyrite (ferric sulphide)
part
1 Shankha Conch shell (calcium
part Bhasma* carbonate)
1 Tamra Bhasma* Copper (oxide)
part
1 Sukti Bhasma* Mother of pearl (calcium
part carbonate)
1 Haritāla* Arsenic trisulphide
part
1 Abhraka Bhasma* Mica (silicate)
part
1 Hiṅgula* Cinnabar (mercuric sulphide)
part
1 Manah Shila* Arsenic disulphate
part
1 Kapura Camphora
part
1 Kasturi Deer musk
part
1 Nagakesara Cobras saffron (Mesua ferrea)
part

Method Part 2
The materials are now given bhavana seven times with all the
ingredients below. After the final bhavana the ground mass is
rolled into small pills and allowed to dry completely.

BHAVANA MATERIALS (×7 EACH)

Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
1 part Goksura Small caltrops (juice) Tribulus terrestris
1 part Nagavalli Betel leaf (juice) Piper betle Linn
1 part Vasā Malabar nut (juice) Adhatoda beddomei
1 part Mundi Globe thistle (juice) Sphaeranthus indicus
1 part Pippali Long pepper (kwatha) Piper longum
1 part Chitraka Ceylon leadwort (kwatha) Plumbago zeylanica
1 part Iksu Sugar cane (stems) Saccharum officinarum Linn
1 part Guduchi Tinospora (juice) Tinospora cordifolia
1 part Dattura Datura (juice) Datura stromonium/metel
1 part Agnimantha Premna (juice) Premna mucronata
1 part Draksa Grape (kwatha) Vitis vinifera
1 part Shatāvari Wild asparagus (kwatha) Asparagus racemosus
1 part Punarnava Mountain ebony (kwatha) Boerhavia diffusa
1 part Shatapatrika Rose (water) Rosa damascena
1 part Yastimadhu Liquorice (kwatha) Glycyrrhiza glabra
1 part Salmali Cotton tree (kwatha) Bombax malabaricum
1 part Dhataki Fire-flame bush (cold infusion) Woodfordia fruticosa
1 part Jatisasya Nutmeg (kwatha) Myristica fragrans
1 part Bala Country mallow (kwatha) Sida cordifolia
1 part Nāgabalā Arrowleaf (kwatha) Sida spinosa
1 part Atibala Indian mallow (kwatha) Abutilon indicum
1 part Hribera Iruvale (kwatha) Coleus zeylanicus
1 part Tvak Cinnamon bark (kwatha) Cinnamomum zeylanicum
1 part Devapuspa Clove (kwatha) Syzygium aromaticum
1 part Kankola Tailed pepper (cold infusion) Piper cubeb

Method Part 3
The dried pills are carefully dropped into a prepared Kūpī jar,
buried into a vālukā yantra (sand bath) and heated to 450ºC for
approximately 12 hours. The Kūpī is then allowed to totally cool for
24 hours.
After this period the Kūpī is retrieved and broken open using the
method outlined in Part II. Pills are then collected from the bottom
of the jar (talastha137 method) and again given bhavana (×7) with
the above herbs. After the final bhavana deer musk, camphor and
saffron are added, ground into the material and dried under
sunlight.

Anupāna Honey, ghee, butter, each taken with a little ground

Pippali

Dosage 125–250mg

Uses Powerful rasāyana, aphrodisiac, general debility, Vatarakta

(wind in blood), anaemia, epilepsy, abdominal disorders
(distension/gas), poor digestion and assimilation, phthisis
(consumption), cough and anorexia.

Indications for other ingredients

Nilama Bhasma Arthritis, brain dysfunction, improves agni, −V
−P diseases, tuberculosis, infertility, skin diseases, consumption,
poisons and general debility.

Vaiduryam Bhasma Anaemia, tuberculosis, poor appetite, eye

diseases and bleeding disorders, psychic/paranormal disturbances.

Swarna Bhasma Rasāyana for the immune system, cancer,

anaemia, skin disease, piles, tuberculosis, loss of taste, digestive
disorders, abdominal pain, rasāyana, promotes bone marrow, yoga
vāhin.

Rajata Bhasma Consumption, diabetes, anaemia, insanity, blood

disorders and piles. Promotes poor digestion, heals urinary
disorders, tuberculosis, asthma, brain dysfunction, vomiting and
high Pitta conditions.

Tarksya Bhasma Fevers, anti-visha, reduces vomiting, asthma,

piles, anaemia, oedema, digestive problems, immune dysfunction,
diseases of the central nervous system.

Kanta Pashana Anaemia, consumption, obesity, parasitic

infestation, oedema, cures diseases of the liver and spleen, treats
diseases of the heart and nervous system. Cures nephritis,
leucorrhoea and diabetes.

Pravala Bhasma Chronic fever, tuberculosis, bronchitis, bleeding

disorders, excessive sweating, falling of teeth and hair, abdominal
bloating and gastritis.

Vimala Bhasma Yoga vāhin, anaemia, skin disease, piles,

tuberculosis, loss of taste, digestive disorders, abdominal pain,
rasāyana for bone marrow.

Maanikya Bhasma Rasāyana for the heart, aphrodisiac, promotes

circulation but controls bleeding and haemorrhaging, increases
agni/digestion and removes consumption.

Chandrakanta Duodenal ulcer, heart palpitations, fever, nervous

disorders, difficult menstruation and burning sensations.

Pushparaga Bhasma Skin disease, poor appetite, impaired

digestion, poisoning and weakness of the limbs.

Shankha Bhasma Indigestion, diarrhoea, gastritis, duodenal

ulcer, eye disease, lung disease, peptic ulcer, ear discharges and
irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).

Sukti Bhasma Useful in cases of colic, urinary stones, asthma and

heart disease. Sukti is a digestive stimulant and useful in the
treatment of diseases affecting the spleen.
Pearl (Mukti)
FORMULA: KANCHANADI RASA
Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
1 part Mukti* Pearl (calcium oxide)
1 part Swarna* Gold (element)
1 part Rajata* Silver (element)
1 part Rasa Sindoora* Mercuric sulphide
1 part Loha* Iron (oxide)
1 part Abraka* Mica (silicate)
1 part Pravala* Red coral (calcium oxide)
1 part Manah Shila* Realgar (arsenic disulphide)
1 part Mrga Mada Musk
1 part Harītakī Yellow myrobalan (churna) Terminalia chebula

Method All ingredients are mixed together well and made into
pills. A little gum arabic (acacia gum) is then ground with water to
make a paste to be used as a binding agent to make pills. Once
formed, these are dried under sunlight.

Anupāna Honey

Dosage 250mg

Uses Cures consumption, −K −P, +V, increases ojas, strengthens

immune functioning.

Deer Horn (Mrga Śrnga)

Outlined below is a variation of Mrga Śrnga purification and
calcification in which the end product is white instead of the usual
dark brown colour of bhasma. The white bhasma has similar effects
to its regular dark brown counterpart; however, its potency in the
treatment of heart conditions is generally accepted to have a
greater therapeutic effect.

FORMULA: MRGA ŚRNGA WHITE BHASMA

Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
1 part Mrga Śrnga* Deer horn
1 part Agasti Humming bird tree (juice) Sesbania grandiflora
1 part Godugdha Milk

Method Short lengths of Mrga Śrnga are cut and shaved into thin
shreds, cutting along the grain. These slivers are then soaked in
the juice of Agasti leaves (Sesbania grandiflora) for three days. The
slivers are then removed, washed in warm water and dried, finally
to be placed into a crucible and calcinated. The crucible is then
opened and the slivers removed and ground into a fine powder. The
powdered deer horn is then triturated with milk and cakrika made;
these are placed inside another crucible and calcinated again.
After removal from this second crucible the last procedure is again
repeated (×3 in total). After the above processing a fine white/grey
bhasma is prepared.

Anupāna Butter, milk or ghee

Dosage 250mg

Uses Rasāyana for the heart, angina pectoris, pleurisy, pain in

sides of chest, sinus problems, migraine, cough and chronic
hiccups; restores hair.

Mayūr Piccha (Peacock Feather)

FORMULA: MAHESHVARA DHUPA
Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
1 part Mayūr Piccha* Peacock feather
1 part Devadaru Cedar (resin) Cedrus deodara
1 part Musta/Mustika Nutgrass (juice) Cyperus rotundus
1 part Kutki Hellbore (juice) Picrorhiza kurroa
1 part Nagakesara Cobras saffron (stamen) Mesua ferrea
1 part Sarpkankoli Snake skin
1 part Goshrnga Cow’s horn
1 part Kapas Cotton (seeds) Gossypium indicum
1 part Joye Kasattu Barley (seeds) Hordeum vulgare
1 part Dhani/Dhany Paddy (husk)
1 part Mustard Mustard (seeds) Sinapsis alba
1 part Nimba/Neem Margosa (juice) Azadirachta indica
1 part Gardabha Mutra Urine of donkey1
1 part Aja Mala Goat (stool)
1 part Ghee Clarified butter
1 The urine of Gardabha (donkey) was thought to have special effects against
poisoning; it was also useful in treating parasitic diseases (worms) and −V −K.

Method All of the above ingredients are mixed together

thoroughly and given bhavana in the cow’s urine. The mixture is
allowed to dry and stored in dry conditions. Dried material is burnt
on an open flame and the fumes inhaled.

Uses The removal of possession of spirits (insanity).

Mayūr Piccha Anti-visha (poisoning), −V −K, chronic bronchitis,

asthma, chronic hiccups and breathing difficulties, weakness of the
lungs (rasāyana) and chronic colitis.

Vatsanābha (Aconite)
FORMULA: JVARA MRITYUNJAYA RASA
Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
1 part Vatsanābha* Aconite (root) Aconitum napellus
2 parts Kajjali* Mercuric sulphide
1 part Pippali Long pepper (fruits) Piper longum
1 part Maricha Black pepper (fruits) Piper nigrum
1 part Tankana* Borax
1 part Ardraka Ginger (juice) Zingiber officinale

Method All materials are ground well and mixed with the juice for
fresh ginger rhizome. The paste formed from this mixture is rolled
into pills and dried under sunlight.

Anupāna Ginger juice (VPK), curd water (−V), coconut water (−P)
and honey (−K) Dosage 250mg
Uses For the treatment of different types of fever (related to
dosha).

Vatsanābha Useful in cases of rheumatism and heart disease,

gout, asthma, bronchitis and piles, reduces fever, improves
digestion, rejuvenative (rasāyana).

Tankana Nervous disorders, fever, asthma, itching and ulcers.

Dattura (Datura stramonium/metel)

FORMULA: BRIHAT JVARANKUSHA RASA
Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
3 parts Dattura* Datura (seeds) Datura stramonium/metel
2 parts Kajjali* Mercuric sulphide
1 part Vatsanābha* Aconite (root) Aconitum napellus
2 parts Maricha Black pepper (fruits) Piper nigrum
2 parts Sunthi Ginger (churna) Zingiber officinale
2 parts Pippali Long pepper (fruits) Piper longum

Method All ingredients are mixed together well and made into
pills. A little gum arabic (acacia gum) is then ground with water to
make a paste to be used as a binding agent to make pills. Once
formed, these are dried under sunlight.

Anupāna Honey (−K), lime juice (−P), and ginger juice (−V)

Dosage 250mg

Uses Removal of fever by two or more dosha.

Dattura Reduces abdominal swelling, asthma, bronchitis,

intestinal parasites, eczema, lower back pain, earache,
rheumatism, gout and colic pain, reduces fever and hair loss,
improves liver function, calms the nervous system.

Bhallātaka
 FORMULA: BHALLĀTAKA RASĀYANA
Qty Sanskrit Common name Herb/Latin of plant name
1 part Bhallātaka Marking nut Semicarpus anacardium
1 part Loha Bhasma Iron (oxide)
1 part Sunthi Ginger (churna) Zingiber officinale
1 part Vidanga False black pepper (seeds) Embelia ribes

Method All ingredients are mixed together well and made into
pills. A little gum arabic (acacia gum) is then ground with water to
make a paste to be used as a binding agent to make pills. Once
formed, these are dried under sunlight.

Anupāna Honey and ghee

Dosage 500mg–1g

Uses Reduces abdominal distension, low digestive ability, rasāyana

for bone marrow, anaemia, Alzheimer’s disease and senility.

Bhallātaka Useful in the treatment of piles, splenic disorders,

persistent skin diseases, abdominal bloating, obesity, nervous
system/brain tonic (rasāyana).

13.2
Rasa Shāstra in Therapy

Memorial Herbal Immunotherapy Research

and Cancer Information Centre, Niripola,
Hanwella, Sri Lanka

During my stay in Sri Lanka I was taken on a short visit to a well-

known clinic specialising in the treatment of cancer, pioneered by
the late Dr Bernard Randeniya. Although it was a short visit it was
interesting to have been given an opportunity to speak to its
director (at that time), staff and a number of its resident patients.
On the whole the clinic seemed to be prospering, gaining some
significant political support, not least by the Sri Lankan president
herself, Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga. Many of the
patients reported ongoing success with their treatments, and more
it seemed were optimistically awaiting treatment. I am not an
expert in such matters and so cannot comment on the treatment
plan and successes, other than the testimonials of the patients and
staff. What I can say is that most treatments given there were
largely Āyurvedic in their protocol, relying a great deal on
Pañcakarma techniques and other treatments that addressed the
pacification of excess dosha.
What was unique to this particular clinic was its pioneering use
of 41 specific herbs, used exclusively in various combinations and
conveniently available as a tea served at the clinic at various
periods throughout the day. Seven of the herbs used also have the
status of Visha (in Rasa Shāstra) and were duly noted for their high
potency and healing attributes (see table below). Many of the 41
herbs shown in the table are known to have, or are currently under
investigation for, possible anti-cancer effects.

41 ANTI-CANCER HERBS FAVOURED BY THE LATE

DR BERNARD RANDENIYA (SRI LANKA)
No. Sanskrit Latin name Country of origin
1 Bhallātaka* Semicarpus anacardium India/Sri Lanka
2 Guggulu** Commiphora mukul India
3 Gotu Kola Centella asiatica Sri Lanka/India
4 Brahmi Bacopa monnicri India
5 Kanchanara Bauhinia variegatya India
6 Devadaru Cedrous deodara India
7 Gorakshganja Aerva lanta India
8 Arka* Calotropis gigantea Asia
9 Dattura* Datura metel Asia
10 Manjistha Rubia cordifolia Asia/Africa/Europe
11 Parijata Erythrina variegata Asia/Africa/Australia
12 Guduchi Tinospora cordifolia India
13 Gunja* Abrus precatorius India
14 Shatāvari Asparagus racemosus India/Nepal
15 Ashwaganda Withania somnifera India/Nepal
16 Punarnava Boerhavia diffusa India
17 Bhringaraj Eclipta prostrata India/China/Thailand
18 Bhuiamla Phyllanthus debilis India
19 Āmalakī Phyllanthus emblica India
20 Kutki Picrorhiza kurroa India
21 Draksa Vitis vinifera Europe/Africa/Asia
22 Nirgundi Vitex negundo India
23 Dadima Punica granatum India/Pakistan
24 Gandhamoolaka Kaempferia galanga India/China
25 Kshudrabeeja Terminalia catappa India
26 Haridra Cucuma longa India
27 Vaccha Acorus calamus India
28 Rukmal Horsfieldia iryaghedhi Sri Lanka/India
29 Parpataka Mollugo cervina India
30 Rakta Chitrak Poumbago indica India
31 Harītakī Terminalia chebula Sri Lanka/India
32 Kapikacchu Mucuna pruriens Sri Lanka/India
33 Chopchini Smilax china Asia
34 Tilaparni Gybura pseudo china Asia
35 Musta Cyperus rotundus Africa/Europe/Asia
36 Nyantara Catharanthus roseus India
37 Langali* Gloriosa superba Asia
38 Ankenda Acronychia pedunculata India
39 Snuhi Ksheera* Euphorbia antiquorum Asia
40 Sugandi Hemidesmus indicus India
41 Taalisa Abies spectabilis India
* Upavisha.
** Non-visha but requiring purification.

Another popular drug used at the clinic was a rasa formulation

comprised of four drugs developed in India:

1. Bhallātaka (Semicarpus anacardium)

2. Rohitaka (Tecomella undulata)
3. Yastimadhu (Liquorice)
4. Tamra Bhasma (Copper oxide)

The original test results for this formula were given as follows:
 ‘Patients were divided into five groups to assess the effects of
the above formulation. It was observed that the patients who
received the Āyurvedic drug as an adjuvant therapy showed
maximum response. A significant improvement was observed in
haemoglobin percentage, body weight and life span. Patients
who received only this Āyurvedic drug also revealed results
comparable to those receiving chemotherapy. The drug was
found more effective with splenomegaly (spleen), lymphoma
(lymph), squamous cell carcinoma (skin) and adenocarcinoma
(tissue).’

13.3
Research into Rasa

The following results help to illustrate the use of some Rasa

Shāstra/Unani mineral drugs. Currently there are very few studies
available on the effects of herbo-metallic-mineral-based medicines,
in comparison to their purely herbal counterparts. Little is known
about these medicines in the West, and what has slipped through
the net so far has not endeared itself to those in any healing
profession, both allopathic and alternative. There are those who
‘know’ about their usage and are willing to talk about their
experiences with them in the East but seem resigned to them
remaining confined to those cultures.
In his excellent work Mineral Drugs the author S.B. Vohora
Mohammed Athar has dedicated an entire section to some of the
clinical trials undertaken in Asia between 1956 and 2006 using a
number of different formulations. These include: Shankha Bhasma,
Makara Dwaja, Kajjali, Pearl and Coral Pisti, Yasada Bhasma,
Tamra Bhasma, Vanga Bhasma, Nāga Bhasma, Abhraka Bhasma,
Trivanga Bhasma, Swarna Vanga, Cow Bezoar Pill and Maksika
Satva Bhasma. The collective reports over the 50-year period make
interesting reading, with the overall results very positively in
favour of beneficial results. I have reproduced two such samples
below but highly encourage readers to investigate these collective
findings for themselves.

1. Agarwal, A. (2006) Evaluation of safety and efficacy profile of

Āyurvedic drug (Makara Dwaja) containing inorganic mercury.
 ‘Albino rats of Charles Forster strain and rabbits of Holland
strain were used for comparative acute and chronic toxicity
studies with Makara Dwaja, methyl-mercury and Ras-kapoor
(mercuric chloride).
The neuro-toxicity was assessed by measuring
dopaminergic, cholinergic, noradrenergic and serotonergic
neurons. Methyl-mercury showed Nephro-toxicity exhibited
by expansion in sodium space and reduction in creatinine
clearance. Makara Dwaja revealed no alterations in brain
neurotransmitters, hepatic or cardiac enzyme systems
suggesting safety of Hg after processing by Āyurvedic
techniques.’
2. Kim, H.S. (1987) Possibility of mercury toxicological effects in
rats by administration of cinnabar.
‘Cinnabar (a naturally occurring HgS) and Cow Bezoar Pill
(a traditional Korean medicine containing over 20
ingredients including 60mg of cinnabar in each pill) were
investigated for: (a) Dissociation of Hg in low HCI solution
having the same pH as gastric fluids, and (b) Accumulation
of Hg in the kidneys and liver of rats.
The amount of Hg liberated from Cow Bezoar Pill (pH1:
0.53ppm, pH2: 0.28ppm) was much lower Vs than from
cinnabar (pH1: 20.26ppm, pH2: 17.47ppm). Probably the
presence of the other ingredients in the traditional pill
inhibited dissociation of Hg. Continuous administration of
cinnabar resulted in Hg accumulations in the liver and
kidneys. In the rats receiving Cow Bezoar Pill, Hg
concentrations in rat organs returned to normal within 10
days. The pill should therefore pose no toxicological
problems.’

13.4
Rasa Shāstra in the Media

This final section on formulation would not be complete without a

quick look at a scientific appraisal of the methods outlined above
and the possible complications or toxicity issues that could arise
from improper purification. The risk of accidental contamination
and poor hygiene standards is always a cause for concern during
the preparation of these medicines and, indeed, it was the
suspicion of these inconsistencies that sparked a major worldwide
health alert between the years 2003 and 2008,138 in connection
with Āyurveda/Rasa Shāstra and possible toxicity highlighted by
the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA).
If you mention the words Āyurveda or Rasa Shāstra, the chances
are (if they have any interest in these subjects) your listener might
call to mind several reports authored by Dr Robert B. Saper139 and
colleagues at the Department of Family Medicine, Boston Medical
Center, USA. This work was first detailed in a 2004 JAMA report140
in which the team sourced 70 Āyurvedic herbal products within a
20-mile radius of Boston City Hall. These medicines were located
via an online national directory of Indian grocery stores, Yellow
Pages and other local business directories. Subsequently the team
went on to purchase and analyse 70 of these MHPs141 during the
period of 25 April to 24 October 2003. At the time of these reports
Āyurvedic medicines were available for purchase in the USA,
falling under the ‘supplement’ category (The Dietary Supplement
Act 1994). This first report cites 55 cases of heavy metal poisoning
sustained from the use of Āyurvedic medicines in the USA and
abroad since 1978.
Subsequent XRF analysis of the above samples went on to reveal
the presence of the heavy metals lead, mercury and arsenic at
different levels of concentration in 14 of the 70 samples tested. The
team then went on to note manufacturers’ dosage
recommendations and compare these recommendations with
guidelines set by the US Pharmacopeia (USP) and the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) – see the table below for
permissible exposure limits from both organisations.

PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMITS OF HEAVY METALS

Heavy metal USP USP EPA EPA
Adult Child Adult Child
4.5 μg/g 1 μg/g – –
1. Lead
– – 21 μg/g 3 μg/g
2. Mercury
 – – 21 μg/g 3 μg/g
3. Arsenic

At this point some mention should be made about the obvious

nature of some formulations that fell under the scrutiny of the
report. Since they clearly contain rasa ingredients it is inevitable
that testing would highlight the presence of heavy metals in their
composition. However, those coming from an Āyurvedic/Rasa
Shāstra background can appreciate the potential ‘shock’ factor
these medicines might elicit from those not familiar with their
ingredients, production methods and ideology.
Depending upon various modes of analysis, rasa medicines can
sometimes show an array of elements and trace elements including
metals such as lead, mercury, tin, copper and zinc; metalloids such
as arsenic and antimony; non-metals such as sulphur; alkaloids
such as aconitines; and toxalbumins142 such as abrin. Herbo-
metallic-mineral formulations form an extensive part of the
Āyurvedic pharmacy, but are by no means exclusive. While they
have a long history of traditional use in India and the Middle East,
their Western alchemical cousins143 had long since vanished from
common usage, so it is perhaps easy to see why their consequent
rediscovery (in the form of traditional Asian medicinal imports and
indigenous sources) became a hotly debated subject after this
report was released.
A short précis of Saper et al.’s work has been reproduced below.
(Note: A breakdown of Rasa Shāstra ingredients has been listed for
items 9, 10, 11, 13 and 14.) All items are traditional rasa
formulations except number 13, Shilajit, which can be prescribed
solely or included in formulations.

RESULTS OF XRF TESTING ON ĀYURVEDIC MEDICINES –

2004 JAMA REPORT
Name Manufacturer Formulation Pb Hg As
μg/g μg/g μg/g
Jalaram Powder 10 ND ND
1. Bala Jivam
Chamcho
 2. Bala Guti Zandu Tablet 5 ND ND

Navjeevan Powder 43 28 ND
3. Bala
Sogathi
Kesari Tablet 7 17,600 37
4. Balguti Āyurvedic
Pharmacy
Kesaria
Harinarayan Tablet 7 ND ND
5. Gesari Pharmacy

Himalaya Capsule 7 ND ND
6. Karela
Dabur Powder 17 ND ND
7. Maha
Sudarshan
Churna
Zandu Tablet 40 ND ND
8. Maha
Sudarshan
Churna
9. Maha Lakshmi Vilas Rasa Baidyanath Tablet 300 72,100 2800
(with gold)
10. Maha Yogaraj Guggulu Baidyanath Tablet 37,000 22,800 8100
(with silver and Makara
Dwaja)
Unjha Tablet 600 104,000 60
11. Nava Āyurvedic
Pharmacy
Ratna Rasa
 12. Safi Hamdard
Pakistan
Liquid ND ND 54
(μg/ml)

Syncom Capsule 8 ND ND
13. Shilajit
Baidyanath Tablet 7870 4380 800
14. Swarna
Mahayograj
Guggulu
Note: ND = none detected.

BREAKDOWN OF RASA SHĀSTRA ITEMS AND THEIR INGREDIENTS –

2004 JAMA REPORT
Material/formula Sanskrit English/Latin contents Pb Hg As
contents μg/g μg/g μg/g
9. Maha Lakshmi Kajjali, bhasmas Black mercuric sulphide, 300 72,100 2800
Vilas Rasa* (with of Abhraka, bhasmas of mica, tin,
Swarna) Vanga, Rajata, silver, gold, copper pyrite
Swarna, Swarna and copper, Cinnamomum
Makshika and camphora, Myristica
Tamra, Kapur, fragrans – aril and fruit
Jaiphal/Javitri
10. Maha Yogaraj Sunthi, Pippali, Zingiber officinalis, 37,000 22,800 8100
Guggulu* (with Chavya, Pippali Piper longum,
Makara Dwaja*) Moola, Chitrak Piper chaba,
Moola, Hing, Piper longum (root
Ajmoda, Kalonji, powder), Plumbago
Svetakutaja, Raj zeylanica, asafoetida,
Patha, Vidanga, celery, black cumin,
Ativisha, Wrightia tinctoria, Cyclea
Triphala, peltata, Embelia ribes,
Guggulu, gentian root, Aconitum
bhasmas of heterophyllum,
Vanga, Loha, Commiphora mukul, tin,
Rajata, Nāga, iron, silver, lead, mica,
Abhraka, rust of iron and gold, red
Mandoora and mercuric sulphide
Swarna,
Makaradwaja
(1) Ratna (1) Black mercuric 600 104,000 60
11. Nava Bhagotar Rasa, sulphide, emerald,
 Ratna (2) Sakar, Pipli
Churna
sapphire, topaz, diamond,
ruby, pearl, red coral,
Rasa garnet, cat’s eye, copper
Pyrite, iron pyrite, (2)
Saccharum officinarum,
Piper longum
Shilajit Bitumen/aspaltum 8 ND ND
13.
Shilajit
14. Swarna Sunthi, Pippali, Zingiber officinalis, 17 ND ND
Mahayograj Chavya, Pippali Piper longum,
Guggulu* Moola, Chitrak Piper chaba,
Moola, Hing, Piper longum (root
Ajmoda, Kalonji, powder), Plumbago
Svetakutaja, Raj zeylanica, asafoetida,
Patha, Vidanga, celery, black cumin,
Ativisha, Wrightia tinctoria, Cyclea
Triphala, peltata, Embelia ribes,
Guggulu, gentian root, Aconitum
bhasmas of heterophyllum,
Vanga, Loha, Commiphora mukul, tin,
Rajata, Nāga, iron, silver, lead, mica,
Abhraka, rust of iron and gold
Mandoora and
Swarna
* Showing corresponding ingredients with JAMA XRD tests.

Looking at the breakdown of ingredients and comparing levels of

heavy metals with acceptable exposure levels we arrive at the
following results:

RASA AND NON-RASA FORMULATIONS

Name Adult/child Pb Hg μg/g As
daily μg/g μg/g
exposure
Pb (4.5 & 1 10 ND ND
1. Bala Jivam μg)

Chamcho
Pb (4.5 & 1 5 ND ND
2. Bala Guti μg)

Pb (4.5 & 1 43 28 ND
 3. Bala Sogathi μg)
Hg (21 & 3
μg)
Pb (4.5 & 1 7 17,600** 37
4. Balguti Kesaria μg)
Hg (21 & 3
μg)
contains gold, saffron, calcium, nutmeg and As (21 & 3
sitopaladi churna (a mixture of long pepper, μg)
cardamom, cinnamon and sugar candy)
Pb (4.5 & 1 7 ND ND
5. Gesari μg)

Pb (4.5 & 1 7 ND ND
6. Karela μg)

Pb (4.5 & 1 17 ND ND
7. Maha Sudarshan μg)

Churna
Pb (4.5 & 1 40 ND ND
8. Maha Sudarshan μg)

Churna
9. Maha Lakshmi Vilas Rasa (with gold) Pb (4.5 & 1 300 72,100* 2800*
contains mercury and sulphur (arsenic content μg)
may be associated with sulphur) Hg (21 & 3
μg)
As (21 & 3
μg)
Pb (4.5 & 1 37,000* 22,800* 8100*
10. Maha Yogaraj μg)
Hg (21 & 3
Guggulu μg)
As (21 & 3
μg)
(with silver and Makara Dwaja) contains
mercury, sulphur and lead (arsenic content
may be associated with sulphur)
Pb (4.5 & 1 600 104,000* 60
11. Nava Ratna Rasa μg)
Hg (21 & 3
μg)
contains mercury and As (21 & 3
μg)
sulphur

As (21 & 3 ND ND 54
12. Safi μg) (μg/ml)

Pb (4.5 & 1 8 ND ND
13. Shilajit μg)

14. Swarna Mahayograj Guggulu contains lead Pb (4.5 & 1 7870* 4380* 800
(mercury is used in the processing of both gold μg)
and silver metals) Hg (21 & 3
μg)
As (21 & 3
μg)
* Showing corresponding ingredients with JAMA XRD tests.
** Materials previously exposed to purification/preparation processes involving the use
of (Pb, Hg or As) as measured in JAMA XRD tests.

Aside from test numbers 4, 9, 10, 11 and 14, the other samples
remain in close proximity to their respective exposure limits. Items
4, 9, 10, 11, 13 and 14 are fully fledged rasa medicines and have
been matched with any corresponding heavy metal used in their
preparation (except Shilajit).

Note: In the Comment section of the 2004 report the authors do

acknowledge Āyurvedic theory attributing therapeutic value to the
use of metals such as mercury and lead. The report then highlights
Āyurvedic estimates of 35–40 per cent of its medicinal formulary
(some 6000 drugs in total) containing at least one metal in their
composition.

Second report by Dr Saper

A subsequent report144 concludes the original research with an
even larger catch of MHPs, again highlighting possible
contamination and poor manufacturing standards.
This report goes on to acknowledge the widespread use of
Āyurvedic medicine by India’s 1.2 billion citizens, but also
reiterates potential toxicity issues discovered in the subsequent
testing of 2004. This second report cites 80 cases of lead poisoning
since 1978 (worldwide) due to the use of Āyurvedic medicines,
going on to discuss the growing availability of these medicines
both from imported sources (Asia) and those manufactured on US
soil. Finally the authors discuss the use of herbo-metallic-mineral-
based medicines, referencing works that detail the purification and
administration practices of Rasa Shāstra medicines, these sources
being Rasa Ratna Samuchaya145 and Rasa Tarangini.146
Using five search engines and the search terms Āyurveda and
Āyurvedic Medicine (Nov–Dec 2004), 25 websites promoting a total
of 673 Āyurvedic medicines were identified. Once identified,
medicines were then selected using three criteria: (1) traditional
Āyurvedic herbs and formulas, or containing ingredients commonly
used in Āyurveda; (2) indicated for oral use; and (3) available for
actual purchase. The items were then categorised by: formulation
(rasa and non-rasa), indications and dosage, good manufacturing
practices assurance (GMPs), and members or non-members of
AHPA147 and ADMA148 (India).
In 2005, between the months of August and October, 230 of these
medicines were randomly selected and purchased. Of this amount,
193 (84%) arrived, manufactured by 37 different companies. No
information was passed to sellers about the details of these
purchases. All purchased items were then subjected to XRF149
analysis to ascertain possible concentrations of heavy metals; this
testing was carried out between March and October 2006.
Echoing the first report, lead was the most commonly identified
metal followed by mercury and arsenic respectively. As before, the
team went on to note manufacturers’ dosage recommendations and
compare these recommendations with guidelines set this time by
California Proposition 65 (CP65), the American National Standards
Institute150 (ANSI), the Food & Agricultural Organization/World
Health Organization (FAO/WHO) and again the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) – see the table below for permissible
exposure limits from all four organisations.

PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMITS OF HEAVY METALS (DAILY)

Heavy metal CP65 ANSI FAO/WHO EPA
Adult/child Adult/child Adult Adult
0.5 μg/g 20 μg/g 250 μg/g –
1. Lead
 – 20 μg/g 50 μg/g 21 μg/g
2. Mercury
– 10 μg/g 150 μg/g 21 μg/g
3. Arsenic

The following 13 items tested were known to be rasa-based

medicines, hence their inclusion here. The published report lists 40
items with relevant ‘contamination’ levels, but it is the 13 rasa
medicines that interest us here. Just out of interest the highest
detectable levels in the remaining 27 medicines (non-Rasa Shāstra)
were lead = 20.5, mercury = 34.5 and arsenic = 27.5. As can be
seen, even the highest levels reported are not far off guidelines set
by the various authorities (depending upon which one you take to
be your baseline) and particularly in view of exposure limits
tending to err on the side of caution.

RESULTS OF XRF TESTING ON ĀYURVEDIC MEDICINES –

2008 JAMA REPORT
Name Manufacturer Supplier Pb μg/g Hg As μg/g
μg/g
Banyan Banyan ND ND
1. Shilajit Botanicals Botanicals
(USA)
10.5
Bazaar of India Bazaar of ND ND
2. Energize India
(USA)
8.5
Bazaar of India By the ND
3. Pravala Pisti Planet
(USA)
7.5 27.5
Bazaar of India By the ND ND
4. Prostate Rejuv
Planet
(USA)
11.5
Baidyanath Bdbazar 25,950 20,800 ND
5. Ekangvir (USA)

Rasa
 6. Agnitundi Baidyanath Bdbazar
(USA)
130 28,200 ND

Vati
Baidyanath Bdbazar 125 13,050 ND
7. (USA)

Arogyavardhini
Vati
Maharishi Maharishi ND ND
8. Vital Lady Āyurveda Āyurveda
(USA)
5.5
Maharishi Maharishi ND ND
9. Worry Free Āyurveda Āyurveda
(USA)
7.0
Sharangdhar AYU 63 ND ND
10. Ayu Arthri Pharmaceuticals (USA)

Tone
Sharangdhar AYU ND ND
11. Ayu Pharmaceuticals (USA)
2.5
Hemoridi Tone
Sharangdhar AYU 33 ND ND
12. Ayu Leuko Pharmaceuticals (USA)

Tone
Sharangdhar AYU 340 ND ND
13. Ayu Pharmaceuticals (USA)

Nephro Tone

BREAKDOWN OF RASA SHĀSTRA ITEMS AND THEIR INGREDIENTS –

2008 JAMA REPORT
Material/formula Sanskrit English/Latin Pb μg/g Hg As μg/g
contents contents μg/g
1. Shilajit Shilajit Aspaltum album
10.5 ND ND

Shilajit, Bitumen/Aspaltum ND ND
2. Sphatika album, quartz
8.5
Energize
Pravala Red coral/Corallium ND
3. Pravala rubrum
7.5 27.5
Pisti
Shilajit, Bitumen/Aspaltum ND ND

4. Prostate
Sphatika album, quartz
11.5
Rejuv

5. Ekangvir Rasa* Rasa Sindoora, Mercuric sulphide, 25,950 20,800 ND

Gandhaka, sulphur, magnetic
Kanta Pashana, iron ore, tin oxide,
Vanga Bhasma, lead oxide, copper
Nāga Bhasma, oxide, mica/silicate,
Tamra Bhasma, iron oxide, Datura
Abhraka stramonium, Nux
Bhasma, Loha vomica
Bhasma,
Dattura,
Kuchala
Kajjali, Mercuric sulphide, 130 28,200 ND
6. Vatsanābha,
Yavakshara,
Aconitum napellus,
potassium
Agnitundi Tankana,
Kuchala
carbonate, borax,
Nux vomica
Vati
7. Arogyavardhini* Kajjali, Loha Mercuric sulphide, 125 13,050 ND
Vati Bhasma, iron oxide,
Abhraka mica/silicate,
Bhasma, Shilajit bitumen/Aspaltum
album
Shilajit, Bitumen/Aspaltum ND ND
8. Vital Yavakshara,
Pravala, Loha
album, potassium
carbonate, red
5.5
Lady Bhasma coral/Corallium
rubrum, iron oxide
 9. Worry Mukta Pearl
7.0 ND ND

Free
Yasada Bhasma Zinc oxide 63 ND ND
10. Ayu
Arthri
Tone
Sarji Kshara, Sodium carbonate, ND ND
11. Ayu Kanksi,
Tankana,
potassium
aluminium sulphate,
2.5
Hemoridi Guggulu borax, Commiphora
mukul
Tone
Vanga Bhasma, Tin oxide, zinc oxide, 33 ND ND
12. Ayu Yasada Bhasma,
Loha Bhasma,
iron oxide, gypsum,
potassium
Leuko Godanthi
Bhasma, Kanksi
aluminium sulphate

Tone
Hiṅgula, Vanga Cinnabar, tin oxide, 340 ND ND
13. Ayu Bhasma, Yasada
Bhasma,
zinc oxide,
potassium
Nephro Yavakshara,
Guggulu
carbonate,
Commiphora mukul
Tone
* Showing corresponding ingredients with JAMA XRD tests.

13.5
Contamination

Having tested a number of rasa samples myself, I do not find it

surprising to see data showing the presence of heavy metals when
analysing batch purity, particularly when these types of ingredients
are commonly introduced into the mixture. ‘Rasa’ is a word that is
totally interchangeable with the element mercury, and as the metal
was thought to be a highly prized elixir, it is of no surprise that its
inclusion in various formulations is almost mandatory.
The atomic theory of Rasa Shāstra does not claim to remove the
actual element from these formulations, merely to negate any
toxicity issues via time-honoured purification techniques (as
outlined in this book). If the original formulation had seen no
benefit in the inclusion of a rasa material, its addition would have
been precluded.
At this point, however, a greater debate begins, one which talks
about energetics and actions of purification and processing. The
current scientific thinking about this is quite simple – some
elements are toxic, and some are not. Being elements, they cannot
be deconstructed and so remain elements, hence their ability to be
detected under spectroscopy. Modern methods of analysis at this
time lack the sensitivity to detect differences between impure and
purified mercury151 samples. What can be examined is mercury’s
bonding with sulphur molecules and the ability to isolate the metal
through sublimation to obtain its native liquid form (quicksilver).
During the purification process there is always a risk of
contamination. Contaminants can be inherent in the original
material or batch inconsistencies. They can be introduced by a
source supplier or incurred during the different stages of
purification (for example, the use of crucibles at high temperature
or the addition of different plants and minerals at any stage of the
operation).

Example: Serpentine
The following XRD152 analysis is introduced to outline subtle
changes in materials before and after processing using Rasa
Shāstra techniques. Graph (1) represents a sample of serpentine
(magnesium silicate) subjected to pisti processing, while (2)
represents the same batch of serpentine further processed to a
bhasma form (oxidised magnesium silicate).
As can be seen in graph (2) the material shows subtle changes in
composition between a pisti and bhasma form. Principally chlorine,
which may be a contaminant, has been driven off during the
heating process. The same graph shows traces of calcium,
potassium and aluminium which have been introduced as
contaminants from the crucible’s clay minerals. These elements are
present in minute quantities, but nonetheless it shows that
however careful the processing there is always some level of
contamination.

(1) Nāga Pashana Pisti (serpentine no puṭa)

(2) Nāga Pashana Bhasma (serpentine ×7 puṭa)

13.6
Conclusion

On the whole the two reports submitted to JAMA by Dr Saper’s

team are interesting and well presented; however, as they point
out, these studies are not without their own limitations. Spectral
interference involved in the testing process can falsify and increase
metal concentration; there are also issues with misrepresentation
of a product’s country of origin and the determination of its status
as a rasa or non-rasa medicine. All of this can be added to the
indeterminate baseline of permissible exposure limits and the fact
that similar non-Āyurvedic herbal and vitamin supplements
manufactured in the USA have also shown detectable levels of lead
when tested.
One cannot help but wonder whether a broad selection of
general groceries (foods) from the USA and Asia, purchased by far
greater numbers of the general populace, might yield similar
analytical results for heavy metals. Curiously enough, whilst I was
collecting data for this section of the book, a story broke in the
USA on 19 September 2012 about high levels of organic and
inorganic arsenic being detected in US-grown rice and rice-related
products. It appears that consumer groups are currently pushing
the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for legislation to help
determine ‘safe levels’ for human consumption. In view of the
multiple attempts to clarify this very point in both of the JAMA
reports it will be interesting to see what exposure level the FDA
does deem ‘safe’.
As with all statistical analysis, it’s worth spending a little time
Googling to find the rebuttals. In the case of the aforementioned
JAMA reports, a little digging quickly points toward allopathic
drugs and their own shortcomings. In a US research paper entitled
Death by Medicine153 its authors examined statistical data dealing
with injuries and deaths caused by governmentally endorsed
medicines and concluded that the average total number of fatalities
caused by these each year is an astounding 783,936. Of course a
loss of life due to any failings on the part of medicine is
unacceptable, but in light of these immense figures the relatively
minuscule amount of reported poisonings (not even fatalities) in
the JAMA reports does seem to be missing the bigger picture.
For those interested in the ongoing debate on Āyurvedic/Rasa
Shāstra medicines I would definitely recommend downloading
these JAMA papers; they still make fascinating reading four years
on. It’s not often you hear the words Āyurveda in the world press
(let alone Rasa Shāstra), and so I am hopeful that next time it
becomes world headlines it will be more inspirational news.

 
NOTES

1. In some Rasa Shāstra literature, Uparasa and Sadharana Rasa are combined and
termed Uparasa.
2. See Section 7.5.
3. Yogarāja = yoga/combination and Raja/King, therefore combines readily with all
medicines to improve their efficiency and potency.
4. CH3Hg (also known as mono-methyl-mercury) readily combines with chlorine,
nitrates and sulphur, making it bio-accumulative, bonding with amino acids and
proteins in living matter. Methyl-mercury can be also produced by anaerobic aquatic
organisms, breaking down inorganic mercury pollutants.
5. This chemical repulsion is echoed in the astrological friendship and enmity of
planets. Planet Mercury was associated with the metal mercury and Mars (Mercury’s
enemy) was associated with iron.
6. Today, gold has a greater value than silver; however, it appears that in ancient times
this may have been reversed.
7. Contaminated food chains (principally ending with humans) produce an effect called
bio-magnification, whereby larger predators consume smaller prey that are already
contaminated and consequently amass high levels of mercury in their tissues.
8. The god of fire.
9. Pārada was also said to be of four colours, tainted by the native soil: white (curer of
disease), red (remover of senility), yellow (transmutation of base metals) and black
(attainment of flight/to move through the air).
10. With the spiralling rates of gold prices, India has seen a reawakening of interest in
Rasa Shāstra. It seems that subsequent generations are again re-evaluating these
classics in search of gold.
11. A master of the rasa science. For more information see Dash, V.B. (1996) Alchemy
and Metallic Medicines in Āyurveda. Delhi: Concept Publishing.
12. (Au/gold) 79, (Hg/mercury) 80, (Pb/lead) 82 – see periodic table.
13. Jiva = spirit/essence of immortality.
14. See ‘Tantric Period’ in Ray, A.P.C. (2004) ‘A General Survey.’ History of Chemistry in
Ancient and Medieval India. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Krishnadas Academy.
15. See Section 21.2 in Part IV for more information about the plant of immortality.
16. Some alchemical traditions considered death itself to be a disease, and so avoidable.
17. Also known as Damaru yantra.
18. Vahni Mṛtsnā, a mixture of 3 parts chalk, 1 part iron oxide, 1 part rock salt and fresh
milk (Qs).
19. I have noted that even material derived directly from cinnabar is still recommended
to be purified by the common method.
20. Yougika dosha = artificial impurities; Naisargika dosha = natural impurities;
Kanchuka dosha = chemical impurities.
21. Tertiary Period (65–1.8 million years ago); in terms of geological history, quite
recent.
22. Principle ores of mercury are cinnabar, metacinnabar, calomel and livingstonite, and
the lesser ore corderoite.
23. In his book Gods, Sages and Kings, David Frawley argues that Mount Kailash and its
surrounding area was the origin of the Vedic peoples (Aryans). Kailash (also known
as Mount Meru) marked the heavenly emanation point of four great rivers on the
Tibetan plain. Though Rig Veda makes no direct correlation between Mount Meru
and Kailash it is believed that they are one and the same. Manasarovar Lake (20
 miles to the south-east) is the origin of the Sutlej (the Vedic Shutudri), which seems
to have been a large tributary for the now long-vanished Saraswati River. Though too
remote to be the centre of Vedic civilisation, it is possible the area about this plateau
served more as its spiritual/technological training ground with access to dense
mineral/metal deposits. In recent times India’s boarders have been defined by the
Brahmaputra (eastward) and the Indus (to the west), but in these earlier times this
area might well have been considered part of northern India.
24. After 1951 this area was considered part of the Xizang Autonomous Region,
effectively covering an expanse of over 450,000 square miles.
25. Xizang or ‘great western house of treasure’.
26. Rev. Kūkai or Kōbō-daishi (awarded posthumously) was indeed a unique historical
character steeped in wisdom, mysticism and a diversity of intellectual disciplines,
achieving some renown as architect, poet, artist, scriptural translator, calligrapher,
linguist, spiritual teacher and, of course, alchemist. Kūkai is most widely known for
founding Shingon Mikkyō in Japan. For more information about this fascinating
historical character see the Bibliography (Sato 1996, 1998, 2000, 2006) and ‘3.
Kūkai and Nyū Mountain’ in Appendix 1.
27. Dragons and mercury tend to be synonymous with one another; wherever you locate
dragons, you almost certainly find gold and where there’s gold you’ll almost certainly
find alchemical symbolism. This relationship is taken to new heights in Myanmar
(formally Burma), where dragon symbolism is interwoven with great complexity with
alchemy and Buddhism; here mercury is even referred to as the Milk of the Dragon.
28. Junna-tennō (c.785–840), like Saga (former tennō), was fascinated with Chinese
culture, particularly references to longevity/immortality medicines/elixirs. During
Saga’s reign Kūkai maintained extremely close ties to the imperial court, offering
much advice on all spiritual and medicinal matters.
29. The story says Shubin had trapped rain-making water dragons in a nearby water
tank, consequently stopping the rains from coming; he also employed mantra to
counteract Kūkai’s efforts.
30. Curiously, the Dragon King was approximately 25cm in length and made of gold,
riding upon the back of a monstrous dragon over 270m in length. This difference
could be an allusion to ratio or formula.
31. Ostensibly, all dragons in Japan are water dragons, heralding from the great lakes
and rivers. Using large stone flasks, liquid mercury was thought to have been
transported by river to its ultimate destination. Many of the place names in Japan
starting with Nāga, Naka and Nyu might well indicate a trade connection to this
commodity. Nāga/Naka as seen is another word for dragon and Nyū/Niū was the
Japanese Kami (spirit/goddess) of mercury (see ‘Kūkai and Nyū Mountain’ in
Appendix 1).
32. The name Kailash means ‘crystal’.
33. Considered to be one of the great seven Himalayan lakes.
34. Approximately 4500m above sea level.
35. Brahma was said to have placed a magical Jambul tree at the centre of the lake, the
curative powers of which seeped into the lake’s waters. Jambul fruits in Āyurveda
are considered to have potent anti-oxidant properties as well as blood/liver-cleansing
properties.
36. Buddha relics (also known as Sharīra) include vitrified bones, teeth and hair. Some
ancient sources claim strange pearl-like objects remained in the ash after his
immolation.
37. Japanese water dragons.
38. See ‘Sagar Manthan (Churning of the Milky Ocean)’ in Part I.
39. Perfected ones, having attained Nirvāṇa/liberation.
40. Tantric or Esoteric Buddhism, also identified as ‘the adamantine or diamond vehicle’.
41. Also known as Heruka (‘blood drinker’).
42. Also known as Vajrayogini.
43. Shiva/male/white/mercury – Shakti/female/red/sulphur.
44. Following in the footsteps of Shiva.
45. Both Kailash and Targo-gangri (230 miles to the east of Kailash) have similar
mythologies attached to them. These glacially peaked giants both overlook sacred
lakes associated with immortality and highly venerated in Buddhism. Mount Kailash
is associated with the Buddha; Mount Targo with Padmasambhava (‘lotus born’), an
eighth-century second manifestation of the Buddha, said to have resided in a cave on
that mountain practising magical/alchemical arts. Considered a mahâsiddha, this
historical character has much in common with Nāgārjuna in terms of his
accomplishments.
46. Pippali (long pepper), Maricha (black pepper) and Sunthi (dried ginger).
47. Indian cotton plant (Gossypium herbaceum).
48. Āmalaki = Phyllanthus emblica, Bibhītaki = Terminalia bellirica and Harītakī =
Terminalia chebula in equal proportions.
49. Allium sativum (single clove garlic).
50. Before undertaking the purification of Pārada, one decides upon the direction of
mortar action (clockwise or anti-clockwise). This is then maintained throughout the
processing.
51. Equal quantities of triphala’s three constituents.
52. Standard decoction ratio = 60g of material added to 8/16/32 cups of water and
reduced to a single cup (300ml).
53. To bind, restrain or stabilise.
54. Mercury and sulphur are macerated with bhasma of tourmaline and bitter gourd
prior to heating in Bhūdhara yantra.
55. A lesser-used production method of Rasa Sindoora (mercuric sulphide), whereby
Kūpīpākwa is initially open at the neck, then closed and heated at a lower
temperature. This trapped sulphur content burns (smoke = dhooma) for an extended
period, rendering the final HgS with a high concentration of the sulphur element.
56. Prior to heating additional herbs, bhasma may be added to Kajjali; for example,
copper bhasma or iron bhasma to produce Tamra Parpati or Loha Parpati.
57. One such remedy is Siddha Makara Dwaja, the recombination of prepared Makara
Dwaja with Kapura (camphor), Jatiphala (nutmeg), Samudra Phena (pisti of cuttlefish
shell) and Kasturi (deer musk).
58. Gold is seldom taken to melting point (as this might incur loss). Most often a high-
grade sheet is heated until glowing, then quenched in a variety of different herbal
mediums (nirvapana method).
59. Usually a coloured glass bottle, amber or green. Vat 69 (produced by William
Sanderson & Son) seems to be the most favoured shape of bottle.
60. A placer deposit is a geological term used to describe the separation of minerals by
gravity during the process of sedimentation.
61. Edible strains only – many varieties of this species are poisonous.
62. The influence of feminine interaction was thought to spark sexual passions and so
inhibit the potency of mercurial drugs.
63. 357ºC.
64. Buddha/Mercury = a name for intelligence, discretion and Buddhi/enlightenment.
65. Karaka = denoting (a primary representative of a particular attribute).
66. Mercury was obviously a heavily traded item in the old world and so became
untimely connected to commerce. It’s probably another reason mercury was thought
to rule the element earth, as it's both weighty (Virgo = earth sign) and light in its
gaseous form (Gemini = air sign). Mercury tends to prosper in air signs (before its
rebirth/condensation) and struggles in earth signs (about to be sacrificed to deliver
gold).
67. Synergistically enhances the performance of any medicine combined with.
68. Tong cao/Medulla tetrapanacis (rice paper pith).
69. Guanmu tong/Aristolochiae manshuriensis.
70. Cinnabar (vermilion) was also a highly effective pesticide and fungicide. Prolonged
exposure and oxidation intensifies its reddish hue.
71. Cinnabar was believed to be solidified blood from dragons or the phoenix bird, both
creatures associated with longevity and immortality. Interestingly, both dragon and
phoenix are important symbols in geomancy (Fung Shui) and early geological
siting/mining.
72. As recorded in the Harima Fudoki, Jingū kōgō consulted Niutsuhime
(Nyumyojin/mercury goddess) in matters of war and was advised to paint her ships
and warriors with red cinnabar to assure their victory in the conquest of Korea.
Although Empress Jingū is almost certainly a mythological figure, references to the
use of cinnabar as both decorative and medicinal are well recorded in Japan.
73. See Minami, T. (2008) ‘Sources of vermilion collected from ancient Japanese tombs.’
Journal of Geography 117, 5, 948–952.
74. Considered to be the ‘father of Chinese alchemy’, his own outstanding alchemical
trilogy entitled Stories of Pao-p'u-tzu includes the following: ‘Golden Pills’ (the
refinement of elixirs), ‘Elixirs of Life’ (a discussion of five life-extending herbs) and
‘The Yellow and the White’ (a treatise on the use of gold and silver in an alchemical
context).
75. Nanjing in Jiangsu Province boasts Mount Mao (Mao Shan), a celebrated ancient
Taoist cultural centre and temple renowned for healing and attainment of
immortality.
76. Employed for its blood purification effects; also useful for the lymph system.
77. Purslane is well known for its potent anti-visha and (–P) properties, used to combat
cases of snake and insect venom. Purslane is known as a five-element herb,
displaying the colours black, white, red, yellow and green.
78. These herbs are currently not identifiable and under investigation.
79. This batch of cinnabar was processed and purified by cooking it over a 24-hour
period at low temperature in olive oil.
80. The mercury content of cinnabar can be as high as 4–5 per cent in rich deposits;
commercially viable levels can be as low as 0.21 per cent (Japan).
81. See Section 1 in Part I.
82. Karavella (bitter gourd) is frequently used in cases of mercury toxicity; its ability to
remove visha extends even to the king of poisons (arsenic).
83. For more information about maksika see Appendix 2, ‘Catalogue of Materials and
Their Use’.
84. Thin copper wire is usually employed for this purpose due to its strength and
temperature stability. This suspension of the sulphur is pivotal to the success of the
entire operation – if the cloth is damaged, burnt or insubstantial, it will collapse or
disintegrate, corrupting the whole process.
85. Ghee is a necessity in the manufacturing of rasa; correct preparation and storage
are the key to its effectiveness. For more information about its uses and manufacture
see Mason, A. (2012) The Art of Vedic Alchemy Volume 4. Dorchester: Netera.
86. Joshi, D. (1991) Āyurveda: Science of Life, Vol. X, No. 4.
87. In other words, non-pasteurised and non-homogenised.
88. Exposure to high heat and the liquefaction/re-crystallisation of sulphur aids in the
process of its decontamination.
89. Also known as Adrija.
90. Black-iron is normally associated with Kanta Pashana (magnetic iron ore).
91. Ghosal, S. (1990) Chemistry of Shilajit, an Immunomodulatory Āyurvedic rasāyana.
Varanasi: Dept. of Pharmaceutics, Banaras Hindu University.
92. Dolā = to be free swinging.
93. As2S2, also known as realgar.
94. Tala or Patra (Haritāla) is so called due to its resemblance to leaves; when struck in
a metal mortar, material would often shear into thin golden leaves. This material is
soft and is sometimes cut with the blades of heavy scissors.
95. Slaked lime is hydrated and made into a thin paste that is the consistency of milk.
96. 480g cooked paddy rice is kept submerged in 4.8 litres of water and allowed to
ferment in warm conditions for about 1 week. The material is then filtered prior to
use.
97. Glass bottles wrapped in successive layers of mud and cloth. Kūpī jars enable the
vaporisation and condensing of certain temperature-sensitive materials.
98. Purification of Hiṅgula is covered in Section 7, earlier in Part III.
99. Milk is usually preferred in the preparation of tin due to its anti-Vāta properties.
However, substitute juices include: the resin of the Bhallātaka nut, the juice of
Dattura or the milk of Arka.
100. The unit 7 is used repeatedly throughout rasa preparations. It has been commented
that this number is related to the seven graha or the seven Rishis or Saptarsi (the
enlightened ones), often connected to the seven major stars of the Pleiades.
101. Due to the slightly higher melting point of zinc the use of a propane gas furnace is
preferable to a standard gas heater; the concentrated flame makes the heating of
metal much more efficient.
102. Can be substituted by the use of Gaskralheba (Achyranthus aspera) or Vijaya
(Cannabis indica), or the dried seed pods of Khasabeeja (Papaver somniferum).
103. The latex of Snuhi (Euphorbia ligularis) is offered as an alternative to horsegram.
The ancient texts also suggest the heated gemstone to be quenched in liquid
mercury, although this practice would be extremely hazardous due to toxic vapour.
104. Some formulations advise the addition of Rasa Sindoora, in equal quantity with
diamond, orpiment, realgar and sulphur. For more information about Rasa Sindoora
see Section 7.
105. Macrotyloma uniflorum is known to have higher than average iron content, as well
as the essential element molybdenum.
106. Rakta Moksha – or blood-letting – was seen as an important therapy for conditions
involving intoxicated or excess blood. Typically the horn of a cow would be used
(open at both ends). The larger end would be placed over an incision (made into the
flesh), and using the small end the physician would create a vacuum inside the horn,
allowing blood to be expressed from the wound.
107. The Chinese were known to have been harvesting freshwater Mabe-Pearls (semi-
spherical pearls grown against the mollusc’s shell) as early as the thirteenth century.
108. All pearl-bearing saltwater molluscs are inserted with a bead nucleus. Freshwater
varieties originally did not require a nucleus; however, this practice is now being
adopted to grow larger ‘perfect’ specimens. Typically a bead nucleus is about 8mm
in diameter and cut and polished from organic material such as freshwater mussel or
mother of pearl shell.
109. Faux-pearls are mostly hollow glass (silica) or plastic beads with a pearlescent
coating (sometimes made from finely ground pearl powder suspended in a clear
medium).
110. The formation of nacre in marine and freshwater molluscs.
111. There is now some debate about the inception of natural pearl formation. It was
thought to be initiated by the ‘encapsulated irritant theory’ whereby a confined
irritant was subject to nacresation (the formation of nacre). More recent research
favours the formation of pearls due to mantle tissue injury.
112. White grape vinegar is commonly available in Europe; its Asian counterpart is
coconut vinegar.
113. Surface pearlescent finish composed of aragonite (a crystalline form of calcium
carbonate).
114. One of 36 religious texts written in Sanskrit and in story form cataloguing the
history of the universe (cosmology), genealogies of gods, demigods and kings, and
the cycle of world ages. There is no agreement as to its age; the Puranas were an
oral tradition long before being committed to writings.
115. Feathers of the peacock are prepared as bhasma or steeped into water and applied
as an aqueous solution. As this bird bears a ‘blue throat’ (see ‘Sagar Manthan
(Churning of the Milky Ocean)’ in Part I) it is considered an antidote to the effects of
visha (poison).
116. Dhananjay, L.S. and Garg, A.N. (1996) ‘Minor and trace elemental determination in
Indian herbs and other medicinal preparations.’ Biological Trace Element Research
54, 2, 113–121.
117. Abrus precatorius (Indian Liquorice).
118. It is considered good practice to encourage the growth of Dattura plants or
auspicious to have them growing in close proximity to a Rasashala (rasa pharmacy).
119. Carrier oils such as sesame are pre-heated for around 1 hour at low temperature to
lighten and improve their absorption.
120. The species Aconitum palmatum/heterophyllum are non-toxic.
121. Purified aconite is recommended to be decocted with Quan Xie (powdered dried
scorpion) in cases of painful obstruction presented with other severe symptoms.
122. Extended course of therapeutic drugs designed for long-term purification of non-life-
threatening diseases.
123. Harvesting at different times of the year incurs different energetics in its tuber. Late
autumn, after a dry summer, increases alkaloid content. Harvesting tubers in the
spring (after a wet winter) lessens its alkaloid content. In India, tubers were usually
harvested in the early spring; the Chinese transplant seedlings on the winter solstice
and harvest just before the summer solstice to enhance the tubers’ yang energy (see
The Aconite Papers by Heiner Fruehauf).
124. Some areas of China are culturally predisposed to the use of this herb; hence there
is a heightened resistance to its effects within sections of the community (most
notably Sichuan/Guizhou Provinces).
125. The alkaloid Bhilawanol may also be extracted from marking nut, a phenol showing
powerful analgesic and anti-inflammatory actions.
126. One recipe suggests a ratio of 1 Ballātaka nut to 25g of butter.
127. A semi-solid preparation of powdered/decocted herbs preserved in combination with
jaggery, sugar-candy and ghee.
128. For more information about Kajjali see Section 7.
129. Sometimes a formula designed for a specific complaint will be used to treat an
entirely different ailment. This practice is specific to different lineages of
Vaidya/healers who have developed a special relationship with a number of
medicines and are able to augment the remedy via anupāna.
130. Rasa materials have qualitative tests that are to be applied before use; these include
reaction to heat, inspection under bright light, taste, feel and general appearance.
131. Āma Vāta indicates toxins accumulated in the body due to an excess of Vāta; Section
1 in Part I.
132. Yoga vāhin = synergistic effect enhancing the therapeutic potency of drugs.
133. Guggulu is not considered a rasa medicine; however, due to its use with many rasa
formulae and its yoga vāhin properties, it has rasa status. The resin of Guggulu is
usually subjected to purification prior to its use.
134. The ancients considered Swarna Maksika to have a gold content, which led to its
substitution for gold, although its potency was considered inferior.
135. Abrus precatorius/raktika seed (also known as Indian Liquorice) weighs around
125mg and was used as a weight measurement. Raktika seeds were also used as
 medicines (see Mason, A. (2011) ‘Gunja.’ The Art of Vedic Alchemy Volume 3.
Dorchester: Netera).
136. See Section 1.6 in Part I for more information about ojas.
137. The talastha method involves removing the heated material from the bottom of a
Kūpī jar.
138. Although the report centred on Āyurvedic medicines, other herbal traditions from
Malaysia, China, Mexico, Africa and the Middle East are also mentioned as
corroborating the data obtained from the original 70 sampled medicines.
139. Dr Robert Saper was a recent guest of honour at the 2011 AAPNA (Association of
Āyurvedic Professionals of North America) conference, delivering a speech entitled
Promoting Āyurveda Globally through Collaboration.
140. Saper, R.B., Kales, S.N., Paquin, J., Burns, M.J. et al. (2004) ‘Heavy metal content of
Āyurvedic herbal medicine products.’ JAMA 292, 23, 2868–2873. Available at
http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?
articleid=1108395.
141. Medical Herbal Products.
142. Proteins from plant material disabling protein synthesis at RNA levels, producing
cytotoxic effects (destroying the membrane integrity of cells), similar to the effects of
snake venom.
143. See the works of Paracelsus, considered to be the Father of Toxicology in medieval
Europe.
144. Saper, R.B., Phillips, R.S., Sehgal, A., Khouri, N. et al. (2008) ‘Lead, mercury, and
arsenic in US- and Indian-manufactured Āyurvedic medicines sold via the internet.’
JAMA 300, 8, 915–923. http://jama.jamanetwork.com/searchresults.aspx?
q=rasa%20shastra&t=&p=1&s=1&c=0.
145. Satpute, A.D. (Trans.) (2003) Rasa Ratna Samuchaya of Vagbhatta. Varanasi:
Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratishtana.
146. Sharma, S.K. (1979) Tarangini of Sri Sadananda. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
147. American Herbal Products Association (a trade organisation committed to high-
quality herbal products and promotion of self-regulation).
148. Āyurveda Drug Manufacturers Association (India).
149. X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy, used mostly to determine elements’
concentrations.
150. Full title: American National Standards Institute/National Sanitation Foundation
International Dietary Supplement Standard 173 (ANSI 173).
151. Romanian studies conducted on mercury (Hg) purification with the juice of garlic are
currently under way and showing promising results.
152. X-Ray Diffraction Analysis is used mostly to determine crystalline structure.
153. Null, G., Dean, C., Feldman, M., Rasio, D. and Smith, D. (2004) Death by Medicine.
Available at www.lef.org/magazine/mag2004/mar2004_awsi_death_01.htm.
 PART IV

Celestial Connections
 SECTION 14

INTRODUCTION

14.1

Visit to a Sri Lankan Shaman

Talisman drawn by Sinhalese shaman. The outer characters repeat clockwise in
lots of three bīja mantra (seed syllables) – shring, la, shring. The four
characters on the innermost section denote the seed syllable (thee). The dotted
line denotes the space reserved for the wearer’s name On one excursion to a
more rural area just outside Colombo, a friend of mine took me on a visit to
meet a real shaman. I’d persistently badgered him for weeks about an
introduction and now it seemed my wish had been granted. The shaman (as
we’ll call him) lived in a very unassuming house, well off the beaten track in
heavy jungle terrain. Physically he was slight, middle-aged but of a wiry
disposition, dressed in a plain sarong and tee-shirt. He was introduced to me as
the man most responsible for the villagers’ (or at least the surrounding areas’)
‘spiritual needs’.
 My companion, who happened to be a local Āyurvedic
doctor and well educated and knowledgeable about a great
many aspects of traditional Sri Lankan customs, held this
person in high regard and apparently had gone to a lot of
trouble to get the two of us together. The shaman himself
seemed a little apprehensive about my presence, looking to
me like one who would be happier to stay as far as possible
from the limelight. It was during this short visit that he
agreed to show me some of his works, mostly astrological
talismans (see illustration above), and after a little
persuasion on my part agreed to take a look at my own
horoscope.
His interpretations turned out to be rather intriguing,
first drawing the chart by hand, making all the planetary
calculations using an ephemeris and a lot of sketch work,
adding glyphs and signs and other miscellaneous notes in
the margin of the page. Toward the end of the analysis we
all went into another room which doubled as his workshop
and there he performed rituals to various deities before
going into a trance. Whilst in trance he asked my
companion to translate and instructed that I would be
allowed to ask questions to which he in turn would supply
answers; I was also instructed to ask for clarification if I did
not understand the answers given.
I always try to keep an open mind about these things and
so was very curious to hear how he would answer queries. I
have to say at this point he was mostly correct in his
analysis and prognostications. The answers given to me
were about current events (at that time) and subsequent
events that were fulfilled upon my return to the UK. At one
point during the ceremony he asked for the name of my
home town. I gave him the name of the nearest town to me
(about a mile distant), and to my amazement he told me he
had flown there and was looking down upon it and
thereafter proceeded to describe the local terrain and
landmarks in uncanny detail.
 As I grew a little more confident about his abilities I gave
him more specific information about my actual house and,
like a pilot being guided through heavy fog, he wound his
way northward over the local floodplains to my home,
which he then described in as much detail as he was able to
glean from his hawk-like position. He went on to describe
its current occupants (the house had been rented out
during my travels), the garden and adjacent area, including
more information about the floodplains and its part-time
grazing inhabitants.
As quickly as I had arrived and settled it seemed to be
over. A flurry of Sri Lankan words were exchanged between
my companion and the shaman, he rose and straightened
his attire, and the evening ended.
We shook hands, made our farewells and parted, racing
off again into the warm night air through thick vegetation
and darkness in a local three-wheeler taxi. As we left I saw
him make his way back to his workshop to diligently
continue his work inscribing yantra under the dim light of a
single neon tube that occasionally flickered on and off. This
appeared to be his chosen vocation; along with a little
farming, he laboured throughout the nights on a variety of
talismans for local villagers hoping to neutralise some of
the more terrifying aspects of their lives and karma.

14.2
Jyotish

The Science of Light

Horoscope design combining both south (outer design) and north Indian (inner)
formats ‘Explore the sky and be blessed with good fortune.’

Yajur Veda

‘There are seven principal rays of the Sun which are

the most excellent of its one thousand. On these seven
rays are born all the planets.’
Yayu Purana
The word Jyotish can be translated as ‘the science of light’.
Jyotish can also be thought of as a study of planetary rays
that seize or grasp at us on earth; the planets in Jyotish are
known as graha, a word meaning ‘to seize the subtle body’.
Just like its sister sciences Āyurveda and Yoga, Jyotish is a
resplendent archive of information carefully catalogued and
organised through elaborate mathematics, ritual and
eloquent language. Its powerful symbolism and predictive
power have assured its survival through the millennia to be
practised by many as a means of foretelling the future and
unlocking the secrets of the past. Through the examination
of an individual’s horoscope it becomes possible to discern
physical constitution (inherent strengths and weaknesses),
social influences, one’s losses and gains, allotted1 lifespan
and dharma (destiny). There were nine graha known to the
ancients, these being the two great luminaries (the Sun and
Moon), the five lesser physical bodies of Mercury, Venus,
Mars, Jupiter and Saturn and the two non-physical bodies
or nodes named Rahu and Ketu.
The movement of the planets against the backdrop of the
zodiac sets the scene for a cosmic play in which all play out
their parts. Herein lies one of the great secrets of astrology,
the quest to become intimate with the graha, their personal
histories, wisdom, lessons and planetary ages.2 Once these
concepts are fully understood, each starts to take on a life
of its own – no longer just a glyph written in a geometric
design on paper, their positioning starts to yield a wealth of
information. Learn their rules and life stories and each
begins to speak at you from the horoscope on any subject
you wish to converse about.
The ancient Rishis (enlightened ones) fine-tuned Jyotish
into an art form, used to counsel and predict all aspects of
human affairs. The use of astrology entered into all aspects
of life and in time diversified into specialised fields,
including those that focused on the relationship between
graha, healing and medicine. Each of the nine known
planets was ascribed dominion over certain aspects of
health and corresponding bodily functions. The Moon
presided over regeneration, longevity and herbs, supplying
moisture and essence (the Moon was observed to nourish
the plant kingdom, causing its vines and creepers to swell
and grow, promoting flow and exudation of its rejuvenating
sap/nectar). Saturn in sharp contrast was observed to have
the opposite effect, a drying/astringent action, emaciating
and ageing articles that fell strongly under its influence.
Jyotish/medical astrology was also a great adjunct to Rasa
Shāstra, providing useful insights into the subtle mineral
requirements of the body as celestial analysis often
highlighted or pinpointed deficiencies that mirrored earthly
ailments.
Jyotish was traditionally used to elect auspicious timing
in which to prepare remedies, advising on which planetary
positions might help secure a successful outcome in
treatment or create a higher-than-average potency of the
drug being prescribed. Associated minerals, metals and
gemstones of a particular graha would often be prepared in
accordance with an auspicious transit or their conjunction
with another favourable graha.

Applying Jyotish
Jyotish, like most of the Vedic wisdom, contains large
amounts of information that ultimately need to be ingested
to fully appreciate their scope. One Jyotisha I met once put
it like this: ‘You could take the whole of Western Astrology,
comfortably squeeze it into a match box and float it upon
the ocean of Vedic Astrology.’ I don’t think his statement
was supposed to sound derogatory, it’s just that from his
perspective (also a competent Western astrologer) he found
himself aghast at the mass of analytical techniques at his
disposal when looking at a horoscope. This is in no way an
attempt to put the reader off exploring Jyotish, but a
warning that from the outset this information can seem a
little overwhelming. Although detailed analysis almost
certainly requires some previous experience with astrology,
it’s not completely essential to be a skilled Jyotisha to gain
some predictive skill or at least to be able to ascertain
some useful information. The basic fundamentals of Jyotish
could be explained in a few hours; however, the mastery of
this science would take many lifetimes! Think of this
introduction to Jyotish as a taster, allowing you to dip your
toe into the ocean of this ancient science. The secret to
mastering Jyotish is to become intimate with its rich
symbolism. The following sections will hopefully start to
illuminate the principles of planetary strengths and
weakness, friendships and enmities, neutrality, gender, sign
rulership, houses, dosha, lunar mansions and karma.

Note: There remain so many levels on which each chart

may be analysed, it’s impossible to describe them all in
such a short introduction. However, there is a steadily
growing number of books on Jyotish (mostly English
translations of Indian works) and I strongly encourage the
reader to explore these at their leisure. I have done a little
of the legwork inasmuch as providing some
recommendations on this subject in the Bibliography
(including volumes that focus on medical astrology). There
is also the added bonus of astrological software – programs
written specifically to carry out the many complex
calculations required for the construction of a horoscope
now make the whole process almost painless.
 SECTION 15

AYANĀṂŚA

15.1

Ayanāṃśa
0º Aries

‘The Sun’s southerly course began at one time from the

latter half of Aslesha and the northern from Dhanistha.
This indeed must have been the case as it is so
recorded in our ancient shastras.’
Brihat Saṃhitā, Varahamihira ‘There is disagreement
amongst astrologers as to how many degrees to
subtract off the Tropical ones so as to obtain the exact
Sidereal placement, and thus their Precession or
Ayanāṃśa values vary.’
 Making Sense of Astrology, Andrew Kirk

The current sidereal position of the Sun is approximately 9º Pisces at sunrise

on the vernal equinox; this same position represents 0º Aries in tropical-based
astrology Perhaps the biggest thorn in the side of Jyotish is the question of
Ayanāṃśa;3 it is quite simply the fundamental calculation required to enable an
astrologer to precisely align his window upon the heavens. So why is this
subject such a hot potato?

Ayanāṃśa is a key calculation that effectively defines 0º

Aries4 (also the first of the 12 zodiacal signs). Adjustment
of Ayanāṃśa can reposition planets in high or low degree,
alter planetary periods (dasha) and wreak havoc on sub-
divisional charts (Varga), all of which are favoured in
detailed predictive work. In short, it is potentially the most
important aspect of Jyotish and yet one of most glossed-
over fundamentals.
The question of Ayanāṃśa rarely seems to attract
commentary; that being said, it’s partly understandable
when trying to understand the mechanism and traditional
views used to ascertain its correct value. One major
stumbling block is agreeing upon a date when both
sidereal5 and tropical6 zodiacs coincided.7 On first pass this
conundrum can be a little hard to get your head around,
but after a little consideration its true import becomes
more apparent.
Due to subtle celestial mechanisms and planetary
eccentricity (still not fully understood), the earth performs
an almost imperceptible ‘wobble’ in its orbit appearing to
shift the Sun slowly backward through the zodiacal signs at
the spring equinox. This has the effect of modifying the
celestial backdrop the Sun temporarily finds itself against.
This motion is called precession8 and appears to have been
observed by some ancient cultures and certain astute
historical individuals. This motion was later to be termed
‘the great year’ and featured heavily in subsequent occult
sciences, mystery schools and secret societies. More recent
research by authors (particularly those inspired by
archeoastronomy9) suspect the phenomena of precession
helped to catalyse some of history’s more bizarre social,
cultural and political upheavals,10 sometimes termed
‘planetary/world ages’.11
Today, the ecliptic (the apparent orbit of the Sun and
planets through the zodiac from an earthbound
perspective) is still favoured by astronomers as the
conventional reference point for measuring various
astronomical bodies.12 The ecliptic is inclined to the earth’s
equator at an angle of about 23º, along which both Sun and
planets appear to tread their way (the latter never straying
more than 8º either side). This unfixed position of the Sun
at the spring equinox is properly termed ‘precession of the
equinoxes’, and by studying its slow retrogression through
the zodiacal signs an annual rate of precession is thus
determined. This, unfortunately, is where things get more
troublesome on a number of counts.

1. There is no exact agreement on the rate of precession,

which has been estimated anywhere between 50″ and
59″.8 minutes of arc per annum (about 1º every 72
years).
2. There is no consensus on the actual mechanism of
precession; it is assumed that the Sun’s motion along
the ecliptic remains fairly constant, periodically
fluctuating by miniscule amounts, but overall
completing its 360º circuit once every 25,920 years
(give or take). Sūrya Siddhānta13 suggests this motion
to be more akin to libration (oscillation), saying: ‘The
circle of Asterisms librates 600 times in a great Yuga.
That is to say all asterisms at first move westward 27º,
then returning from that limit they reach their former
places. Then from those places they move eastwards
the same number of degrees; and returning thence,
come again to their own places.’
Sūrya Siddhānta

3. Division of the zodiac is a mathematical construct,

breaking 360º of the heavens into 12 equal portions of
30º. Likewise, lunar astrology centring on the use of
Nakshatra14 breaks the same sphere into 27 equal
portions of 13º 20ʹ.15 The 12 zodiacal constellations
are irregularly sized and unequally distributed along
the ecliptic; likewise, fiducial (significant) stars used
to define Nakshatra are themselves wildly distributed
 along the lunar orbit, with only a handful of them
actually intersecting the plane of the ecliptic.

Revati, situated at the end of Pisces, was one such marker.

The star had been described as bright and positioned at a
sidereal longitude of 360º upon the ecliptic. Modern
proponents of this star favour an Ayanāṃśa called
Revatīpakṣa. It should also be mentioned that Revati
(currently identified as ζ Piscium) does not appear to be
positioned exactly where ancient observations would have
it placed, or in a state of radiance as to be a visually
outstanding marker.
Chitra (α Virginis), or Spica, situated in the middle of
Virgo, appears to have been another highly favoured star in
more than one ancient culture (including the Vedic one).
Easily distinguishable (bright) and positioned just south of
the ecliptic, with a sidereal longitude of 180º, proponents
of this star favour an Ayanāṃśa called Chitrāpakṣa. And the
list does not end here. Other contenders for fiducial stars
include Rohini (α Tauri) and Mula (λ Scorpionis); all of
which makes the discernment of the 0º extremely difficult.
All these markers have some merit and in some cases are
supported by textual references; however, these are not
without their controversies – siding with one of the
aforementioned appears to contradict the positions of
others, often in the same ancient astronomical text.16
 The imposition of a 12 divisional zodiac is not something irregular or entirely
haphazard
as there is a unique 12-ness to a circle. It is a mathematical fact that circles are
associated
with the number six. A hexagram whose sides are of equal length (see diagram)
will nest
its six points perfectly and equidistantly within a circle. If the opposing points
are then
joined, they become the circle’s diameter and form six equilateral triangles.
When each
triangle is reflected 180º outward and their points connected, the radius can
 then be
divided into 12 equal portions. Additionally, the symmetrical nature of this
geometry
also pays tribute to the ancient’s intuition, ‘As above, so below’

Calendar Reform Committee

In November 1952 the Indian government finally resolved
to unify their many regional calendars and clear up
controversy surrounding Ayanāṃśa. This was to be
achieved by appointing a Calendar Reform Committee
(CRC) to ponder the sources of available data and try to
arrive at some sort of consensus. Seven individuals
(ironically, the same number of planets in Jyotish) were
assembled and chaired by Professor Meghanad Saha, its
additional six members coming from various academic and
scientific backgrounds. Combing through the vast array of
textual sources available, they eventually arrived at the
same conundrum as mentioned previously: ‘The problem is,
no doubt, an extremely complex one, and it does not lead to
any unique solution. As a result we are at present getting
values of Ayanāṃśa varying from 19–24º. As the Śāstraic
rules dealing with this question are not unequivocal, we
shall have to examine each case on its own merits and then
arrive at a final decision as to which should be taken as the
correct Ayanāṃśa for the year.’
N.C. Lahiri

N.C. Lahiri, whose surname ultimately hijacked the name

Chitrāpakṣa, was no other than one Nimal Chandra Lahiri,
the then acting secretary to the committee. Over a period
of three years the merits of all the conflicting
documentation were discussed and finally distilled into a
final report, which was duly submitted to the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in 1955. It was on
these recommendations that the Indian government
accepted and adopted the findings on the 21 March 1956,
making Chitrāpakṣa Ayanāṃśa (now more commonly
known as Lahiri Ayanāṃśa) the officially recognised
standard.

How to proceed?
I think it only fair to mention that I don’t have the magic
formula or claim to have figured out what so many well-
qualified scientists and astrologers have deliberated over
for years. I merely make the point that this fundamental
seems to have been somewhat downplayed in astrology, but
after reviewing some of previous information it can be seen
why the subject of Ayanāṃśa is perhaps a little unwelcome.
To date there’s still no consensus amongst Vedic
Astrologers as to which calculation delivers the most
reliable results – by default most astrological software is
either set to the value proposed by the CRC or, worst still,
discourages adjustment.
I guess in part this lukewarm reception might just be a
normal reaction to mild boat-rocking. After all, persistently
using one Ayanāṃśa for years, only to be told ‘Your
calculations are all wrong’ would be highly disorientating
for astrologers, who would suddenly have to re-evaluate old
charts and dasha information that had become so familiar.
Our successful astrologer might also argue that their
predictive work is ‘bang on the money’ and therefore that
any change is superfluous. Whatever your particular take
on this issue is, at the very least it has to be said that it’s an
interesting question and one that will hopefully inspire
others to investigation this dusty corner of the Jyotish
toolbox.
Finally, I’d like to stir the waters a little more by
introducing a comparative calculation for Ayanāṃśa,
proposed by the Jyotisha Shil Ponde.17 In his 1975 book
Hindu Astrology18 he offers a calculation of 19º 27ʹ 00 as of
12 noon, 9 October 1920, with an annual precession rate of
50.1 (in comparison to the Lahiri Ayanāṃśa of 23º 09ʹ 32, 1
January 1950, with an annual precession rate of 50.28).
Accordingly, this pushes all calculations forward +3º 17ʹ.
The Shil Ponde calculation might appear somewhat radical
for supporters of Lahiri, but perhaps almost palatable for
proponents of the Ayanāṃśa proposed by the famous yogi
Sri Yukeswar (1855–1936) or the celebrated Jyotisha B.V.
Raman (1912–1998). See the table below for additional
popular Ayanāṃśa values.

POPULAR AYANĀṂŚA CALCULATIONS

Name Epoch Epoch Annual precession (seconds of
ad value arc)
Shil Ponde 1920 19º 27′ 00″
50.10
N.C. Lahiri 1950 23º 09′ 32″
50.28
Sri Yukeswar 1950 21º 45′ 55″
54.00
B.V. Raman 1950 21º 42′ 47″
50.34
J.N. Bhasin 1950 22º 03′ 47″
50.33
Krishnamurti 1950 23º 09′ 07″
Paddhati
50.24
Fagan/Bradley 221 00º 00′ 00″
50.25
Swaminarayan 320 00º 00′ 00″
50.33

Calculation of Ayanāṃśa as proposed by the

Vedic Astrologer Shil Ponde The following manual
calculation is given by Shil Ponde in his book for an
epoch (start date) of 9 October 1920 at 12.00pm
GMT.

1920

− 522 (ad 522 – date of sidereal and tropical

coincidence) = 1398

× 50.10 (yearly precession value)

= 70039.8′ (precession value at birth)

/ 3600 (converting seconds of arc to degrees of arc)

= 19.4555

(4555) × 60 = 273300

19º 27′ 00″

Note: An easier method of applying the Shil Ponde

calculation (software permitting), is to enter the following:
Epoch value: ad 522

Value at epoch: 0º 0ʹ

Annual precession value: 50.1

Shil Ponde’s19 calculation was first introduced to me by a
friend whom I consider to be a particularly good Jyotisha.
After a number of years of comparison (between it and its
rivals) I eventually opted for the former. To date I’ve found
this Ayanāṃśa to be reliable, especially in regard to Varga
charts.20 All examples given in this book have been
calculated using this value.
There are many more popular Ayanāṃśa values used by
many different astrologers (each finding their own truths in
their usage). Sadly, most Western astrology converts to the
Vedic system never venture further than the use of Lahiri,
but it has been encouraging to find that many traditional
Indian astrologers I’ve met still use their own Ayanāṃśa
value, often one passed down from Guru to disciple.
Ironically, Lahiri Ayanāṃśa is almost always mandatorily
used by Indian astrological teachers when lecturing
Western students. It is equally interesting to see these
same teachers often defaulting to another value when
personally consulted on astro-predictive matters.

POPULAR AYANĀṂŚA CALCULATIONS APPLIED TO AN ARBITRARY

DATE OF 20/07/19661 AT A TIME OF 09.00AM
Name Date Time Ascendant
Shil Ponde 20/07/66 17º 02′ 00″ Leo
09.00am
N.C. Lahiri 20/07/66 13º 45′ 00″ Leo
09.00am
Sri Yukeswar 20/07/66 15º 07′ 00″ Leo
09.00am
B.V. Raman 20/07/66 15º 11′ 00″ Leo
09.00am
J.N. Bhasin 20/07/66 14º 50′ 00″ Leo
09.00am
Krishnamurti Paddhati 20/07/66 13º 45′ 00″ Leo
09.00am
Fagan/Bradley 20/07/66 12º 46ʹ 00″ Leo
09.00am
Swaminarayan 20/07/66 14º 07ʹ 00″ Leo
09.00am
Tropical (No Ayanāṃśa) 20/07/66 07º 08′ 00″ Virgo
09.00am
1 This date and time are used throughout Part IV to calculate sample charts.

Finally, I’d like to add an anecdotal tale related to me by an

old acquaintance after he’d purchased new software with
which to calculate his Vedic astrological charts. Upon
installation of his chosen software he indignantly found it
did not allow adjustment of the Ayanāṃśa value. A little
perturbed, he called the software company to vent his
frustrations and expressed his concerns only to be (politely)
told that there was no need to adjust Ayanāṃśa, and that
anyone wishing to do so was probably on an ego trip
anyway!

15.2
Applying Ayanāṃśa
 Left: North Indian format
Right: South Indian format with Lahiri Ayanāṃśa
For those wishing to reproduce this chart, the birth data is:
Date: 20/07/1966; Time: 09.00; Location: London; Country: United Kingdom;
Longitude: 0º 13′ 00″ W; Latitude: 54º 40′ 00″ N; Ascendant: 17º 02′ 00″ Leo
Key for planets: As (Ascendant), Su (Sun), Mo (Moon), Me (Mercury), Ve
(Venus), Ma (Mars), Ju (Jupiter), Sa (Saturn), Ra (Rahu), Ke (Ketu), Mn (Mandi)
 Left: North Indian format
Right: South Indian format with Shil Ponde’s calculation for Ayanāṃśa These
examples of rashi (birth chart) have been constructed using the arbitrary date
of 20/07/1966; they have been presented here so that the reader can become
more familiar with the general look of a horoscope. This same birth data will be
used throughout the forthcoming sections to illustrate the material discussed.

These designs depict the most two popular formats of

horoscope: North and South Indian (as the names suggest,
these denote the popularity of the two options in the north
and south of the country). The same information can be
read and interpreted from each; however, the North Indian
format places greater emphasis on zodiacal houses, the
South Indian on zodiacal signs. There is no right or wrong
way to draw a horoscope; it is down purely to individual
preference or, more usually, the style that was taught to the
acolyte astrologer.
Applying the Ayanāṃśa correction (as proposed by Shil
Ponde) to this birth chart has the more prominent effect of
adjusting the position of the lunar nodes (Rahu and Ketu)
from the 3rd and 9th houses into the 4th and 10th houses,
shifting the nodal axis from the signs of Aries (1) and Libra
(7) to those of Taurus (2) and Scorpio (8), flavouring the
house of
home/education/mind/emotions/nourishment/mother, etc.
with Ketu and the house of commerce/career/trade/working
environment with the activities of Rahu. Additionally, planet
Venus switches Nakshatra from Mrigashirsha to Ardra,
while the ascendant sign in Navamsha (D9)21 changes from
Leo (5) to Virgo (6).
 SECTION 16
INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL
ASTROLOGY

16.1

Story of the Kalapurusha

(Medical Astrology)
 Kalapurusha

It happened that Mahadeva (Shiva) and his consort

(goddess Parvati) were out walking in the forests when they
came upon the outskirts of a village in late afternoon.
Looking through the trees the goddess stopped to watch
the inhabitants going about their daily business and was
struck by the weight of their karma and suffering. In her
infinite compassion she turned to her husband with
saddened eyes and said, ‘Their lives have much sadness
and pain, is there no way to reduce their burden?’
 Mahadeva turned to look at the village in the clearing
and said, ‘Their lives can be read like script on a page,
their sufferings administered to if they only raise their eyes
to the skies and stars.’
The goddess looked up but seemed puzzled, seeing only
sky and faint stars starting to appear in the late afternoon
light.
‘Everything that was, is and will be is recorded in the
heavens, you just have to know how and where to look,’
said her husband.
‘Will you show me this science of the stars?’ she asked.
‘If you wish to know its ways, then I will of course teach
you, but you must promise that the information will remain
with you and you alone. Jyotish is not for this age of
Kaliyuga;22 correct interpretation of one dasha23 alone can
change a life, knowledge of the many dasha might change
the world,’ he said.
‘I agree to your terms,’ said the goddess, ‘so let us now
begin, and since you have already spoken of dasha, can I
ask which of these would reveal their karma as clear as
water from mountain streams.’
‘Every dasha serves a Yuga (world age); it is the Yogini
dasha that best serves in the age of iron and darkness,’
replied Mahadeva.
‘And their physical suffering,’ the goddess continued, ‘is
there not a way to foretell, perhaps negate, sickness and
suffering of the body?’
Mahadeva looked skyward and, becoming like a ghostly
cloud, rose high into the sky, obscuring everything until the
lands became black. As this darkness lifted and stars began
to shine, from amongst all of these points of light the 12
great constellations24 began to radiate and burn like hot
coals, illuminating their pathway across the heavens. As
the goddess watched, the outline of a human figure began
to form around these stars, faint at first but increasing in
intensity until this silhouette filled the whole sky.
She immediately realised what was being revealed and
understood its true import, for the head of this
Kalapurusha25 was situated in Mesha (Aries), its face in
Vrishabha (Taurus), shoulders in Mithuna (Gemini), etc.;
each of the 12 signs were in alignment with the figure of
this cosmic man. Every rashi now revealed its influence
upon the body, both individually, upholding health, and
collectively, maintaining physical strength and longevity.
As the Kalapurusha began to fade, leaving only stars, new
points of light appeared and brightened upon their
approach. These strange celestial wanderers radiated a
variety of colours – green, vermillion, orange, white, deep
blue, grey and rainbow-coloured. These seven graha were
then joined by the great luminaries (Sun and Moon),
making nine in total.26 Each of them in turn represented
the qualities of the Kalapurusha: 1. Surya (the Sun) =
soul/life-force
2. Chandra (the Moon) = the mind
3. Buddha (Mercury) = the intellect/speech giver
4. Mangala (Mars) = physical strength/courage
5. Shukra (Venus) = sensual acts/potency
6. Guru (Jupiter) = knowledge/happiness
7. Shani (Saturn) = suffering/grief
8. Rahu (northern node) = desires/addiction
9. Ketu (southern node) = rebellion/moksha

Each of the graha combined with rashi to produce both

physical strength and physical weakness (suffering), and
their unique transits across the heavens signified the
release of their karmas – there it was in plain sight for all
to see. The goddess smiled to herself as her understanding
and appreciation of Jyotish deepened.
True to her word she never revealed that which was
taught by her husband. However, all great secrets long to
be told, and following them through the forest was their
son Ganesha, who of course has the most sensitive of ears.
From his place of concealment he heard every word and,
being endowed with great memory, intelligence and
patience, was able to master this science upon hearing it
just once. He was bound by no promises to keep this
information secret and so decided to disseminate it to the
astrologers of the world; hence to this day he is the deity
most associated with Jyotish.
 Ganesha

16.2
Health in the Zodiac

The use of astrology in ancient cultures is widespread, but

it is India perhaps that developed this science to its
pinnacle, giving birth to the greatest number of remedies
and rituals for the removal of ailments, afflictions and
maladies. Through painstaking sky observations they
determined the most auspicious times to undertake or
refrain from certain practices. The timing of festivals,
births, death, wars, investments, medical intervention,
marriage and travel might all require the services of a
Jyotisha. Through the practice of astro-analysis the Jyotisha
tries to gain access to information which might lead to the
negation or removal of medical conditions, in some cases
total avoidance. The client’s horoscope would be carefully
analysed to try and ascertain malevolent or karmic
inclinations toward a particular medical condition.
The story of the Kalapurusha acknowledges and encodes
the relationship of the 12 zodiacal signs in respect to the
human body. Careful study of each sign27 and possible
tenanting planets reveals constitutional strengths and
weaknesses in their associated body parts (see table
below).

ZODIACAL SIGNS AND THE HUMAN BODY

Sanskrit English Corresponding body parts
Aries Head, brain and mind
1. Mesha
Taurus Face, eyes, nose, tongue, throat, ears
2.
Vrishabha
Gemini Neck, collar bone, lungs, arms, hands
3.
Mithuna
Cancer Breast, chest, stomach, lungs (moisture),
4. Kataka elbows
 5. Singha Leo Heart, small intestine, liver, spleen,
gallbladder, pancreas

Virgo Colon, lower abdomen

6. Kanya
Libra Bladder, kidneys, uterus, ovaries,
7. Thula production of semen

Scorpio Genitals, anus, rectum, prostate gland,

8. urine, stool

Vrishchika
Sagittarius Hips, thighs, arteries, veins
9. Dhanus
Capricorn Knees, large joints
10.
Makara
Aquarius Calves, ankles, small joints, tendons
11.
Kumbha
Pisces Feet, toes, lymph system
12. Mina

Kalapurusha draws attention to the importance of graha

and how their celestial wanderings act as a catalyst,
helping karma to ripen. Graha (more than any single
component in Jyotish) impact upon the health and
constitution of the individual with the greatest force; their
primary dominion/influence over the physical body has
been reproduced in the following table.

PLANETARY DOSHAS, ATTRIBUTES AND KARAKAS

Sanskrit English Attributes Karaka
The Sun Body parts: Heart, eyes, bones Health and
1. Surya Taste: Bitter vitality

Pitta
dosha

The Body parts: Blood, lymph, The mind and

2. Moon spleen, reproductive fluids,
digestion, aqueous fluid Taste:
emotions

Chandra Salty

Kapha
(waxing)/Vāta
(waning) dosha
Mercury Body parts: Plasma, skin, The intellect
3. nervous system Taste: VPK

Buddha
Tridosha

Mars Body parts: Muscle, ligaments, Strength and

4. blood Taste: Pungent courage

Mangala
Pitta
dosha
 5. Venus Body parts: Kidneys, eyes,
reproductive fluids, immune
Passions and
physical
Shukra system, pancreas Taste: Sour proportions

Vāta-Kapha dosha
Jupiter Body parts: Liver, pancreas, Wisdom and
6. Guru gallbladder, spleen, fat tissue
Taste: Sweet
happiness

Kapha
dosha

Saturn Body parts: Joints, marrow, Disease,

7. Shani teeth, nervous system, sinew
Taste: Astringent
longevity and
death

Vāta
dosha

Northern As Saturn (primarily Vāta dosha) Addictions,

8. Rahu node intoxicants

Vāta
dosha

Southern As Mars (resembling Pitta dosha Difficult-to-

9. Ketu node but rooted in Vāta dosha) diagnose
diseases,
parasites
Vāta
dosha

Weakness or afflictions to any of the nine graha in a

horoscope irrevocably have health implications for both the
physical and mental status of the individual.
Using our sample charts the relevant medical/body systems/organs and limbs
have been shown.
Planetary positions would then be considered in light of this information
SECTION 17
 SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC

17.1

Planet/Sign Rulership

Distribution of signs amongst the seven planets – Vedic (left), English (right)
Seven planets have been ascribed rulership28 over the 12 signs of the zodiac;
see illustration above for their distribution. The Sun and the Moon have
rulership over one sign each; the other five planets exercise rulership over two
signs. The nodes Rahu and Ketu are assigned dual rulership of Aquarius and
Aries respectively, although in practice these are seldom considered strong
factors. The nodes in general are non-physical entities (ghosts, if you like) and
tend only to modify or augment the characteristics of the sign they find
themselves in or by association with another resident planet(s).29
Effects of graha in signs
The evaluations of planetary states and strengths must
have been the outcome of countless centuries of
observation, carefully tracking graha on their celestial
rounds. If conjunction of sign or planet(s) produced an
unfavourable outcome, the return of a planet to the same
position would be studied with some trepidation, fearing it
might again yield the same difficult result. Conversely, if
planet and sign were mutually strengthened by association,
so too would that part of the Kalapurusha also be fortified.
One simple example of this effect might be the placement
of Jupiter (a planet often associated with corpulence,
growth and the healthy distribution of fat and muscle
tissue). Jupiter (Kapha) tenanting its own sign of
Sagittarius would increase adipose tissue about the hips
and thighs of the body (associated body part). Sagittarius
also holds dominion over arteries and veins, and so by
association Jupiter’s placement here will also tend to
increase and dilate the circulatory channels, given a
healthy blood supply. If Sagittarius was additionally
tenanted by Venus (Vāta-Kapha) it would tend to heighten
Kapha deposits about the hip area, also increasing the risk
of arterial plaguing and increasing vascular pressure
throughout the body. Combinations of Guru and Shukra in
any of the three fire signs tend also to increase the risk of
higher blood sugar, as well as liver/gallbladder/pancreatic
imbalances.
Replacing both these graha with planet Saturn would
tend to have the opposite effect on the same body parts,
reducing the mass of the hip and thigh area, as well as
weakening the structural integrity of the arteries and
vessels, and reducing mobility of the joints.30 Introduction
of other planets solely or in conjunction would again add
their unique qualities to the energetics of the sign and so to
its associated body part. It is simply a process of building
upon known or observed effects with a variety of
combinational elements. If Sagittarius remains untenanted
(as there are only nine graha, it is inevitable that a number
of signs will remain empty), its functionality can then be
ascertained by the placement of its planetary lord. So here
again Jupiter’s position would be studied to see how it
would impact on both its signs (Sagittarius and Pisces). A
well-placed Jupiter should deliver benefic results for its
rulership signs; ill-placed, uncomfortably positioned or
associated with troublesome planets, Jupiter signs would
also suffer.

17.2

Element, Dosha and Karma

Sign dosha

Maharishi Parasara31 ascribes each rashi one of the three

types of dosha (Vāta/windy, Pitta/bilious,
Kapha/phlegmatic) plus three mixed dosha (Tridhatu or
VPK) (see illustration).
As previously discussed in Section 1.4 of Part I, the
ancients also perceived the universe to be composed of five
prime elements. Jyotish reaffirms these correlations by
assigning one element to each of the 12 zodiacal signs,
starting with Aries (tejas/fire), Taurus (prithvi/earth),
Gemini (vāyu/air), Cancer (jala/water) and so on. The fire
signs, Aries, Leo and Sagittarius, are heating and drying in
nature; the earth signs, Taurus, Virgo and Capricorn, are
weighty, drying and cool in nature; the air signs, Gemini,
Libra and Aquarius, are light, drying and changeable in
nature; and the water signs, Cancer, Scorpio and Pisces,
are watery, sensitive and emotional in nature.

Sample chart
Accurately32 determining dosha can require some
advanced knowledge and understanding; however, each
planet, sign and Nakshatra has attributes of dosha
associated with it, and these in turn can be studied for
overall dominance. Additionally, convergence of prime
elements and karma can also be studied to allow a core-
level analysis to be presented. Using the simple principle of
like-increases-like and opposites-neutralise, a cursory
glance at any horoscope should yield some useful
information about the overall constitution and wellbeing of
an individual.
 Sample chart dosha

Using our sample chart we can firstly examine the

concentration of planets in signs and their corresponding
elements:

PLANETS IN SIGNS (SAMPLE CHART)

No. Element Planet Sign
1 Earth Rahu and Mandi Taurus and Virgo
2 Fire Moon Leo
3 Air Jupiter, Mars and Venus Gemini
4 Water Sun, Mercury, Saturn and Ketu Cancer/Scorpio and Pisces

Although the nodes (Rahu and Ketu) occupy the signs

Taurus and Scorpio, their non-material status is not
considered to have weight in the overall analysis of dosha;
likewise, Mandi (Upagraha) in the earth sign Virgo is also
not considered in determination of dosha.
On a rather over-simplistic base level it could be said that
here (in this birth chart) the elements water and air
predominate, suggesting a constitution primarily based
upon Kapha-Vāta dosha.
 A secondary consideration of the pivotal planets such as
the Sun and the Moon (primary luminaries) shows the Sun
in Cancer (Kapha and ruled by the Moon) and the Moon in
Leo (Pitta and ruled by the Sun). This deep connection
(called parivartana or mutual reception) shows both to be
intermeshed with one another, indicating that their
manifestation will always tend to be tainted with the
energetics of the other – a kind of partnership in crime, if
you like. In this case, the Pitta (heat of ascendant Leo) is
somewhat mitigated by a waxing (Kapha) Moon, and its
lord (the Sun) positioned in a sign dominated by Kapha
(Cancer).
The sign Gemini (lorded by Mercury) hosts three planets
(Jupiter, Mars and Venus), all of which indirectly increases
Vāta dosha due to its element nature being air.

Karma
Karma has become a popular term these days, mostly
associated with a feeling of unavoidable fate, or more
commonly what goes around, comes around. These effects
(to some degree) appear to be completely demonstrable in
daily life; for example, giving another driver right of way
only to have someone extend you the same courtesy two
miles further on. Or bitterly complain about something you
find intolerable, only to find yourself doing the same thing
just a few moments later.
The word karma has also taken on something of a malefic
status, seen only in a negative context. The word karma
itself means only ‘action’ and displays indifference toward
good or bad – there is just karma. It may be considered that
birth in a wealthy, industrialised country constitutes good
karma, or you might see this as bad karma. This particular
example might be judged good from a material point of
view and poor from a spiritual perspective. An affluent life
might provide the means to indulge in greater spiritual
questing and the search for a higher purpose, or might just
as easily foster a dependency upon wealth and turn an
individual toward self-indulgence and lethargy.
The life of a pauper might grant less freedom and few
material comforts, but is just as likely to create an
appreciation of the simpler pleasures in life or foster
jealousy and resentment of those who have more. You can
look at it from many angles, but in the end Jyotish
maintains that each life tends to play itself out in
accordance with its accrued karmic debts (for better or
worse). In essence, each chart constructed by the Jyotisha
is a frozen piece of time, and each moment captured gives
a unique vantage point from which to study one’s ‘life
karma’; after all, everything in a chart is karma of one sort
or another. Within the celestial mandala of the horoscope
there are specific vantage points from which to gaze down
upon these different levels of karma.
In Jyotish, karma primarily manifests itself in the form of
Sanchita Karma (a sum total), a kind of grand overview or
inventory that an individual is carrying from successive
lifetimes of accrued deeds. This is seen as the whole rashi
(birth chart), with its multiplicity of signals from the past,
present and future. Like a hologram, each rashi chart holds
harmonic values allowing the generation of many smaller
divisional charts, called the Varga33 charts.
On a secondary level Prarabdha Karma shows our
fruiting or fixed karma and can be read by studying the
fixed signs of the zodiac: Taurus, Leo, Scorpio and
Aquarius. Prarabdha shows karma now ripe to be
experienced within that lifetime. Prarabdha Karma can feel
somewhat unyielding, appearing to heap an invisible
burden upon the shoulder of an individual regardless of
location, circumstances or physical resistance. Conversely,
this same dynamic may also choose to display itself in
resiliency of character, for example ‘That guy always seems
to bounce back from any adversity’, or a talent for turning
disaster into profit, for example ‘Everything he touches
turns to gold!’
The third level of karma is called Kriyamana, or that
which manifests instantaneously. Kriyamana can be read
from the dual signs of the zodiac: Gemini, Virgo, Sagittarius
and Pisces. Like the nature of the signs themselves, these
types of karma can be dualistic in nature, some lighter
whilst others carry more weight/impact. Kriyamana arises
and dissipates within the current lifetime; these types of
karma can be experienced and resolved without the need
for future propagation.
The fourth and final level of karma is called Aagama
Karma, or that which relates to future or successive
lifetimes. These highly energetic and forceful karmic
actions push relentlessly forward, breaking through the
barriers of the present lifetime, depositing themselves into
the cache or sum total karma (Sanchita). Aagama Karma
can be read from the movable signs of the zodiac: Aries,
Cancer, Libra and Capricorn. Analysis of the four karmas
will help to define how a planet will perform in a specific
sign controlled by Prarabdha, Kriyamana and Aagama, or
how the sum total (Sanchita) will bias the whole chart
toward its collective karma by the designation of its
ascendant sign.
The ascendant sign sets the precedent for the horoscope
– its positioning as rising sign (eastern horizon)
automatically distributes the karma of its fellow signs to
align with the 12 zodiacal houses, indicating in which areas
of life these karmas are most likely to manifest; for
example, a Gemini ascendant automatically places the
other three dual signs (Virgo, Sagittarius and Pisces) into
Kendra houses (see Section 20). An Aries ascendant places
the three other movable signs (Cancer, Libra and
Capricorn) into Kendra houses, and so on.
Left: Sample horoscope (North Indian style) showing fixed sign (Leo) ascendant
with dual and movable signs in relation to the 12 houses of the zodiac
Right: The same horoscope in its South Indian format Sign energetics very
much determine how planets are able to manifest in the horoscope – planets in
movable signs tend to be all revved-up with drive, enthusiasm and charisma,
sometimes brutally unaware of their single-minded actions and their effect on
others. Planets in fixed signs tend to show an unyielding and stubborn nature,
resisting change and innovation (fixed-sign energy is always trying to check
anything that threatens the status quo). Planets in dual signs display
combinations of both qualities previously mentioned, though greatly reduced in
both drive and tenacity. Planets in dual signs work with a more fluid and
flexible approach, holding karma, manipulating it and finally transmuting it into
something more workable.

Keeping with our sample horoscope (planets temporarily

removed), the ascendant is Leo (fixed), thus placing the
other three fixed signs in angular positions relative to it.
These angular houses are called Kendra (the shaded areas
in the North Indian design) and are thought to be
extremely potent positions in a chart. Starting at the top
and moving anti-clockwise, each field represents: Self,
Home, Partner and Career.
 For ascendants 5 (Leo), 8 (Scorpio), 11 (Aquarius) and 2
(Taurus), Prarabdha Karma will dominate these areas of
life. Sign numbers 6 (Virgo), 9 (Sagittarius), 12 (Pisces) and
3 (Gemini) are all dual signs and represent Kriyamana
Karma. Sign numbers 7 (Libra), 10 (Capricorn), 1 (Aries)
and 4 (Cancer) are all movable signs and represent Aagama
Karma.

17.3

Orientation, Strength and

Disposition of Signs

Each of the 12 zodiacal signs have further attributes

applied to them; these are more secondary in consideration
but nonetheless important and worthy of inclusion.
Orientation of sign: does it first rise by its head or back?
Pisces is a special case, being dual natured with head and
back rising simultaneously (see table below).

PLANETARY ENERGETICS TABLE

Sign Element Strength Rising Disposition
Fire Night Back Cruel
1. Aries
Earth Night Back Beneficial
2. Taurus
Air Night Head Cruel
3. Gemini
 4. Cancer Water Night Back Beneficial

Fire Day Head Cruel

5. Leo
Earth Day Head Beneficial
6. Virgo
Air Day Head Cruel
7. Libra
Water Day Head Beneficial
8. Scorpio
Fire Night Back Cruel
9. Sagittarius
Earth Night Back Beneficial
10. Capricorn
Air Day Head Cruel
11. Aquarius
Water Day Both Beneficial
12. Pisces

Each of the signs has a designated ‘strength’ relative to day

or night status. Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Sagittarius
and Capricorn have their dispositions modified by day or
night status; for example, Aries ascendant is cruel natured
if born during the night, but mitigated somewhat by a birth
during daylight hours. Consequently Leo, Virgo, Libra,
Scorpio, Aquarius and Pisces are signs that favour daylight,
so for instance a Pisces ascendant born after sunset may
display a crueller disposition than another Pisces ascendant
born during the hours of daylight.
Orientation of signs is an interesting and often
overlooked status applied to the zodiacal signs. These
criteria may also have partly contributed to the misnomer
that star constellations and signs are analogous to one
another. In this particular case the orientation of the sign is
generally taken to be more descriptive, considering how
each sign projects itself in the character of the individual;
for example, head-rising signs tend to be more single-
minded and objective driven, are future orientated and
progressive. Back-rising signs are introspective and
inflexible, seeming to brood over some past misdemeanour
and energetically looking to set the record straight. Pisces
remains the only curiosity with its head and back rising
simultaneously. Traditionally this sign is depicted as a two-
headed fish with one tail (without feet and dual-headed).
Astrologically, the seers concluded that either energetics
were likely to befall those that found themselves with this
sign dominating their ascendant.
 SECTION 18

THE PLANETS

18.1

Introduction to the Graha

(Planets)

'The Sun and Moon are of royal status and Mars is the
army chief; Mercury is the prince apparent and Jupiter
and Venus are ministerial planets. Saturn is servant
and Rahu and Ketu form the planetary army. O Vipra,
the planets Sun etc. are to be considered in this order.'
Brihat Parasara Hora Shāstra

In this section we visit individual graha/planets and take a

look at their respective roles in the celestial arena. The
nine planets are perhaps the most important part of the
whole Jyotish equation and were certainly visible gods,
traversing the nightly skies. As with all aspects of Jyotish,
the devil is in the detail – becoming familiar with the graha
and their movement along the zodiacal pathway speaks
volumes about their effect upon the horoscope. The
following overview of planets should serve to create a
framework upon which attributes of each graha can be
hung and which I hope will start to identify their essential
traits, lifting them from two-dimensional images to three-
dimensional characters with a life of their own. Once their
personalities, preferences, friendships and social hierarchy
have been committed to memory, the job of assessing their
states and strengths should begin to leap from the chart
and their stories start to unfold.

18.2

Surya (Sun)
 Yantra of the Sun

‘The Sun has honey-coloured eyes, square body; he is of

clean habits, is bilious, intelligent, manly and has
limited hair on his head.’
Brihat Parasara Hora Shāstra

Within the celestial court the Sun is considered King; he

like his earthly counterparts is Kshtriya34 (warrior class).
Masculine in stature, his complexion is blood red, his taste
pungent and his element fire. He dresses in fine red silks.
He gains strength in fire signs and is in exaltation in the
sign of Aries, specifically at 10º and at his debilitation at
the same degree in the sign Libra. The Sun is considered to
be representative of atma35 (the soul); his guna is
Sattwika.36 He is stately and magisterial, commanding
respect from those around him. When strong he indicates a
healthy allotment of life, giving prana, strong teeth and
bones, radiant complexion and sharp vision. The Sun
prospers in the 1st (self), 9th (dharma) and 10th (career)
houses; his metal is gold.
The Sun’s chariot is pulled across the sky by seven
horses; these are thought to represent the seven light rays
(or colours of the spectrum). Each ray emitted by the Sun
empowers one of the seven planets, which in turn are
returned to him, imbued with the energy of each graha.
The Sun’s status is both ruler and governance; his
strength in a chart is representative of that individual’s
relationship toward those in authority that direct him –
father, businesses, financiers and corporations – or, more
importantly, their relationships toward that individual. A
powerful Sun will lift the chart toward high social status,
perhaps ministerial, or in rarer cases making one a king.37
The Sun shows an ability to digest the convert; he is
representative of agni (power of digestion), primarily
located in the heart and small intestine. A well-placed Sun
in a horoscope helps protect one’s health, lifting the
strength of the organs (heart) and structure (bones),
enabling them to absorb nutrients and, more importantly,
burn up and expel toxins.

18.3

Chandra (Moon)
 Yantra of the Moon

‘Oh Brahmin, the Moon is very windy and phlegmatic.

She has a round body and is learned. She has
auspicious looks and sweet speech, is fickle minded and
very lustful.’
Brihat Parasara Hora Shāstra

The Moon is the second great luminary, overpowered only

by the illuminating rays of the Sun. During full moon
Chandra is nourished by the rays of Surya called
Sushumna. During the period of waning the gods feed upon
the Moon’s nectar (ambrosia) accumulated from the waxing
cycle. Riding in a three-wheeled chariot pulled by ten white
horses, the Moon graces each of the 27 lunar mansions on
its monthly journey about the heavens. The Moon prospers
in the 4th house (home); her metal is silver.
In the celestial court, the Moon is considered Queen of
the graha. The Moon is Vaishya38 by caste. Feminine, her
complexion is tawny and her taste salty; her element is
water. She dresses in fine white silks. The Moon gains
strength in earth signs and is in exaltation in the sign of
Taurus, specifically at 3º and in her debilitation at the same
degree in Scorpio. The Moon is considered to be
representative of Chitta39 (consciousness); her guna is
Sattwika. She too has a magisterial manner, but one
commanded by her caring and nurturing tendencies. When
strong she indicates clear thinking and emotional maturity,
abundant blood and healthy lubrication of the body, and
clear complexion and vision.
Her status is representative of mothering and nurturing.
Specifically the Moon relates to one’s mother or those that
keep us from harm. A powerful Moon will lift the chart
toward social interaction, perhaps even making one famous
or, at the very least, well respected in their field of
expertise. The Moon shows an ability to digest impressions,
emotions and thoughts; it is representative of bodily
digestion (primarily the stomach). A well-placed Moon in a
horoscope helps rejuvenate the body, nourishing the tissues
and retaining moisture/integrity through aqueous/synovial
fluids, salts and secretions.

18.4

Buddha (Mercury)
 Yantra of Mercury

‘Oh Vipra, Mercury possesses an attractive physique

and the ability to make puns or speak words having
double meaning (sense of humour). He has a blend of
all three humours of bile, phlegm and wind (Vāta).’
Brihat Parasara Hora Shāstra

Mercury represents the prince apparent, offspring of both

the Sun and Moon. He rides in a chariot made from both
fire and air, pulled by eight horses deep yellow in colour.
Mercury is Vaishya by caste. Neuter in sex, his complexion
is likened to the colour of grass. His taste is mixed (all six
tastes) and his element is earth. Mercury dresses in fine
black silks. He gains strength in earth signs and is in
exaltation in the sign of Virgo, specifically at 15º and in his
debilitation at the same degree in Pisces. Mercury is
considered to be representative of Buddhi (intellect); his
guna is Rajasic.40 Mercury has a youthful appearance and
mannerisms; he is fond of word play and witticism. When
strong he indicates strong intellect and an analytical
disposition, healthy lubrication of the skin, quick
movements and nimble dexterity. Mercury prospers in the
4th and 10th houses; his metal is quicksilver.
His status is representative of learned student,
negotiator, skilful investigator, magician and a master of
espionage. Specifically, Mercury relates to one’s speech
and timing. A powerful Mercury will lift the chart toward
quick thinking, sharp talking, sales/trading,
internationalism, global communications and profit.
Mercury shows an ability to irrigate and connect bodily
systems, from the electrical activity of neurons to the
plasma content of blood, juggling/suspending many
materials in a fluidic medium, yet able to perform many
varied tasks. Mercury well placed in a horoscope helps
maintain a youthful appearance, a keen intellect and an
inquisitive and questioning mind. Other traits of Mercury
include: agility/speed of nerve reactions and increased
healing abilities – Mercury is symbolically the healing
planet.

18.5

Kuja (Mars)
 Yantra of Mars

‘Oh Brahmin, Mars is cruel, has blood red eyes, is fickle

minded, liberal hearted bilious and has a thin waist and
thin physique.’
Brihat Parasara Hora Shāstra

Mars represents the commander-in-chief of the Armies and

as such is the military representative of the royal court. He
rides in a golden chariot, born of fire. Mars is Kshatriya by
caste. Masculine, his complexion is blood red and his
stature is not tall. His taste is bitter and his element fire.
Mars dresses in coarse red fabric. He gains strength in
earth signs and is in exaltation in the sign of Capricorn,
specifically at 28º and in his debilitation at the same degree
in Cancer. Mars is considered to be representative of
Shakti41 (energy); his guna is Tamsika.42 Mars is in martial
manner and gives strength, is muscular in build and
narrows at the waist. When strong he indicates tactical
skills and combative temperament, is fierce and able to
endure prolonged physical hardships. His status is
representative of a fighter and survivor. Mars prospers in
the 3rd (physical strength) and 6th (enemies) houses; his
metal is iron.
Specifically, Mars relates to physical prowess. A powerful
Mars will lift the chart toward stratagem, decisive acts,
brute force and a need to conquer. Mars floods the body
with fresh blood; he creates heat and drive, burning out
toxins with the fire element, sometimes pushing the system
to its limits (literally burnout). Mars well placed in a
horoscope helps maintain vigour, passion and a competitive
edge. Mars is literally the lifesaver, preferring fight or,
when necessary, flight (withdrawing only to regroup and
plan the next attack). Conversely Mars is also the most
philanthropic of all graha, craving always a good and just
cause!

18.6

Shukra (Venus)
 Yantra of Venus

‘Oh Bhrigusut (the son of Bhrigu)! Venus is joyful,

charming in physique, has beautiful eyes, is a poet, is
phlegmatic and windy and has curly hair.’
Brihat Parasara Hora Shāstra

Venus represents a king’s minister/guru;43 he is Brahmin

by caste. He rides in a chariot of extreme elegance,
adorned by beautiful flags. Feminine,44 his complexion is
variegated with elegant stature. His taste is sour/acidic; his
element is water. Venus dresses in fine silken fabrics. He
gains strength in water signs and is in exaltation in the sign
of Pisces, specifically at 27º and in his debilitation at the
same degree in Virgo. Venus is considered to be
representative of Shukra (creativity/pleasure); his guna is
Rajasic. Venus is highly refined and learned in all the
sacred scriptures. When strong he indicates fullness of
figure, smoothness of skin and is artistic, well versed in the
musical arts and those of the occult. Venus prospers in the
4th and 7th houses (partnerships); his metal is copper.
Specifically, Venus relates to physical potency and
semen/reproductive fluids. A powerful Venus lifts one’s
sensual/sexual charm and vitality. Venus aids in the
digestion and removal of toxins through the water element
(kidneys/pancreas) and the refinement of all nourishment
taken into the body. He fortifies the immune system by
supporting ojas and supports our ability to procreate.
Venus, like the Moon, presides over the body’s water
element, helping to reduce the drying–ageing process by
providing combined moisture/nectar.

18.7

Guru (Jupiter)
 Yantra of Jupiter

‘Jupiter is large bodied, has honey-coloured eyes and

hair, is phlegmatic, intelligent and learned in all
Shastras (classics).’
Brihat Parasara Hora Shāstra

Jupiter represents the king’s minister/guru; he is Brahmin

by caste. He rides in a chariot of gold, pulled by eight
yellow horses. Masculine, his complexion is tawny with a
large stature. His taste is sweet, his element is ether and
he dresses in fine saffron-coloured fabrics. He gains
strength in water signs and is in exaltation in the sign of
Cancer, specifically at 5º and in his debilitation at the same
degree in Capricorn. Jupiter is considered to be
representative of progeny, knowledge, happiness and
corpulence; his guna is Sattwika. Jupiter is learned in all
sacred sciences and scriptures including the art of Jyotish.
When strong he indicates a large rounded frame, both
generous and philosophical, a teacher/guru, expansive and
pervasive. Being the great benefic, his auspicious gaze
upon any native will alleviate much strife and worry in his
life, helping also to protect his body from ill-health. Jupiter
prospers in the 2nd (wealth), 5th (children), 9th, 10th and
11th houses (gains); his metal is tin.
Specifically, Jupiter relates to one’s progeny, happiness
and wealth. A powerful Jupiter enhances one’s ability to
learn, practise and master their chosen vocation. This
graha is extremely people-friendly and will quickly put
others at their ease. Jupiter aids in the protection and
cushioning of external knocks and scrapes; king of
corpulence, this graha acts as the body’s store-house (fat
tissues). He also aids in the absorption and assimilation of
nutrients (enzymes) and the removal of toxins through the
liver/gallbladder system (with some influence upon the
pancreas). Jupiter’s relation to Akash (ether) allows him to
permeate all aspects of the circulatory system, fortifying
and lubricating (lipids/oils and cholesterol); he is unctuous
in nature, creating flexibility and, most importantly,
durability.

18.8

Shani (Saturn)
 Yantra of Saturn

‘Oh Brahmin, Saturn has an emaciated and long

physique, honey-coloured eyes, is windy in
temperament, has big teeth, is indolent, lame and has
coarse rough hair.’
Brihat Parasara Hora Shāstra

Saturn represents the king’s servants; he is Shudra45 by

caste. He rides in a chariot borne from the sky, pulled by
horses of indescribable colours. Neuter in sex, his
complexion is dark with an emaciated stature. His taste is
astringent, his element is air and he dresses in
multicoloured robes. He gains strength in air signs and is
in exaltation in the sign of Libra, specifically at 15º and in
his debilitation at the same degree in Aries. Saturn is
considered to be representative of ill-health, sadness and
grief; his guna is Tamsika. Saturn is perhaps the most
feared of all graha; he is the lord of karma, presiding over
longevity and one’s ultimate gains. When strong he
indicates a tall thin frame, one without words, hunched
over and obsessively detailed and methodical. His gaze is
considered inauspicious and brings many troubles and
tribulations; his presence both ages and dries the body,
subjecting the tissues to the ravages of time. Saturn
prospers in the 6th (health), 8th (longevity) and 12th (loss)
houses; his metal is lead.
Specifically, Saturn relates to longevity, health and
karma. A powerful Saturn grants a long life, material gains
through hard work and endurance. This graha is extremely
people-unfriendly, preferring solitude and abstinence.
Saturn assists in the erosion of the body’s strength with the
passage of years; he resides mainly in the
muscular/skeletal system (bones and joints). He aids in the
reabsorbtion of liquids and the final elimination of solid
wastes. When highly malefic, Saturn concentrates the air
element (Vāta) in the body, creating a drying and
brittleness of the tissues. Saturn manifests as emaciation or
atrophy of muscle, the teeth (and their falling), the strength
of the hair and nails and the whiteness of the sclera;
rimmed darkness about the eyes is symbolic of Saturn’s
strong influence.

18.9
Rahu and Ketu
 Yantra of Rahu–Ketu

‘Rahu has a smoke-like blue body, lives in forests and is

frightening. He is windy in temperament and is
intelligent. As Rahu, so is Ketu.’
Brihat Parasara Hora Shāstra

Most readers will be familiar with the previous planetary

characters; however, Rahu and Ketu may need a little more
explanation. In essence these two shadowy planets have no
physical existence, but are instead two points on two
intersecting planes – the ecliptic (Earth’s orbit plane
around the Sun) and the Moon’s orbit plane, which vary by
5°, thus designating areas of solar and lunar eclipses.
Periodically these shadow planets appear to obscure the
two great luminaries (Sun and Moon), hence their
connection to foreboding events, calamity, terror and the
unknown. Rahu and Ketu46 were perceived by the ancients
to be the head and tail of an enormous serpent, devouring
all in their path around the ecliptic.
Rahu was the head of the serpent and signified insatiable
appetite and dark desires. Ketu is its tail, signifying
discord, destruction and global calamity. In defiance to the
other graha, these lunar nodes move in retrograde motion
around the Sun, appearing to swallow as they move across
approaching graha. (Note: In Western astrology, Rahu is
known as the dragon’s head and Ketu as the dragon’s tail.)
In truth, both nodes can be considered the wild cards in the
deck of life, as you are never quite sure how they will show
up. Collectively they offer us the chance to see the future
and the past, helping to break the apparently endless cycle
of life, death and rebirth. The nodes often create
attachment to life through addiction, physical pleasure,
greed, power and illusion. They are perhaps two of the
most hotly debated and controversial aspects of Jyotish.
Their position in any chart is of great interest to
astrologers, affording a vital glimpse of origin and ultimate
destination.
Both Rahu and Ketu represent the king’s army;
respectively their class is Shudra and mixed. Rahu’s chariot
is brown in colour and pulled by eight black horses; Ketu
rides in a brown chariot, pulled by eight red horses. Both
are neuter in sex; Rahu acts like Saturn and Ketu like Mars.
Rahu dresses in multicoloured robes and Ketu in rags.
Rahu gains strength in air signs and Ketu when transiting
fire signs. The nodes hold joint lordships over Aquarius
(Rahu) and Aires (Ketu); they also enjoy signs ruled by
Mercury. There is some speculation about their exaltation
and debilitation points; however, the most compelling idea
seems to be that both nodes are exalted in Scorpio and
debilitated in Taurus.47 Rahu rules over psychotic episodes,
deranged thinking, conspiratorial activities and warped
perception. Frequently this graha is drawn toward the
darker, more addictive aspects of life. Rahu rules over
intoxicants, poison, hallucinations and wounds inflicted by
fanged, biting animals/reptiles.
 Ketu is thought to be representative of mass calamities,
psychic attacks and paranormal activity and ghosts. Ketu
symbolises Moksha (liberation and enlightenment); he also
rules over winged or crawling insects/parasites,
particularly those of a variegated colour. The nodes
augment, reflect and warp the energetics of any planets
they associate with; the closer their conjunction the more
they distort and transfigure the planet concerned. Emitted
planetary rays from each graha pass through the nodes and
are skewed to their own particular energetics. Rahu tends
to amplify planetary rays whilst Ketu scrambles and
rarefies their emissions (a prismatic effect). Symbolically,
Rahu represents the fangs of a cobra while Ketu is likened
to a multicoloured flag.
In health, both nodes tend to create more problems than
benefits, disrupting the normal flow of energetics. Rahu
creates imbalances that cause deficiency in one channel
and over-abundance in another; leaping between tissue
levels, its hallmark is changeability and diversification.
Ketu rarefies bodily tissues and nutrients, creating loss of
structural integrity and impaired absorption. These
deficiencies often accrue over long time periods through
the use of stealth, taking small amounts here and there,
producing a slow decline of health and strength. Rahu is a
causative factor in diseases that spread out of control,
requiring the use of strong toxins to satiate it. Ketu lurks in
amongst the subtle tissues causing imperceptible damage
over long periods, often confusing any diagnostic
appraisals of its handiwork.
On a more positive note, the nodes can also bear gifts.
Rahu is particularly useful in predictive astrology (as he
can see the future); Ketu’s energy helps one connect to the
past and so can be useful for highly detailed research in
archaeology or forensics. Rahu can be inspirational and
technologically driven, pioneering many of the cutting-edge
sciences. Ketu is also useful for allowing exploration of the
microcosm (subatomic structures, etc.). Having a strong
Rahu in a chart can make one an excellent chemist, or one
who deals with highly toxic materials and their
neutralisation (Rahu ultimately transmutes poison into
nectar). A well-placed Ketu can allow one to penetrate deep
into underground organisations (crime fighting), assuming
different identities that morph into the background; Ketu
on the ascendant tends to make one undetected or invisible
(appearing to vanish in a crowd).

18.10

Mandi (Upagraha)

‘Mandi, exalted in Aquarius and debilitated in Leo,

behaves like Yama (Saturn) as the God of death; He is
understandably regarded as a super malefic.’
Making Sense of Astrology, Andrew Kirk Upagraha,
much like the lunar nodes, perhaps requires a little
explanation before continuing. There are some
additional 1148 planets considered to be composed of
darkness or smoke. Parasara gives the mathematical
calculations for these in the Brihat Hora Shāstra. Six
are calculated from manipulation of the Sun’s longitude
at the time of birth; the other five are calculated from
the division of the day’s duration by eight in a weekday
sequence with the eighth being void.

For the purposes of this text it is the most malefic of

these, Mandi, that interests us. Although little used, Mandi
can give some stunning insights into many areas of
astrology, but it is in the areas of health and longevity that
it shines with particular brilliance. Named Pranhara
(‘destroyer of prana’), this graha is particularly adept at
usurping and augmenting the power of any adjacent
graha(s). The general rules applied to Upagraha are firstly
related to proximity and secondly to their placement in
houses. These shadow planets tend to lay low in a chart,
seemingly passive or uneventful; however, if any graha49
(except Rahu and Ketu) or ascendants cross their path
(within 5º) they quickly stir into life. Of all Upagraha,
Mandi has the slightly larger orb of 7.5º, making his reach
that little bit longer and more likely to muddy the waters,
so to speak. Most Upagraha prosper in Upachaya houses50
(3, 6, 10 and 11); otherwise positioned they tend to wreak
their havoc.
Unlike the nine main graha, there are little or no
descriptions of Mandi’s physical appearance, preferences,
likes and dislikes and dosha inclinations; only his effects
were noted by the ancient astrologers. Like his father,
Yama (god of death), he is super-destructive and
understandably regarded with high malefic status. Any
graha he conjoins in the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, 7th, 8th, 9th or
12th houses will feel his icy grip, imbuing them with
people-unfriendly characteristics, personal hygiene issues
and physical weaknesses related to the planet(s) it
conjoins. Some astrologers have noted Mandi’s apparent
exaltation in Aquarius and debilitation in Leo, all adding to
its mixed results and further intriguing its placement in a
birth chart.

18.11

Friendships, Enmity and

Neutrality of Planets
At first glance, friendships, enmities and neutrality of
planets can seem a little daunting, but with a little study
their roles and kinship (within their celestial kingdom)
quickly become second nature. The ‘who’s-who’ tale of
planets is usually wrapped into a convenient short story
that helps to define its short list of characters. Though
every storyteller has their own spin on the exact details,
the overall telling adheres to the same basic principles. The
following is one version of the classic and outlines the
various power struggles within the great celestial court: •
Sun – King: Much respected and loved by his people.
Strong, wise and just, has ruled for many years with
unfaltering benevolence, but even he can see a time when
his radiating light begins to fade and finally fail; he knows
he must make way for new and younger blood (Mercury),
his son. He likes to keep his advisor and tactician close
(Jupiter and Mars). He fears the occult powers and allure of
Venus and does not trust his servants (Saturn).
• Moon – Queen: Consort of the king, outwardly
bringing a sense of stability to the royal family,
inwardly sensitive and easily troubled. The Moon
maintains cordial relations with all in the court,
keeping the status quo. The Moon tries to make each
planet feel supported and honoured in their various
roles. Although a great luminary, the Moon cannot
shine without the Sun. Being a gregarious planet the
Moon hates to be alone in any part of the sky.
• Mercury – Prince: Eager to show worth to his father,
he is fast-acting and quick-thinking. He sees his
principal enemy in the queen, her emotions and
sensitivities eluding his intellect. He is counselled by
Venus and finds strength in his teachings. His tutelage
has made the prince a great magician and a master of
word-play.
• Mars – Commander-in-Chief: Loyal to his king and
queen; he also takes counsel from Jupiter. In the young
prince he senses trouble and instability for the
kingdom. He fears the time when the young king is
crowned and perhaps his services are no longer
required.
• Jupiter – Guru: The king’s trusted advisor and, like
Mars, fears his position is threatened. He feels his role
of advisor will be slowly usurped by glamorous and
alluring Venus, who already threatens to unbalance the
celestial realms by granting the demons the gift of
immortality. In his position as guru he is always trying
to steer the king toward his duty to maintain heavenly
control.
• Venus – Guru: Breaking with the traditions of the royal
family, this guru figure is a revolutionary thinker within
the royal court. Viewed with suspicion by the king, he
knows his future lies with the young prince and the
support of the palace servants (Saturn). The king, he
knows, will keep him close (like an enemy), but at the
same time will not act against him unless he oversteps
his boundaries as an advisor.
• Saturn – Servant: Moving in the background, biding
his time. Saturn keeps the celestial machinery oiled,
patiently awaiting the day when the king will step to
one side allowing his son to rule; only then will his
status within the royal household improve. He moves
slowly about the kingdom being conservative with his
energies, knowing that everything comes to he who
waits.
• Rahu and Ketu – King’s Army: Considered to be
outcasts or those somewhat removed from the events
within the palace walls. Collectively they form the
king’s army (militia), begrudgingly performing the
 king’s bidding. They both await the end of the king’s
reign and the start of the new era. Both nodes are
drawn toward Venus and Saturn. Individually, Rahu is
likened to Saturn, though less restrictive. Ketu is
likened to Mars, having a wild and unpredictable
temperament.

The following table outlines Parasara’s views on

friendships, enmities and neutrality of the planets.

FRIENDSHIPS, ENMITIES AND NEUTRALITY

Sun Friendship: Mars Friendship: Saturn Friendship:
(King) Moon, Mars, (Commander- Sun, Moon, (Servant) Mercury,
Jupiter in-Chief) Jupiter Venus
Enmity: Enmity: Enmity:
Venus, Saturn Mercury Sun, Moon,
Neutral: Neutral: Mars
Mercury Venus, Neutral:
Saturn Jupiter
Moon Friendship: Jupiter Friendship: Rahu Friendship:
(Queen) Sun, Mercury (Guru) Sun, Moon, (King’s Jupiter,
Enmity: Mars Army) Venus,
None Enmity: Saturn
Neutral: Mercury, Enmity:
Mars, Jupiter, Venus Sun, Moon,
Venus, Saturn Neutral: Mars
Saturn Neutral:
Mercury
Mercury Friendship: Venus Friendship: Ketu Friendship:
(Prince) Sun, Venus (Guru) Mercury, (King’s Mars,
Enmity: Saturn Army) Venus,
Moon Enmity: Saturn
Neutral: Sun, Moon Enmity:
Mars, Jupiter, Neutral: Sun, Moon
Saturn Mars, Neutral:
Jupiter Mercury,
Jupiter
Source: Brihat Parasara Hora Shāstra
 SECTION 19
PACIFYING THE GRAHA

19.1
Propitiation

After the brief introduction to the nine planets we take a look at propitiation or
remedial measures developed by the ancients to help ward off potential negative
effects transmitted by planetary rays. There are three levels of treatment mentioned
in the ancient classics of Āyurveda, collectively known as Sattva (mind), Aushada
(medicine) and Deva (divine intervention), or more commonly defined as
psychological, physiological and spontaneous remission/faith healing, respectively.
The following narrative deals with techniques orientated around this third category
and stemming mostly from astrological considerations.
After careful analysis of the horoscope, a Jyotisha would be able to offer remedies to
placate certain planetary configurations if concern was raised by the questioner.
There were and are many suggested methods to divert some of the malefic energetics
from disrupting an individual’s life. These can be broken down into a few simple
categories including: sincere personal acts, the wearing of gemstones, and the use of
yantras (talismans) and Yagyas (fire ceremonies performed by Vedic priests).
As mentioned previously, the question of karma has a great bearing upon the
different forces of planets and how they dispense their karmic lots. Most astrologers
seem to be in agreement that karma can be modified to some extent, and at least
lessened in cases of hardship or enhanced in cases of merit; however, karma itself
always remains.
A suitable analogy might be the following. Fate has reserved a moment to drop a
large brick upon your head, in repayment for some earlier misdemeanour. After a
consultation with an astrologer you have this pointed out to you. The astrologer
advises you to wear a hard hat whenever you go out and, sure enough, one week later
a large brick drops from a nearby building, knocking you out cold but doing relatively
little damage to your skull. Upon recovery from the accident you count your blessings,
firstly for having the good foresight to ask an astrologer about your future, and
secondly for taking his advice to wear a hard hat.
Conversely, you have a well-placed graha in your horoscope promising fame and
fortune in your life. As you draw steadily near to the time of this karma’s fruition you
decide to seek a way to empower/enhance its good effects. By propitiation of the
planet in question, the use of a suitable gemstone, construction of a small shrine, the
use of yantra, regular fasting and ritual offerings, you try to take advantage of this
potentially heightened period. True to the words of the astrologer the planetary
period arrives and so does the fame and fortune. In both cases karma was delivered,
and in both examples it was modified for better effect.
 The sceptic, of course, would argue that the subsequent fame and fortune was just
random luck and the guy unfortunately wandered too near to a building site – after
all, bricks fall from construction sites all the time, right? However, the whole act of
propitiation is to honour the karma being presented, and through astrological means
(usually an astrological consultation) you attempt to connect with the graha(s) and in
return are given an opportunity to glimpse the karma before its fruition.
Any form of planetary propitiation would be a hard thing to prove or disprove, as
the expiration of the event or period would pass with the karma manifesting or not as
the case may be. The full weight of that particular karma would never be known as its
time of ripening had then passed. As the purpose of this narrative is not to establish
whether Jyotish is an effective means to predict impending successes or failure, I can
only add to this subject by laying out the following information and let the reader
decide for themselves.
Much time and thought went into the construction of ritual and many of them
remain popular to this day. Sri Lankans and people of India place emphasis on
consultations with astrologers; this is a practice which continues throughout their
lives on matters of great importance. The table below outlines a few core-level
remedial measures that encompass the basics of propitiation. As always, there are
many rituals that help pacify and propitiate graha, but the examples given here are
general and fall under the category of tried and tested.

PACIFYING GRAHA
Graha Day and activity
Sunday: Charitable acts, agni hotra, fasting, offerings of wheat, saffron, jaggery or honey in a
1. The golden coloured vessel, construction of a small shrine dedicated to Surya in the southern
corner of the home decorated with orange fabrics, meditation or prayer at 12 noon, the
Sun wearing of gold, rubies or sunstone.
Promotes: Absorption of prana, digestive fire (agni).
Strengthens: Heart, small intestine, blood, bones, eyesight.
(Surya) MANTRA: AUM SURYAYA NAMAHA chanted on Sundays at sunrise.
Monday: Devotional acts, fasting, food donation, offerings of milk, white rice or honey,
2. The construction of a small shrine dedicated to Chandra in the northern corner of the home
decorated with light blue fabrics, meditation or prayer at sunset, the wearing of silver, pearls
Moon or moonstone.
Promotes: Longevity, rejuvenation, peace of mind.
Strengthens: Blood, eyesight, stomach, lungs, digestive enzymes.
(Chandra) MANTRA: AUM SOMAYA NAMAHA chanted on Mondays at sunrise.
Tuesday: Physical training, fasting, offerings of barley or masoor dal, construction of a small
3. Mars shrine dedicated to Kuja in the southern corner of the home decorated with vermillion
coloured fabrics, meditation, prayer at sunrise, the wearing of pañcha loha,1 silver, red coral
(also red agate) or spinel.
(Kuja) Promotes: The healing of wounds and reduction of scar tissue, physical prowess (speed and
agility), cunning, courage, strength.
Strengthens: Muscle, haemoglobin, marrow, ligaments, sinew.
MANTRA: AUM KUJAYA NAMAHA chanted at sunrise.
Wednesday: Astrology, fasting, offerings of mung bean, millet, green lentil or pumpkin seeds,
4. construction of a small shrine dedicated to Buddha in the eastern corner of the home
decorated with emerald green fabrics, meditation or prayer at sunrise, the wearing of silver,
Mercury platinum, emerald, peridot or jade.
Promotes: Intellect, discrimination, quality of speech (eloquence and vocabulary), lustre of
skin, dexterity of hands, general rasāyana.
(Buddha) Strengthens: Nervous system, lungs, skin, mucous membranes.
MANTRA: AUM BUDHAYA NAMAHA chanted at sunrise.
Thursday: Study of scripture, pooja, fasting, offerings of rye, saffron, turmeric or ghee,
5. construction of a small shrine dedicated to Guru in the eastern corner of the home decorated
 Jupiter with yellow/orange silks or fine yellow fabrics, meditation or prayer at sunrise, the wearing of
gold, yellow sapphire, topaz or citrine.
Promotes: Wisdom, intelligence, devotion and physical endurance, reduction of negative
(Guru) astrological forces (Jupiter is the great benefic), lubrication and lustre of the tissues.
Strengthens: Liver, pancreas and gallbladder, immune and glandular system, synovial
joints/cartilage, fingernails, sclera, hair.
MANTRA: AUM BRIHASPATAYA NAMAHA chanted at sunrise.
Friday: Music or art therapies, offerings of oats, cream, yoghurt, jaggery, white sesame seeds,
6. Venus construction of a small shrine dedicated to Shukra in the northern corner of the home
decorated with fine white silks or white fabric, meditation or prayer in the evenings, the
wearing of silver, platinum, diamonds or clear quartz.
(Shukra) Promotes: Fertility (both male and female), beauty (iris) and strength of eyes, youthful looks,
supple limbs, lustre of skin and ojas.
Strengthens: Reproductive secretions (semen/ovum), kidneys and urinary systems, eyesight,
general immunity.
MANTRA: AUM SHUKRAYA NAMAHA chanted at sunrise.
Saturday: Work upon the land (sowing/harvesting), fasting and service to the elderly, devotion
7. to Hanuman (monkey god), offering of black sesame and mustard seeds or urad dal, the
feeding of crows and donations to charitable causes, construction of a small shrine dedicated
Saturn to Shani in the western corner of the home decorated with dark blue or heavy course fabrics,
meditation or prayer at sunrise, the wearing of pañcha loha, stainless steel,2 blue sapphires or
amethyst.
(Shani) Promotes: Endurance, strength, tolerance, detachment, devotion, relief from suffering and
pain.
Strengthens: Colon, teeth, bones, joints, ability to expel āma from the body.
MANTRA: AUM SHANAISCHARAYA NAMAHA chanted at sunrise.
Saturday (Rahu)/ Tuesday (Ketu): See propitiation of Shani and Kuja for more details. As
8. Rahu both nodes have no physical bodies their effects in the chart are more subtle. If they are
situated within 5º of another graha their influence will be strongly felt. Propitiation of the
nodes will also strengthen any conjunct planet(s). Secondary propitiation of conjunct graha(s)
and Ketu is also prudent as both nodes (by association) tend to disturb Vāta dosha, affecting those bodily
systems/organs dominated by the air element.
MANTRA FOR RAHU: AUM RAHAVE NAMAHA.
MANTRA FOR KETU: AUM NAMAHA KETAVE both chanted at sunrise.
1 Pañcha loha (also known as Pasloha in Sri Lanka) = five metals: tin, copper, zinc, iron and lead.
2 Saturn’s metal is primarily lead or iron; however, both are impractical to wear so stainless steel is sometimes
used as a substitute.
Note: Planetary mantras are repeated 108 times

19.2
Planetary Gemstones

There are a few variations on the table below, but these I believe are the gemstones
most attuned to the graha lords and ones that seem to have the most beneficial
effects. As mentioned previously, you can’t buy your way out of karma – the primary
gemstones (P) featured below can be extremely costly, and added to this there are
recommended carats, colours and grades, all of which require large budgets and
trustworthy sources from which to purchase your unblemished stones.
Generally, substitute gemstones (S) are suited to the price ranges of mere mortals,
are abundant and are generally less likely to have been tampered with. If properly
prepared and worn with the right intent, they can be just as effective as their more
exclusive cousins. Indeed, it has been my experience that some costly stones have
been virtually ineffectual, which could be partly explained by the fixed nature of the
karma and partly by the unscrupulous nature of the gem trader selling a stone
manipulated to enhance its better points whilst skilfully detracting from its
imperfections. This is perhaps one of the pitfalls of buying costly primary stones.
Unfortunately, it really can be a minefield purchasing these types of gems, so it is
important that you have an expert at hand to ratify the alleged quality of the stone
before you part with your hard-earned cash.
Sometimes there are also advantages in the purchase of substitute stones as profit
margins can be less and so not so open to overpricing. An attractive substitute stone
well set into a precious metal, open-backed (allowing the stone to contact the skin),
can be a worthwhile expenditure, but again is not essential.
Gemstones are usually set into gold or silver, depending upon the properties of the
planet in question. An example of this would be a ruby (sacred to the Sun) worn to
enhance the Sun’s power. If the individual in question already had an excess of the
fire in their body (high Pitta), wearing a ruby might aggravate their condition. By
setting the gemstone into a cooling metal such as silver it would subdue the heating
nature of the stone from unbalancing the bodily dosha. This cooling is achieved by
diffusing referred planetary rays emitted from the ruby via the Sun passing through
silver metal resting upon the skin’s surface. If the same individual suffered from low
or variable fire in their body, a ruby gemstone would more appropriately be set in the
warming metal, gold. Some graha are to be energised only under specific
circumstances or if they have been severely compromised in the eyes of the
astrologer. Saturn, both the nodes and Mars are to be rarely empowered due to their
specific malefic natures; however, there are mitigating circumstances where they may
be recommended to be strengthened, enhancing their specific planetary ray.
Unfortunately these circumstances are beyond the scope of this work, but have been
detailed in other works on this subject; see the Bibliography at the end of the book.

GEMSTONES, METALS AND RESPECTIVE GRAHA LORDS

Sun Ruby (P) Mars Red Coral (P) Saturn Blue Sapphire (P) Amethyst
Sunstone (S) Red Spinel or Red Agate (S) (S)
Setting metal: Setting metal: Silver/Copper Setting metal:
Gold/Silver Silver/Stainless Steel
Moon Pearl (P) Moonstone (S) Jupiter Yellow Sapphire (P) Citrine or Rahu Hessonite1 (P)
Setting metal: Topaz (S) Setting metal: Silver
Silver/Gold Setting metal: Gold
Mercury Emerald (P) Jade or Venus Diamond (P) Clear Quartz (S) Ketu Chrysoberyl/Cat’s Eye (P)
Peridot (S) Setting metal: Silver/Platinum Setting metal: Silver
Setting metal:
Silver/Platinum
(P) = primary stone; (S) = substitute option.
1 Hessonite/Garnet/Cinnamon Stone – Ca3Al2(SiO4)3.

19.3
Nava Ratna
 This illustration shows the recommended setting of planetary gemstones in a Nava Ratna

Nava Graha (Nava = nine and Graha = planet) honour all nine planets with the use of
the nine primary or substitute gemstones, each stone dedicated to its respective
planetary lord and set into a complementary metal (usually tailored to suit one’s
dosha). With a mixed bag of planetary strengths in a chart it can sometimes be
difficult to detect an individual planet that could be safely empowered without the risk
of upsetting or unbalancing others. As the practice of gemstone propitiation can
sometimes be fraught with trade-offs and unforeseen factors, it is often better to go
for a ‘belt and braces’ philosophy and recommend Nava Ratna. With all possible bases
covered and no one planet favoured above the others, the use of the Nine Stone Set
has become very popular and highly recommended. With the transitory nature of
planets, single stones can move from favourable to semi-favourable to unfavourable
over time. By honouring all nine graha this type of ring/pendant can be worn
throughout one’s life without the risk of incurring preferences of one graha lord over
another.
There are some specific qualities of each stone required to give the best possible
results. Gemstones should be:

1. blemish-free, without abrasions or fissures

2. free from colour enhancement (heating techniques used to augment colour)
3. a minimum weight of 1.5ct51 (P) and 3ct (S) 4. first worn on their corresponding
planetary day
5. worn on the appropriate hand (masculine planets on the right hand and feminine
planets on the left)
6. worn on the appropriate element/finger (see illustration below)
7. set into an appropriate metal, enhancing the benefic effects of the stone (see the
previous table)
8. set so as to allow direct contact with the skin
9. washed/bathed in salt water or milk prior to wearing.

Rules for wearing seem a little complex at first but make a lot of sense upon closer
inspection. Gemstones set into rings or pendants are usually first worn on their
corresponding planetary day (after purification), at sunrise and placed about the neck
or upon a finger on days most appropriate to their ruling planet lord (see table below
for each graha/gemstone). An appropriate finger is defined as a place where each
planetary lord feels most at ease or in the company of friends (see Section 18.11
earlier).
There is some debate as to whether gemstones perform better when worn on the
left or right hand. The left hand is feminine (open and allowing), the right hand
masculine (assertive). The left is considered by some to absorb and assimilate
planetary rays, the right better able to project these same planetary rays. After
speaking with a number of different gemstone experts in Sri Lanka, this dilemma
seems pretty clear cut, as most would say: if you are going to wear a powerful
gemstone like a ruby (enhancing Sun), there is only one place it can go, on your right
hand on the finger ruled by the fire element. If you seek to enhance femininity,
material comforts and physical beauty, the appropriate gemstones are worn on the
left hand.

This illustration shows each finger and its relationship to the five elements

Friendships and enmity of planets is a key factor in the consideration of gemstone

positioning on the fingers. Comfort of each lord is essential if the full benefic effect of
its ray is to be felt. Secondarily the sex of each planet should be considered: the Moon
and Venus are feminine, whilst the Sun, Jupiter and Mars are masculine. As the
remaining planets are neuter they can be worn on either hand. In Hasta Rekha
Shāstra, the Moon, Mars and Venus do not correspond to a particular finger;
therefore wearing their respective gemstone requires them to be positioned upon the
finger of a natural friend. Mars is most suitably worn on the Sun’s finger and Venus
upon the fingers of Mercury or Saturn (left hand). The Moon, having no planetary
enemies, can be worn to some degree on any finger but gives its best results upon the
fingers of the Sun or Jupiter (left hand).
Pendants are often positioned around the throat area to effect their healing upon
the throat chakra or the reconciliation point on the body between the feeling heart
and the thinking mind – the neck. Pendants worn lower on the chest area are
specifically working on the heart, circulation and blood.

RESPECTIVE FINGERS/HANDS FOR GEMSTONES

Sun Ring finger (right hand) Mars Ring finger (right hand) Saturn Middle or little finger (right
(Fire) (Fire) (Air) or left hand)
Moon Index or ring finger (left hand) Jupiter Index finger Rahu Middle finger (right or left
(Water) (Water) (right hand) (Air) hand)
Mercury Little or middle finger (left or Venus Middle or little finger Ketu Middle finger (right or left
(Earth) right hand) (Water) (left hand) (Air) hand)
Note: For more information about planetary associations see Hasta Rekha Shāstra.

19.4
Yagyas and Yantras

Yagyas
‘Performance of Agni Yagya is practised by Brahmachari (celibates) during the
evenings to ensure prosperity and the mornings to promote long life. Making
sacrifice to the deities during daytime is called Deva Yagya. Brahmin should
perform Brahma Yagya only with help and study of the Holy Vedas.’
Shiva Maha Purana

Yagyas (also known as Puja) are specific Vedic ceremonies dating back thousands of
years; their use is highly prolific throughout the Vedas and Purana. Yagyas are
performed by highly trained Vedic priests who chant specific Sanskrit mantras while
offering flowers, milk, ghee, rice, pulses, grains, herbs and fruit to specific deities
using a fire ceremony. There are many occasions where the use of Yagyas may be
called upon, including: one’s personal protection from malevolent forces (both
physical and spiritual), the calming of turbulent astrological periods (falling under the
gaze of an inauspicious graha), fulfilment of personal desires, or the purification of a
sacred site (rectification of difficult Vāstu).
Generally, astrological Yagyas are recommended to be performed prior to the start
of inauspicious/difficult periods; these are usually pinpointed by Jyotisha examining
birth data in the horoscope. Every Yagya is unique to the individual. Using the
person’s name and astrological data, it is believed that the ‘seeds’ of one’s karmas can
be burned up in the fires of the Yagya. The whole process of Yagya can vary according
to specific ritual and desired effect – some of the more powerful enactments can
proceed over a period of weeks, and others can be completed in a few hours. Yagyas
are recommended to be repeated over different time periods to reinforce their
emanations and intent. Most Vedic experts agree that these ceremonies have the
potential to stay active for periods up to one year.
Yagyas are a very subtle thing, working on the level of individual and cosmic
consciousness, but nearly always bringing about a positive spiritual evolution. One
can never predict the exact outcome of a Yagya, and each person’s karma is unique to
them also. Consultation with a skilled Jyotisha can help demystify some of these
deeper transpersonal karmas by analysing the birth chart with these factors in mind.
Two examples of Yagya ceremonies are the Ghanesha Yagya (obstacle-removing
ritual), in which the 108 names of Ganesha (elephant-headed god) are chanted, and
the Mrityunjaya Yagya (for health), in which a Shiva Lingam is worshipped while
chanting the sacred Mrityunjaya Mantra.

Yantras
Yantras or astrological amulets are commonplace in Asia, especially in Sri Lanka. I
cannot remember seeing anyone there who did not wear some variation of
astrological bracelet, charm, ring or necklace, each one skilfully and specifically made
to reduce or counteract negative planetary placements in their horoscopes. Nearly
every doctor I met in Sri Lanka wore some kind of astrological pendant, and many of
the locals carried small copper yantras rolled into brass tubes called ‘Suraya’,52
topped up with a small amount of medicinal/fragmented oil, preserving the yantra
inside from becoming oxidised.
Generally the life of each Suraya is thought to be about seven years (one year for
each graha), before the talisman finally loses its effect. The contents of a Suraya
range from traditionally inscribed copper sheets to Ksara53 (ashes of herbs) or
bhasma (calcined metals or gemstones). Analysis of children’s horoscopes in Sri
Lanka will sometimes call for the wearing of a talisman called Panchayudaya54
(meaning five weapons) if subsequent study reveals hidden dangers lying in wait for
them in later years.

Honouring the Nava Graha (nine planets). This exquisite design runs clockwise, depicting
(top) Saturn, Sun, Moon, Rahu, Mars, Mercury, Venus and Ketu. Jupiter’s position is central
atop the pot of amrita (centre). Outer Sanskrit glyphs are the seed mantra starting from
 the Sun (Hreem, La, Sreem, Kshmee, Kleem, Ēi and Aum)

Crossing of lines on the yantra is not permitted – broken lines dissipate energy

Some of the designs inscribed onto a thin copper sheet can be exquisitely detailed and
are laboured over for many an hour by a local medicine man (see colour plates in the
centre of the book and Section 14.1 at the start of this part of the book). There are
also traditionally observed rules adhered to whilst working on copper sheet yantra,
examples being crossed lines, dhisti and pooja.55 Dhisti ensures that the yantra is
aligned to its correct source, consecrating the design of that yantra to a Deva (god) or
Yaksha (demon). In the case of an astrological yantra, a benefic or malefic planetary
glyph would hold a prominent placement on the final design. Regarding pooja, final
offerings would be made to strengthen the power of the yantra. If the design honours
a deva, then flowers, milk, scented water or fruit would be used in this empowerment
ceremony. If the yantra honours a Yaksha deity, ceremonial offerings might include
blood, flesh, black cloth, putrid food or in some cases a dead animal. Lastly, to ensure
the correct functionality of the yantra, its lines were not permitted to cross one
another (see illustration above). All of the above being observed, the finished yantra
would be presented to its new owner, hopefully averting any malefic energy wishing
to disrupt their life plans.
 SECTION 20

HOUSES AND SIGNS

20.1
Introduction

The primary symbology for each of the signs is extremely old,56 their absolute
meanings lost to ancient history. Zodiacal signs of one sort or another are almost
certainly some of mankind’s most ancient symbols, perhaps predated only by
Nakshatra.57 The 12 signs are commonly represented by animals, humans, human–
animal hybrids or a man-made object. Most critiques and modern commentaries on
astrological symbolism still confuse the stellar constellations with astrological signs,
as this quote from cosmologist Carl Sagan attests: ‘The night sky is interesting. There
are patterns there. Without even trying, you can imagine pictures. In the northern sky,
for example, there is a pattern, or constellation, that looks a little ursine. Some
cultures call it the Great Bear. Others see quite different images. These pictures are
not, of course, really in the night sky. We put them there ourselves. We are hunter
folk, and we saw hunters and dogs, bears and young women, all manner of things of
interest to us. When seventeenth-century European sailors first saw the southern
skies they put objects of seventeenth-century interest in the heavens, toucans and
peacocks, telescopes and microscopes, compasses and the sterns of ships. If the
constellations had been named in the twentieth century, I suppose we would see
bicycles and refrigerators in the sky, rock-and-roll “stars” and perhaps even
mushroom clouds – a new set of human hopes and fears placed among the stars.’
Cosmos, Carl Sagan

One of the principle reasons for this misconception has succinctly stated by former
ethnopharmacologist Terrance McKenna:

‘Scientists love to denounce astrology, but find one that can cast a natal horoscope
and I’ll give you a hen’s tooth.’
In Search of the Original Tree of Knowledge (workshop), Terrance McKenna

These two juxtaposed opinions seem a good place to start when introducing the signs
of the zodiac, both clearly showing that the ongoing debate of astrology is far from
being resolved. It also demonstrates that astrology is still a subject that provokes
enough positive and negative interest as to be included in both mass-popular works of
mainstream cosmologists and (self-declared) fringe academics.
The first quote, highlighting the common misconception surrounding the ‘join the
dots’ scenario of constellations, is often cited to coerce sceptics into getting a good
night’s sleep. This idea promotes the line that ‘We all see what we want to see’, but
this does not seem to be the case with the attributes of the zodiacal signs. Though
various astrological traditions spread about the globe may have slightly augmented
the imagery of each sign, many of their core elements remain closely aligned.
The 12 zodiacal signs are to be found in some of the architectural reliefs and sacred
texts of Egypt, Persia, Assyrian and South American cultures, along with some
alluring references later exported by Buddhist Vajrayana schools encoded in the form
of Sukuyou (a mix of Vedic and Chinese astrology). There are also a number of cases
where isolated peoples from remote islands or remote areas have pointed to an area
in the sky tenanted by a specific constellation, then drawn the commonly recognisable
symbol ascribed to that part of the sky, as the following quotations attest: ‘Victorian
anthropologists visiting remote Polynesian islands were stupefied by the islanders,
who had no ostensible connection with any other cultures on Earth, pointing to a
section of the sky they called the “Scorpion”, which corresponds exactly to our
constellation by the same name.’
The Seven Ages of Man, Andrew Kirk

‘What induced the Mayas to call by the name of Scorpion the constellation known
to us and the ancients by the same name? The outlines of this constellation do not
resemble the shape of this insect.58 It is one of the most remarkable coincidences
in nomenclature. The constellation, which is not at all like a scorpion, probably
was called by this name because a comet that looked like a scorpion appeared in
it. Actually, we read on one of the Babylonian astronomical tablets that a star
flared up and its light radiated bright as day, and as it blazed it lashed its tail like
that of an angry scorpion. If it was not this particular appearance of a comet that
caused the constellation to be called Scorpion, there must have been a similar
occurrence on another date.’59
World in Collision, Immanuel Velikovsky

Most people should be more than familiar with the symbolism of the 12 zodiacal signs;
others may also be familiar with the concept of zodiacal houses and the areas of life
they encompass. For example, the sign Aries (called Mesha in Jyotish) is associated
with rash, restless, impulsive action, tearing headlong into pre-eminent danger. The
house of death, transformation and longevity is almost universally associated with the
number 8 or that final segment of the day when the Sun dips from view below the
horizon to traverse the realm of the dead. This commonality of association and
imagery seems to disprove the idea that every culture imprints their ‘hopes and fears’
upon the celestial realms. Instead we find more often than not that there is universal
agreement on the iconography and associations ascribed to these 30° partitions of the
heavens.
Stellar constellations (grouping of stars) should not to be taken literally as a
pictorial representation of zodiacal signs. It might perhaps be more accurate to say
that each 30º portion of the sky was allotted as stage area upon which cosmic events
seen therein were played out and duly recorded. The stars or constellations, it seems,
were merely convenient marker points to locate each of these individual sections of
night sky in amongst the overwhelming deluge of stellar information. Anything then
falling within its allotted 30º fell under auspices of its sign and planetary lord.
When reappraised in this light it makes so much more sense, particularly in relation
to the gross and diminished proportion of some constellations (e.g. Cancer and Aries
are relatively small in comparison to larger constellations like Virgo and Pisces, both
of which dominate huge sways of night-time skies). The additional mathematical
reduction of 360º into 12 equal divisions of 30º (tied to a commonly agreed zero point)
also ensures the confines of some stellar constellations are ignored (or merged, as the
case may be).

‘The Stars of the Zodiac are in fact marker points for extraordinary heavenly light
shows. These were caused by rogue comets, displaced and plasmically radiating
Planets coming perilously close or flaring stars that would all have deranged the
Earth in a specific fashion and were associated with a similar order of image for
all onlookers, no matter how separated. These stupendous forms were thereby
burnt into mankind’s collective psyche.’
The Seven Ages of Man, Andrew Kirk

It is not possible to say with certainty what amazing sights our ancestors may have
witnessed, but they were apparently global in impact, perhaps both terrifying and
awe-inspiring in their manifestations. Whether comets, asteroids or super-novas,
portents in the heavens were taken very seriously by ancient skywatchers; this
includes both astrologer and astronomer, as in truth both disciplines were fully
interchangeable (most astrologers also being competent astronomers).
Other curiosities surrounding the zodiacal signs include the origin of Tula (Libra). It
has been suggested that its current 30° may have been hijacked from a much larger
60º portion of the sky, previously ascribed to Vrishchika (Scorpio).60 Interestingly, the
sage Parasara also chooses to define their attributes in unison, saying: ‘The sign Libra
rises with its head, is strong in the day, has a black complexion, is Rajoguna61 in
nature; it resides in the west and wanders on the earth; it is violent, is of Shudra
Varna (race) and has a medium-sized body and is biped. Its Lord is Venus. The sign
Scorpio has a slender physique and is multi-footed (centipede). It is Brahmin by Varna
(race) and resides in holes. Its direction is north and it is strong in day. Its hue is
reddish brown and it resides in both water and land. It has a hairy body, very sharp
parts (pincers and sting) and its ruler is Mars.’
Brihat Parasara Hora Shāstra

Libra is portrayed by merchant’s scales, making it the only man-made object amongst
the grouping of 12. The assignment of a mechanical device does make it the primary
candidate for later addition to the cast of the previous 11 characters. Certainly, this
portion of the sky has some interesting astrological inferences tied to it, not least that
it was said to be the root or heart of the cosmos.62
Due to the inherent numerological connection of the numbers 6 and 12 to the circle
(see Section 15) it seems unlikely that ‘new’ signs were introduced or removed,63 and
more likely that signs were given a makeover or merged with an existing or arising
deity/symbol64 in an effort to update iconography into something more appropriate or
indicative of the age.
Astrology has been with mankind a very long time65 and has changed very little in
its basic concepts; it has served countless generations and has been and is relied
upon by millions of the earth’s inhabitants. Astrology is also multifaceted and requires
many independent pieces of information to be assessed prior to a final determination.
On top of all this, each astrologer then has to organise and synthesise these strands of
information, before weaving them into a coherent fabric that can be interpreted and
relayed back to an expectant client. Not only that, he must then relate the information
in a manner that can be clearly understood and then acted upon.
The study of the planets and their signs and houses provides a pivotal framework
upon which all determinations of a horoscope are to be made; these crucial
ingredients are the foundation stones upon which everything is constructed. With this
in mind we shall now take a closer look at the houses and signs of Jyotish and their
use in chart analysis, exploring their imagery and associations.

20.2
The Signs

Animals were fervently worshipped by ancient peoples, and the zodiac is no exception
with its Ram, Bull, Crab, Lion, Scorpion, Crocodile and Fishes. Its more humanistic
motifs include the Twins, Virgin and Water Bearer66 along with one human–animal
hybrid, the Centaur. The final sign of Libra is given over to a man-made contrivance,
the Merchant’s Scales.
The order of the 12 signs is as follows:

1. Ram 5. Lion 9. Centaur

2. Bull 6. Virgin 10. Crocodile

3. Twins 7. Scales 11. Water Bearer

4. Crab 8. Scorpion 12. Fishes

Left: North Indian style. The ascendant (AS) remains fixed; however, each sign will progress
in a clockwise direction, occupying its adjacent box every 2 hours; for example, Kanya
will move to occupy the position of Simha, and so on. Compass positions marked at the
periphery also indicate the fixed nature of the chart; AS = eastern horizon
Right: South Indian style. The signs remain fixed in position; the ascendant (AS)
is always indicated by a diagonal line. House positions are then calculated
in a clockwise direction from this marker The illustration above again shows our sample chart with its 12 zodiacal
 signs placed in relation to the 12 houses. The darkened area (in both versions) marks the ascendant (AS), in this
case Simha (Leo).

Horoscopes drawn in the North Indian style (left) clearly display houses: these are
always shown in the same position or boxes numbered 1–12. The southern style
(right) always displays the 12 signs in the positions shown, so Simha (Leo) always
occupies this position.
It’s useful to gain some familiarity with both styles but not a requirement; in truth
most astrologers prefer one or the other. Most migrating Western astrologers to
Jyotish tend to be attracted toward the South Indian style, as it more closely
approximates a wheel format, akin to Western charts.
Every sign occupies the ascendant for 2 hours in any 24 and all planets therein
transverse the signs in a counter-clockwise motion. Due to the elliptical orbits of
planets and the phenomenon of retrogression, some planets often appear to slow,
accelerate and reverse on their course around the zodiac. Rahu and Ketu (lunar
nodes) are the exception to this rule, as they are in permanent retrogression67 around
the heavens. The following table gives approximate transit times through each
zodiacal sign (sign transit) and total transit (sidereal) time through all 12 signs.

SIDEREAL TRANSITS OF PLANETS

Name Sidereal transit period* Sign transit (approx.)
Surya (the Sun) 30 days
365.7 days
Chandra (the Moon) 27 days
2.5 days
Mercury (Buddha) 15–30 days
87.9 days
Shukra (Venus) 25–60 days
224.7 days
Kuja (Mars)
1.88 years 1.5 months

Guru (Jupiter) 12 months

11.86 years
Shani (Saturn)
29.44 years 2.5 years

Rahu and Ketu (lunar nodes)

18.12 years 1.5 years

* Data supplied by http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets (sidereal = fixed star to fixed star).

Energetics of signs
Each of the signs has a particular caste, stature, temperament and element akin to
their symbology. There are multiple interpretations of their characteristics, but most
are in basic agreement; these traits include the following:

INTERPRETATION OF THE 12 SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC

House Name Associations
1 Mesha Bilious in nature, having a reddish complexion, its element is fire. Rajasic in temperament,
(Ram) represented by a ram, its lord is Mars. Prone to martial prowess and to acts of aggression,
quick acting and decisive in its nature.
2 Vrishabha Sensual in nature, having a pale complexion, its element is earth. Rajasic in temperament, it
(Bull) is lorded by Venus. Attuned to the arts and acquisition of comfort and wealth. This sign is
steady and relentless in nature.
3 Mithuna Fickle and youthful in nature, even in body and light of frame. Its hue is grass green.
(Twins) Represented by a couple (usually twins): one holds a mace, the other a lute. Having cunning,
guile and a mind oriented toward strategy, Mercury is its lord. Resides in villages and is
windy (Vāta) in temperament.
4 Karkata Shy and possessive in nature, its complexion is pale red in hue. Many-footed and bulky in
(Crab) frame, its element is water. Sattvic in disposition, its caste is Brahmin. Residing in forests, its
lord is Chandra (Moon).
5 Simha Kingly and sattvic in nature, having a pale complexion, its element is fire. Four-footed, it is
(Lion) Kshatriya (warrior in caste), residing in the mountains. Its body is that of a lion, bulky and its
head is held high. Its direction is east. The Sun is its lord.
6 Kanya Parvatiya/maiden, vaishya and tamasic in guna. Feminine, with a medium frame, is child-like
(Virgin) in nature, its lord is Mercury. Residing in the south holding grains of wheat in one hand, fire
in the other. Bipedal, its element is earth.
7 Tula Violent by nature, its complexion is black. Its symbol is the merchant’s scales; it resides in
(Scales) the west and wanders upon the earth. Biped with medium frame, it is of shudra caste. Its
element is vāyu (air), its ruler is Venus.
8 Vrishchika Reclusive and aggressive in nature, its forepart is sharp, its body slender and hairy. It is
(Scorpion) multi-footed; its symbol is a scorpion. It is of reddish-brown hue, residing on the land and in
water. It is Brahmin by caste, its element is water and its ruler is Mars.
9 Dhanus It is partially biped, but mostly quadruped; its form is that of a centaur. Its hue is pale; it
(Centaur) resides in the east and wanders the earth. Its race is Kshatriya, bearing a bow and arrow. Its
element is fire and its ruler is Jupiter. Dhanus is favoured by Brahma.
10 Makara Variegated in colour, its body is large and unwieldy. Its front is quadruped (crocodile), its tail
(Crocodile) like that of a fish. Its front walks upon land and its tail glides upon the waters. It is tamasic in
nature, it resides in the south, its element is earth and its lord is Saturn.
11 Kumbha Biped and of medium-sized body, it is masculine and holds a pitcher of water. Its complexion
(Water is brown. It resides in deep waters but its element is vāyu (air). It is tamasic in nature and
Bearer) shudra in caste. It resides in a westerly direction and its lord is Saturn.
12 Meena Dual-headed but single-tailed in nature, it is represented as two fish. It is footless and of
(Fishes) medium build, residing in a northerly direction. Its element is water and it is sattvic in
nature. Its caste is Brahmin and its ruler is Jupiter.

20.3
The Houses
 Left: Houses in a North Indian horoscope. House positions
are fixed; AS = ascendant, E = eastern horizon
Right: Houses in a South Indian horoscope. House positions move in a clockwise rotation in relation to the
diagonal line indicating ascendant (AS) and subsequent 1st house Here we explore the 12 houses of the zodiac and
their myriad meanings. Analysis of any house represents an exploration into their 12 fields of activity or, more
simply put, areas of life most influenced by their positioning. Regardless of houses being occupied by a planet(s),
one zodiacal sign (and subsequently its lord) will tenant each house, therefore acting as temporary ruler/custodian
of that house, during its 2 hours of transition in 24 hours.

INTERPRETATION OF THE 12 HOUSES OF THE ZODIAC

House Name Associations
1 Tanu (Self) The 1st house relates mostly to the physical body, proportion/physique, strength of limbs,
temperament, intelligence and brain power. Secondary considerations include: rate of
ageing, ultimate longevity, ability to work, power of digestive fire (agni), ability to attain
happiness, hearing loss, overall strength and wisdom.
2 Dhana The 2nd house relates to wealth and family. Secondary considerations include: the face,
(Wealth) one’s speech, visual acuity (eyes), tongue and preference for taste, sense of smell (nose),
strength of jaw and neck, sense of enjoyment, the written word, ability to conceive (female)
and strength of progeny (male).
3 Sahaja The 3rd house relates to brothers (siblings), land and war. Secondary considerations include:
(Siblings) bala (strength and fitness), acuity of hearing (ears), the shoulders, hands and arms, martial
combat and valour, neighbours, education pastimes, acting and dance, maids, servants and
short journeys.
4 Bhanda The 4th house relates mostly to one’s mother, the heart and ancestors. Secondary
(Ancestors) considerations include: home/residence, education, milk, spices, good medicine and one’s
faith, travel, mode of transportation (conveyances) and vehicles, intellect, clothes and
fashion, one’s emotional state, the lungs and chest and purity of blood.
5 Putra The 5th house relates to children, adopted progeny and one’s students, schooling and
(Children) education aptitudes. Secondary considerations include: deeds of the father, storytelling,
pregnancy term, quality of one’s clothes, romance and affairs, close friendships, mantra,
wisdom, good karma, past live deeds, the liver, heart, bladder and gallbladder, spleen and
kidneys.
6 Ari The 6th house relates to enemies, disease/ill health, competitors and pets. Secondary
(Enemies) considerations include: enemies in life, obstacles, cruel activities, worries, litigation, back
pain, the waist, large and small intestines and the six tastes. The sixth is also renowned as a
house of healing, healthcare, doctors, surgeons, profits through healing and the use of visha
(poisons).
7 Calatra The 7th house relates mostly to one’s spouse/partner, social interactions and primary
(Spouse) business partners (or one’s handlers). Secondary considerations include: marriage, sex,
husbands and wives, generative organs, sperm and ovum, belly, bladder, buttocks, urinary
diseases, theft, victory, foreign residence, memory loss and the musical arts.
8 Rhundra The 8th house relates mostly to longevity, physical death, surgeries, chronic disease, one’s
 (Death) mortician, legacies and taxes. Secondary considerations include: defeat, afflictions to the
face, partner’s legacy, occult powers, anger, sorrow, misery or idleness, loss of one’s fortune,
debt, sins, wicked people, narcotics, murder, prostitution, the genitalia and reproductive
system (male and female).
9 Dharma The 9th house relates to one’s guide in life, spiritual teachers/guru, father, dharma,
(Fortune) pilgrimages and interaction with foreign countries and their people. Secondary
considerations include: short journeys, fortune, Shiva, the wise and learned, mastery of
mantra, sacred sites and places of worship, purity of the mind, the father’s property,
personal penance and general good fortune.
10 Karma The 10th house relates to trade, industry, chosen vocation, ability to work and business
(Action) partners. Secondary considerations include: commerce, position within a hierarchy, Shakti
(personal power/charisma), honour and titles, service to others, fame, teaching skills, use of
mantra/chanting of spells, service/penance to the gods, medicine and self-healing, the knees,
skin disease and hypertension.
11 Labha The 11th house relates mostly to gain, associates, elder siblings, uncles and aunts,
(Gains) prosperity and accrued wealth through one’s actions and one’s ability to retain wealth.
Secondary considerations include: profit and gain, evil desires, income, land, gold, property,
paternal uncle, higher education, the ears, calves, shanks and ankles, self-indulgence,
painting and cooking.
12 Yyaya The 12th house relates to loss, secret enemies, religion, foreign lands, last days of the life,
(Losses) final resting place and funerary rites. Secondary considerations include: sleep, rest, dreams,
relief and ascent into heaven, paternal property, hidden sex-life, loss of power, physical and
psychic attack, disputes, anger and death, clandestine relations, loss of a wife, joint pain and
chronic disease.

20.4
Special Houses

In Jyotish a number of houses are frequently grouped or considered in unison (being

houses of a like nature). The following examples are representative of four of the most
commonly used; these are Kendra, Trikona, Dussthana and Upachaya houses.

Kendra houses

Kendra or power houses (1–4–7–10), clearly shown in the North Indian style. The South Indian style favours signs,
so the houses are read for the ascendant, that is, they are usually indicated by the presence of a diagonal line
drawn through one sign Also called angular houses, Kendra houses are always to be given extra consideration,
being renowned as houses of action/power. Kendra are representative of conscious actions directed toward (1st)
the self/body, (4th) the home, (7th) the partner and (10th) the career. North Indian charts make the identification
of Kendra very easy, instantly recognisable as the central supporting design. In effect this positioning mirrors the
action of Kendra, providing the four supporting pillars of life, dominating and upholding the other eight houses.

Planets in Kendra appear strong and pushy, with big agendas. Many planets in
Kendra make the individual charismatic and compelling, supercharging and
motivating planets therein toward achievement of their goals. Like the movable signs
Aries, Cancer, Libra and Capricorn, the qualities of 1–4–7–10 houses are energetic,
amplifying the attributes of any occupying planet. Kendra’s intensifying planetary
actions, for instance Mercury in the 10th, might ignite one’s desires for a successful
career, bringing multiple business opportunities. However, that same person having
Saturn positioned in their 10th house may manifest similar career opportunities, but
these (being augmented by Saturn’s energetics) tend to manifest slowly, maturing
over a greater number of years, also incurring injury or sickness in the process of
attaining success. It should also be noted that, whereas the success achieved by
Mercury can be short-lived with profits that seem to mysteriously vanish, Saturn’s
success is usually long-lasting, often incorporating fixed assets or secure investments
that accrue greatly over time.

Trikona houses

Trikona houses (1–5–9)

Trikona or trinal houses are second only to Kendra and in some cases are even
considered to surpass them. Trikona are representative of preordained or earned acts
directed toward (1st) the self/body, (5th) previous merit and (9th) Dharma/right
action.
The 1st house doubles as both Kendra and Trikona, and this position becomes a
focal point for both house collectives as it reflects the actual doer or individual. The
5th house is considered highly auspicious, as it helps to manifest previously accrued
action (usually positive). The 9th house indicates a pathway to achieve Dharma
(enlightenment and ultimate liberation) to be carried forward into future incarnations
(to be deposited into one’s succeeding 5th house, and so on). Any interplay between
Kendra and Trikona (in the form of planetary exchanges or parivartana) is deemed
especially favourable, applying dynamically charged planets to the task of attaining
moksha.68

Dussthana houses
 Dussthana houses (3–6–8–12)

Dussthana houses are generally indicative of suffering in the form of (3rd) physical
atrophy, (6th) illness, (8th) death and (12th) loss. Of these, houses 6–8–12 (referred to
as Trik) are generally considered to be more problematic. There are many rules
regarding the manifestation and severity of their forces; however, there are a number
of mitigating circumstances where their detrimental forces are lessened, and even
improved. On the whole, Dussthana houses bring problems but are areas in life where
much can be learnt and benefited from. Dealings with 6th house energies can make
one an excellent healer, the 8th can give occult/clairvoyant powers and the 12th can
bring recognition/status in lands beyond the country of one’s birth.

Upachaya houses

Upachaya houses (3–6–10–11)

Upachaya houses, in stark contrast to Dussthana, are considered to have life-

improving actions in the form of (3rd) physical prowess, (6th) health and healing,
(10th) vocation/status and (11th) material gain. As with Kendra/Trikona, several
Dussthana/Upachaya houses multitask, delivering a mixture of both forces, as in the
case of the 3rd and 6th. Upachaya tend to sit quietly in the background amassing
power throughout early life, only to awaken later on and deliver their goods. These
collective houses continue to lift and improve life, slowly gaining momentum and
helping to displace and negate some of the havoc imposed from Dussthana houses.
 SECTION 21

NAKSHATRA

21.1
The 27 Nakshatras

In this section on Jyotish we will take a closer look at the lunar mansions or
Nakshatra, as they are referred to in Vedic Astrology. These 27 divisions of 13º 20′ are
a key factor in analysis of any chart. Nakshatra represent the more mysterious aspect
of Jyotish, and are probably of much greater antiquity.69 The word Nakshatra literally
means the ‘indestructible ones’ or ‘protective guardians’.70 They are considered by
some to predate the 12 zodiacal signs. This is perhaps demonstrated by the use of the
Sanskrit word rashi, which means ‘to heap together’, to define each astrological sign;
each of the 30º signs is composed of 2¼ Nakshatra.
Early astrology seems to have been strongly lunar in its observation and calculation.
Spurred on by the relative swift movements of the Moon across the heavens, this
aspect of astrology developed and diversified rapidly. Analysis of the Moon’s daily
position and its tenanting of Nakshatra became a pivotal point of analysis, as was the
associated planetary ruler of that Nakshatra. In addition, careful attention was paid to
the remaining graha and their own transits through the lunar mansions; these in turn
were also assessed for compatibility/disharmony as expressed by the planetary ruler
(whom they might find themselves under the protection or oppression of) during their
transit of a particular Nakshatra. This intimate association between Moon, planets
and Nakshatra lord quickly builds into a complex web that interlinks all. Once
established, this framework can be analysed and acted upon (see example at the end
of this chapter).
Nakshatra convey a wealth of information on the Moon’s progression through each
lunar mansion. Every step of Chandra’s (the Moon’s) daily journey saw his transition
from one lunar bride to the next. In his masculine form Chandra was wedded to 27
celestial brides,71 choosing to rest incrementally with each during his stellar rounds.
Though care-free and happy to spend one night with each of his brides, Rohini (4th
asterism) held a special fascination for him. Eventually he became so infatuated with
her he longer could leave her side and so became stationary, refusing to continue his
journey.
Of course, his remaining brides became extremely jealous and had the gods place a
consumptive curse upon their husband. From then on the Moon slowly diminished
toward total oblivion.72 As the light of the Moon failed, the night skies grew dark,
nourishment of the soil ceased and the crops failed.73 The curse on the Moon was
eventually lifted by Lord Shiva, who, believing that Chandra had learnt his lesson,
returned his youth and vigour with the aid of rasāyana drugs. At last, the Moon
regained his rounded, opulent shape and continued his monthly circuit, but was never
fully allowed to forget the wrath of his wives. Despite his recovery, each month he
continued to suffer his old affliction, loosing brightness and mass before being
magically restored to his former glory. As for Rohini, she continued to be his favourite,
and whenever possible he would try to steal a few extra seconds with her (see
Appendix 1, ‘4. The Moon transits through Rohini Nakshatra’).
This powerful story is packed full of allegory relating to Āyurvedic concepts of
health intertwined with planetary symbolism. Just as the Sun is studied to reveal the
state of Atma and prana (soul and life-force), the Moon is studied to reveal the
constitution of the body and strength of the mind. The Moon also holds strong
dominion over the blood, its flow and haemostasis. Disturbances to the Moon have a
profound effect upon the mental and physical constitution readily vitiating dosha.
More than any graha, the Moon has a heightened sensitivity to the close proximity of
others and their aspects. The following table outlines a few basic precepts of
Moon/graha interactions.

MOON/GRAHA COMBINATIONS
1. Moon/Sun The Moon is considered burnt-up or ‘combust’ 12° either side of the Sun, effectively creating a
new or dark/old Moon.
A waning Moon is considered Vāta in disposition, whereas its waxing phase displays more Kapha.
2. Enquiring, stimulated and penetrating mind, yet easily confused, swiftly able to anticipate the
Moon/Mercury needs of others, these types fare well in the public domain, wiry of frame and excessive in
movements, prone to skin complains, circulation problems and afflictions that are damp and cold
(Vāta/Kapha) in nature.
3. Moon/Mars Martial intellect, strategic in mannerism, rash and hot tempered, athletic in musculature and
prone to accidents (which can incur surgeries). This combination increases instances of bruising,
febrile conditions, inflammation and diseases of the blood (Pitta).
4. Moon/Venus Sensually driven, increased visual stimulus, artistic and feminine in temperament, well-
proportioned frame with a radiant lustre, prone to diseases of excess and over-indulgence
(Kapha/Vāta).
5. Highly retentive memories, emotional and empathic, learned and wise, often large of chest with
Moon/Jupiter good reserves of Kapha, slow to imitate but steadfast and dependable over the long term, a lover
of comfort, good food and pleasant company, thrives in situations of opulence, broad-shouldered,
often appearing top heavy, bright and clear eyes with a cheerful disposition.
6. Weighty thinker, prone to extended bouts of depression, excessively tall or short, light of frame,
Moon/Saturn pronounced joints, impaired or variable digestive system highly sensitised by mental health, often
lives long yet prone to the geriatric/chronic diseases in younger and middle years of life, Vāta in
constitution.
7. Moon/Rahu Intellectual and inventive but often complex characters, radical and unpredictable, addictive and
radical in nature, prone toward self-destructive pursuits. Usually robust in youth but prone to
excessive ageing in later years (high Vāta), often a darkened countenance and piercing eyes.
8. Moon/Ketu Reductionist mindset, craving solitude and simplicity. Strongly intuitive and often psychic, of
medium build with strong musculature, prone to febrile, inflammatory types of diseases (Pitta)
without any apparent cause, medicinally hard to treat and cure (often there are strong karmic
undertones to their illness).

Nakshatra in combination with other omens (both auspicious and inauspicious) were
duly considered in the prognosis of any unfortunate victim of snake bite, as the
following quotes attest. These quotes are taken from Susrutha and Vagbhatta,74 and
both observe the action of snake venom and lunar effects upon the blood.

‘A man bitten by a snake in any of the vulnerable parts of the body, or near the
root of an Aśvatthva (Bo Tree), temple, cremation ground or ant-hill, at the
meeting of night and day (dusk), or the crossings of roads or under the influence
of Bharani or Magha Nakshatra, should be given up as lost.’
Susrutha Saṃhitā
 ‘Bites happening on a burial ground, a place of fire sacrifice, sacred trees, on the
5th, 8th or 9th days of the month, on a full moon, new moon, evenings, midnight,
midday or dusk in the constellation of Bharani (ruled by Lord Yama), Krittika
(Agni), Magha, Aslesha, Vishaka, Mula (Niriti) should be rejected as curable.’
Aṣṭāñga Hṛdayam Herbal elements also fell under lunar as well as seasonal
influences, their formulation and harvesting being closely regulated by the Moon’s
transition. In India, the Moon relates to water, immortality and herbal medicine,
as water germinates seeds and the Moon causes the bodies of plants to swell and
subside in sync with his monthly cycle. The following extract from Rasanavakalpa
illustrates just how closely this synergistic relationship extended in determining
rules for collection of herbs.

With regard to harvesting Devadālī75 and Kṣīrakañcukī:76

‘This auspicious plant once matured is to be plucked in the months of Kártika and
Margh Shirsha (November–December), on the occasion of either the full-moon day
or the thirteenth day of the bright half of the month, a solar eclipse, or the fifth
day of the dark half of the month, according to existing rules (for plucking). This
plant is to be specially plucked on the day when Pushya Nakshatra is in
conjunction with the Moon.’
Rasanavakalpa

‘Kṣīrakañcukī is a famous medicinal plant. It is worshipped by the gods. This plant

is to be plucked on an auspicious conjunction of Pushya Star with the Moon,
according to the rules laid down in the Shāstras (scriptures).’
Rasanavakalpa

Ritu (seasons)

‘The best type of Haritāla77 is to be deposited in pond water in the month of

Ȧshāda; on an auspicious day in the month of Kártika it is again to be taken up.’
Rasanavakalpa

Similarly, the procurement/processing of minerals, metals, gemstones and certain

animal products were advised to be undertaken during the Moon’s transition of
auspicious Nakshatra and at seasonal junctures (see the table below). Moonlight,
particularly during a full moon, was identified as one form of Soma; these emissions
then became a key factor in the nectarisation of medicants. Certain materials that
were seen to have a greater affinity to the luminary were thought to become highly
energised under its luminescence. These included such items as moonstone, silver,
pearls, mother of pearl, coral and deer horn.

RITU (INDIAN SEASONS)

Ritu and ruling Sign Lunar Sign Lunar Equinox/solstice Date Associated
graha month/full month/full monthly
moon1 moon deity2
Vasant/Spring Pisces Chaitra Aries Vaisháka Vernal equinox 20 March Keshava and
Venus – 19 May Narayana
Grishma/Summer Taurus Jyestha Gemini Áshádha Summer solstice 20 May – Madhava and
Sun and Mars 19 July Govinda
Varsha/Monsoon Cancer Shrávana Leo Bhádrapada Summer solstice 20 July – Vishnu and
Moon 19 Madhusudana
September
Sharad/Autumn Virgo Áshvina Libra Kártika Autumnal 20 Trivikrama
Mercury equinox September and Vamana
– 19
November
Hemant/Pre- Scorpio Mgrashirsha Sagittarius Pushya Winter solstice 20 Sridhara and
winter November Hrishikesa
Jupiter – 19
January
Shishir/Winter Capricorn Mágha Aquarius Phálgun Winter solstice 20 January Padmauabha
Saturn – 19 and
March Damodara
1 Indian regional calendars name each month after the closest full moon Nakshtra during that period.
2 All various manifestations of the god Vishnu.
Note: Ritu are calculated by the Sun’s passage through two (tropical) zodiacal signs.

21.2

The Moon, Soma and Nakshatra

‘Chandra (the Moon) and stories of immortality are often united; its cooling rays
were seen to rejuvenate and revive. The Vedic name for the Moon is Soma (an
elixir that grants life extension), Senjyo = Moon/immortal spirit or water pot.
Toads were seen to have an affinity toward the Moon and a particular variety
called the Long Lived Toad had a particular wart often seen growing from its
head; this wart was often collected and used to make a longevity brew. In India
the Moon = water, immortality and is synonymous with herbal medicines. Water
germinates seeds, and the Moon causes the plants’ tissues to swell and subside.
In India an old story tells of rainwater coming directly from the Moon. Some of
the other fluids attributed to the Moon include: alcohol, tree sap, egg white,
sweat, sea water and mucus.’
The Gods of Shingon Mikkyō, Tamotsu Sato

‘Moon water taken with milk for 21 days keeps one free from physical decay,
senility and confers immortality.’
Rasanavakalpa

The Moon is also closely connected with the mysterious Soma plant78 and other
Divyausadhis79 (celestial drugs) specifically prized for their rejuvenation purposes;
indeed, the name of the Moon, Chandra and Soma are fully interchangeable.
Caraka and Susrutha, in each of their Saṃhitā’s, offer some insight into the effects
and uses of Soma, strongly equating it with rasāyana/anti-ageing effects. The plant (or
group of plants as of yet unidentified) was thought to have been harvested at higher
altitude or collected from an aquatic source.80 Many descriptions of this mythical
plant seem to identify it as a type of flowering vine, which apparently bore signs of
being habitually locked into the monthly lunar cycle. Flowering varieties were said to
display a maximum of 15 leaves (at full moon), shedding these in quick succession
with the Moon’s waning. Enigmatic hymns81 dedicated to the honour of Soma and its
abode deemed it to be dwelling in the firmament,82 making it appear to be of celestial
origin.
 Soma was said to be invisible to the ungrateful or impious, perhaps suggesting a
quite ordinary looking plant, or at the very least a plant that would easily evade the
eyes of the uninitiated. All varieties of the plant’s rasa (expressed juice) were known
to dispense miraculous, curative and anti-visha properties, extending life well beyond
expected norms. Secondary actions of the elixir included a forceful purgative action
as well as its legendary intoxicating effect (once extracted it seems the precious juice
from the stem and bulb were duly fermented).
Poetic texts from the Rig Veda broach the subject of ceremonial drinks and their
consumption during religious ceremonies, Soma receiving the highest accord amongst
these. Others beverages described from around this period, named as Madhu and
Sura, were also known to produce similar intoxicating effects and were also regarded
as a type of divine nectar. Modern interpretations of these mysteries have suggested
the beverages were strongly alcoholic, possibly fermented from barley grains
intermixed with curds and milk, which had already been fermented themselves.
More recent chroniclers on the mysterious Soma have suggested a strong
connection between Soma and Pārada (mercury), seeing a deeper connection between
the fermented elixir and the silvery liquiform metal so favoured by the followers of
Tantra. Though this is certainly a temping analogy, references to Soma being a juice
expressed from plants seem somewhat overwhelming, as Caraka states, ‘Soma is the
king of drugs and has 15 leaves, like the Moon. These leaves decrease and increase
with the monthly passage of the Moon.’ Susrutha confirms, ‘Species of Soma are
marked with partly coloured circular rings and possessed of 15 leaves of variegated
colours, its bulb is creeper-like in appearance with a secretion of milky juice/sap. All
are the general characteristics of Soma plants.’
For the most part, references to Soma and the Moon are interchangeable; indeed,
the Moon’s fifth Nakshatra Mrigashirsha (particularly favoured for rejuvenative
practices) was assigned Soma as its presiding deity. Moreover, astrological texts
attribute the metal silver83 as pertaining to the Moon, being greatly favoured in the
construction of the Soma vessels84 designed to hold and preserve this precious elixir.
Astrologically, the Moon is considered to be an extremely sociable and receptive
planet, making it highly sensitive to its immediate surroundings. Because of the
Moon’s capacity to choose a favourable Nakshatra best-suited to the operation at
hand (be it medicinal, ritualistic or the potentising of formula), its transiting position
became of prime importance.
Individual attributes of each Nakshatra are varied and multiple levels of
interpretation are possible. All 27 lunar mansions require some period of deeper
consideration to fully appreciate their wisdom. The following explanations are offered
as introductory reference material, and it is hoped that they will bring some of the
Nakshatra’s meanings into greater focus. The Nakshatra information tables can also
be applied to any of the remaining graha, especially to explain their relationship with
the planetary lord of any Nakshatra they happen to tenant.

Note: The following tables are far from exhaustive; Nakshatra interpretation could
span multiple volumes and still only skim the surface of their richness. There are
many works covering this topic and the reader is encouraged to explore these in more
detail (see the Bibliography for titles relating to this subject).

SAMPLE TABLE
Astronomical reference α, β, δ, etc.
Symbol Nakshatra iconography
Temperament Divine, Human or Demon
Sex Masculine = direct and focused
Feminine = passive and accumulative
Planetary ruler One of nine graha
Dosha Vāta (V), Pitta (P) or Kapha (K)
Deity Ruling deity
Shakti Strength of Nakshatra
Guna Sattva, Rajas or Tamas
Quality Light, soft, mutable, fixed, mixed, etc.
Caste Brahmin, Warrior, Merchant, Farmer, Butcher, Shudra or Outcast
Auspicious action Beneficial actions during this transit.
Nakshatra and the body Corresponding body parts.
Disease tendencies Areas of possible affliction.
Healing Regimes/drugs most attuned to the Nakshatra
Exaltation 0º, etc.
Debilitation 0º, etc.

ASHWINI 0º – 13º 20′ ARIES

Astronomical Β Arietis (Sheratan)
reference
Symbol Horse-headed twins, attired in jewelled golden armour
Temperament Divine
Sex Masculine
Planetary Ketu
ruler
Dosha Vāta
Deity Ashwini Kumaras, also known as the Ashwin Twins.
Shakti Healing (through Āyurveda)
Guna Rajas
Quality Light
Caste Merchant
Auspicious Preparation of remedies (herbal, mineral, metal or gemstones). Mantra for healing, astrological
action analysis, the construction of yantra and the preparation or collection of materials for anupāna
(vehicle).
Nakshatra Knees, head, cerebral hemispheres and soles of the feet.
and the body
Disease Injuries to the head and brain, meningitis, paralytic stroke, thrombosis, anaemia, spasm,
tendencies neuralgia and high fever.
Healing Metallic/mineral
Exaltation Sun 10º Aries
Debilitation –

BHARANI 13º 20′ – 26º 40′ ARIES

Astronomical 35 Arietis (Musca Borealis)
reference
Symbol Yoni (female sexual organ)
Temperament Human
Sex Masculine
Planetary Venus
ruler
Dosha Pitta
Deity Yamaraj (god of death)
Shakti Removing and detachment
Guna Tamas
Quality Fierce and severe
Caste Outcast
Auspicious The removal of negative forces, purification/consecration of sacred space with fire, construction
action of puṭa, the drying and preparation of herbs, calcination of minerals and metallic compounds.
Nakshatra Head, face, pineal, pituitary and hypothalamus glands, the eyes and toes.
and the body
Disease Injuries to the head and neck, high fever, catarrh, eye problems including blindness, venereal
tendencies disease, hard to diagnose pains and fainting.
Healing Herbal
Exaltation –
Debilitation Saturn 20º Aries
 KRITTIKA 26º 40′ ARIES – 10º TAURUS
Astronomical η Tauri (Alcyone)
reference
Symbol A sword or razor (edged weapon)
Temperament Demon
Sex Feminine
Planetary The Sun
ruler
Dosha Kapha
Deity Agni (god of fire)
Shakti Burning
Guna Sattva
Quality Mixed
Caste Brahmin
Auspicious Fire rituals, forging of metal, heating, burning, cutting and tearing, gold-smithing, sharpening
action implements, preparation of remedies that improve speech and intelligence.
Nakshatra Waist, eyes, neck, larynx, tonsils and lower jaw.
and the body
Disease High fevers,85 back pain, indigestion, inflammation, typhoid, stomach disorders, cough, arthritis
tendencies and insomnia.
Healing Surgery
Exaltation Moon 3º Taurus
Debilitation –
 ROHINI 10º – 23º 20′ TAURUS
Astronomical α Tauri (Alderbaran)
reference
Symbol A chariot or cart
Temperament Human
Sex Masculine
Planetary The Moon
ruler
Dosha Kapha
Deity Prajapati (lord of procreation)
Shakti Growing
Guna Rajas
Quality Fixed
Caste Shudra
Auspicious The planting of herbs and spices, purveying of wholesome food, the manufacture of
action scents/perfume, the extraction of essential oil, laying foundation stones, construction of sacred
buildings and practice of Vāstu (construction and arrangement of sacred spaces).
Nakshatra Legs, mouth, tongue, palate and cervical vertebrae.
and the body
Disease Pain or swelling about the breast, injuries to the neck and face, irregular menses, sunstroke, high
tendencies blood pressure, heart problems, fevers and the aching calf muscles.
Healing Herbal
Exaltation –
Debilitation –
 MRIGASHIRSHA 23º 20′ TAURUS – 6º 40′ GEMINI
Astronomical λ Orionis (Meissa)
reference
Symbol A deer’s head
Temperament Divine
Sex Feminine
Planetary ruler Mars
Dosha Pitta
Deity Soma (god of the Moon/amrita/intoxicating beverage)
Shakti Enjoying
Guna Tamas
Quality Soft
Caste Farmer
Auspicious Rasāyana therapies/rejuvenating medicines, collection of milk, ghee, honey, dates, almonds,
action yogic practise, exposure to the rays of the Moon.
Nakshatra and Eyes, jugular vein, tonsils, vocal cords, ears and thymus.
the body
Disease Weakness of eyesight, skin allergies, paralysis, diphtheria, constipation, haemorrhoids, high
tendencies blood pressure, heart disease and blood disorders.
Healing Metallic/mineral
Exaltation –
Debilitation –
 ARDRA 6º 40′ – 20º GEMINI
Astronomical α Orionis (Betelgeuse)
reference
Symbol A teardrop, human head or gemstone
Temperament Human
Sex Feminine
Planetary ruler Rahu
Dosha Vāta
Deity Rudra (god of storms)
Shakti Achieving
Guna Sattva
Quality Sharp
Caste Butcher
Auspicious Purification and detoxification practices, exorcism of malefic forces, the overcoming of deep-
action seated fears.
Nakshatra and Hair, eyes, throat, shoulders and arms.
the body
Disease Weakness of the throat, arms, shoulders and hair, insomnia, asthma, cough, pneumonia and
tendencies diseases arising from poor sexual habits.
Healing Herbal
Exaltation –
Debilitation –
 PUNARVASU 20º GEMINI – 3º 20′ CANCER
Astronomical β Gemini (Pollux)
reference
Symbol A bow, horse or quiver of arrows
Temperament Divine
Sex Feminine
Planetary Jupiter
ruler
Dosha Vāta
Deity Aditi (mother of the Ādityas)
Shakti Revitalising
Guna Rajas
Quality Mutable
Caste Merchant
Auspicious Fasting or dietary change, the intake of foods rich in the earth element (minerals), harvesting of
action fruits, the study of Āyurveda, the taking of medicines and astrological analysis.
Nakshatra Fingers, ears, throat, shoulder blades, pancreas, liver and nose.
and the body
Disease Fever and headache, weakness of the heart, lungs and liver, pancreatic imbalances, inflammation
tendencies of the ears and throat, damage to the shoulder blades and digestive insufficiency.
Healing Metallic/mineral
Exaltation –
Debilitation –
 PUSHYAMI 3º 20′ – 16º 40′ CANCER
Astronomical δ Cancri (Asellus Australis)
reference
Symbol An arrowhead or flower, the teat of a cow
Temperament Divine
Sex Masculine
Planetary ruler Saturn
Dosha Pitta
Deity Brihaspati (teacher of the gods)
Shakti Sanctifying
Guna Tamas
Quality Light
Caste Warrior
Auspicious action Study of scripture, mantra, Jyotish and Āyurveda.
Nakshatra and Mouth, lungs, stomach and ribs.
the body
Disease Asthma, tuberculosis, gastric ulcer, jaundice, fevers and colic, weakness of the lungs,
tendencies stomach, pancreas, ribs and mouth.
Healing Metallic/mineral
Exaltation Jupiter 5º Cancer
Debilitation –
 ASLESHA 16º 40′ CANCER – 0º LEO
Astronomical ε Hydrae
reference
Symbol The serpent
Temperament Demon
Sex Masculine
Planetary Mercury
ruler
Dosha Kapha
Deity Sarpa/Serpent (one of the Rudras86)
Shakti Destroying, psychic
Guna Sattva
Quality Sharp
Caste Outcast
Auspicious The practise or study of Jyotish and mantra, treatment of infections, poisoning, paralysis or viral
action illness, the use of gems (especially emerald), worn astrologically or those prepared as bhasma,
the medicinal use of visha.
Nakshatra Fingertips and fingernails, the oesophagus, stomach, diaphragm and pancreas.
and the body
Disease Digestive sensitivity, weakness of oesophagus, diaphragm and pancreas, diseases of the liver,
tendencies hard to diagnose aliments, dropsy and moving (Vāta) pains, injury to the feet and hands.
Healing Surgery
Exaltation –
Debilitation Mars 28º Cancer
 MAGHA 0º – 13º 20′ LEO
Astronomical α Leonis (Regulas)
reference
Symbol A crown, royal court or palanquin
Temperament Demon
Sex Masculine
Planetary ruler Ketu
Dosha Kapha
Deity Pitris or Manes (forefathers or progenitors of mankind)
Shakti Dying (spiritual rebirth)
Guna Rajas
Quality Fierce
Caste Shudra
Auspicious Consulting the learned and wise, planning and strategy, taking decisive action.
action
Nakshatra and Nose, chin, lips, spine and spleen.
the body
Disease Injury to the spinal cord (dorsal region), spleen and kidneys, rhinitis, sensitivity of the
tendencies stomach/digestive tract and migraine headaches.
Healing Surgery
Exaltation –
Debilitation –
 PURVA PHALGUNI 13º 20′ – 26º 40′ LEO
Astronomical δ Leonis (Zosma)
reference
Symbol A fireplace, stage, couch or fig tree
Temperament Human
Sex Feminine
Planetary ruler Venus
Dosha Pitta
Deity Bhaga (brother of the dawn, one of the 12 Ādityas)
Shakti Procreating
Guna Tamas
Quality Fierce
Caste Brahmin
Auspicious For the act of self-promotion (fame and mass media), artistic performances and visual
action presentation.
Nakshatra and Genitals, inner thighs, lower spine and hips.
the body
Disease Diseases of the heart, spinal cord, genitals, head and ears, high fevers, high blood pressure,
tendencies paralysis of limbs, asthma and persistent ulcers.
Healing Herbal
Exaltation –
Debilitation –

UTTRA PHALGUNI 26º 40′ LEO – 10º VIRGO

Astronomical β Leonis (Denebola)
reference
Symbol A small bed, cot, or lesser fruiting fig tree
Temperament Human
Sex Masculine
Planetary ruler The Sun
Dosha Vāta
Deity Aryaman (the devotee of Surya, one of the 12 Ādityas)
Shakti Prospering
Guna Sattva
Quality Fixed
Caste Warrior
Auspicious Planting herbs, taking sustenance from nurturing, the treatment of disease, auspicious
action Nakshatra for performing mantra and other religious rituals.
Nakshatra and Genitals, outer thighs, liver, intestines, bowels and navel.
the body
Disease Bone fractures, thrombosis, shoulder pains, dysentery, appendicitis, intestines, weakness of
tendencies genitals, bowel and liver.
Healing Herbal
Exaltation –
Debilitation –

HASTA 10º – 23º 20′ VIRGO

Astronomical δ Corvi (Algorab)
reference
Symbol An open hand
Temperament Divine
Sex Feminine
Planetary The Moon
ruler
Dosha Vāta
Deity Savitar (a golden solar deity)
Shakti Gaining
Guna Rajas
Quality Light
Caste Merchant
Auspicious Empowering gemstones, palmistry, magic, Jyotish, application of massage therapy, auspicious for
action the preparation of herbal remedies (ground by hand).
Nakshatra Hands, small intestine, digestive enzymes and secreting glands.
and the body
Disease Injury to the hands, weakness of bowels (constipation/diarrhoea/IBS), diseases of secreting
tendencies glands, under production of digestive enzymes, ring worm and hysteria.
Healing Metallic/mineral
Exaltation –
Debilitation –
 CHITRA 23º 20′ VIRGO – 6º 40′ LIBRA
Astronomical α Virginis (Spica)
reference
Symbol Shining gemstone or pearl
Temperament Demon
Sex Feminine
Planetary Mars
ruler
Dosha Pitta
Deity Twastar (architect and artificer of the gods)
Shakti Creating (spiritual power)
Guna Tamas
Quality Soft
Caste Farmer
Auspicious Planting of herbs, landscaping and architectural engineering, construction of yantra and the
action wearing of astrological pendants.
Nakshatra Forehead, kidneys, lumbar vertebrae and neck.
and the body
Disease Injury to the forehead, kidney stones, brain fever, diabetes, urine passage, the lower part of the
tendencies belly, abdominal ulcers, appendicitis, hernia and lumbar region of the spine.
Healing Surgery
Exaltation –
Debilitation Venus 27º Virgo
 SWATI 6º 40′ – 20º LIBRA
Astronomical α Bootis (Arcturus)
reference
Symbol Coral stem or sword
Temperament Divine
Sex Masculine
Planetary ruler Rahu
Dosha Kapha
Deity Vāyu (thousand-eyed god of the wind)
Shakti Transforming
Guna Mutable
Caste Butcher
Auspicious The collection of medicines, treatment of disease, Jyotish consultations, Rasa Shāstra
action (alchemy), precision, swiftness and flexibility.
Nakshatra and Jaw, chin, teeth, skin, bladder and urethra.
the body
Disease Skin aliments, urethra, bladder, teeth and kidney stones.
tendencies
Healing Metallic/mineral
Exaltation Saturn 20º Libra
Debilitation Sun 10º Libra
 VISHAKA 20º LIBRA – 3º 20′ SCORPIO
Astronomical ι Librae
reference
Symbol A potter’s wheel, tree with spreading branches or doorway
Temperament Demon
Sex Masculine
Planetary Jupiter
ruler
Dosha Kapha
Deity Indra-Agni (Vrtra-slayers, invincible in battle)
Shakti Harvesting
Guna Rajas
Quality Mixed
Caste Outcast
Auspicious Spiritual practice, gemstone cutting and wearing, the taking of medicines, healing and therapy,
action overcoming disease.
Nakshatra Arms, lower abdomen, pancreas, rectum, bladder and prostate gland.
and the body
Disease Vertigo, weakness of the arms, piles, abdominal pains, weak kidneys, blockage of pancreatic
tendencies ducts, bladder infections, enlarged prostate gland, bladder wall inflammation and uterine cysts.
Healing Surgery
Exaltation –
Debilitation Moon 3º Scorpio
 ANURADHA 3º 20′ – 16º 40′ SCORPIO
Astronomical δ Scorpionis (Dschubba)
reference
Symbol A lotus flower
Temperament Divine
Sex Feminine
Planetary ruler Saturn
Dosha Pitta
Deity Mitra (a Solar deity, bringing men together)
Shakti Abundance
Guna Tamas
Quality Soft
Caste Shudra
Auspicious Yogic practice, mantra, developing supernatural powers (Siddhī), diagnosis of disease (root
action cause).
Nakshatra and Heart, nasal bones, pelvis, rectum and anus.
the body
Disease Weakness of the bladder, genitals, rectum and pubic bone, chest infections, constipation, nose
tendencies bleeds, menses, piles and high fever.
Healing Metallic/mineral
Exaltation –
Debilitation –
 JYESTHA 16º 40′ SCORPIO – 0º SAGITTARIUS
Astronomical α Scorpionis (Antares)
reference
Symbol Talisman, earring or umbrella
Temperament Demon
Sex Masculine
Planetary ruler Mercury
Dosha Vāta
Deity Indra (god of lightning)
Shakti Heroism
Guna Sattva
Quality Sharp
Caste Farmer
Auspicious action Personal challenges, acts of faith and courage, affording protection to the weak or
helpless, surgeries.
Nakshatra and the Tongue, colon, ovaries, womb, genitals and anus.
body
Disease tendencies Weakness of the colon, anus, genitals, ovaries, womb and neck.
Healing Surgery
Exaltation –
Debilitation –
 MULA 0º – 13º 20′ SAGITTARIUS
Astronomical λ Scorpionis (Shaula)
reference
Symbol Elephant goad, roots of a herb or lion’s tail
Temperament Demon
Sex Masculine
Planetary ruler Ketu
Dosha Vāta
Deity Niriti (goddess of destruction and dissolution)
Shakti Clearing
Guna Rajas
Quality Sharp
Caste Butcher
Auspicious Planting herbs, preparation of wholesome foods (especially root vegetables), Jyotish, mantra
action and surgery.
Nakshatra and Feet, legs, lumbar vertebrae and sciatic nerve.
the body
Disease Weakness of the hips, thighs, feet, stomach, eyes and mouth, sciatica, lumbago, rheumatism
tendencies or paralysis of the limbs is also indicated.
Healing Surgery
Exaltation –
Debilitation –
 PURVASHADHA 13º 20′ – 26º 40′ SAGITTARIUS
Astronomical δ Sagittarii (Kaus Media)
reference
Symbol Elephant’s tusk, fan or winnowing basket
Temperament Human
Sex Masculine
Planetary ruler Venus
Dosha Pitta
Deity Apas (water goddess, one of eight Vasus)
Shakti Invigorating
Guna Tamas
Quality Fierce
Caste Brahmin
Auspicious Healing water treatments, agriculture and soil fertilisation, preparation of herbal remedies,
action rasāyana therapy and the use of protective mantra.
Nakshatra and Thighs, hips, arteries and veins.
the body
Disease Weakness of the thighs, hips, sacral region of the spine, iliac arteries, veins, lungs
tendencies (respiration), heart and circulation, propensity toward gout.
Healing Herbal
Exaltation –
Debilitation –
 UTTRASHADHA 26º 40′ SAGITTARIUS – 10º CAPRICORN
Astronomical σ Sagittarii (Nunki)
reference
Symbol A small bed or cot
Temperament Human
Sex Masculine
Planetary ruler The Sun
Dosha Kapha
Deity Vishvadevas (he who is possessed of all knowledge)
Shakti Victory
Guna Sattva
Quality Fixed
Caste Warrior
Auspicious action Planting of herbs, overcoming and treatment of disease, defeat of one’s enemies.
Nakshatra and the Thighs, arteries, veins, knee joints and patella.
body
Disease tendencies Weakness of lymphatic vessels, knees, skin, ears, urinary system, dysentery, typhoid,
allergies or eczema.
Healing Herbal
Exaltation –
Debilitation
Jupiter 5º Capricorn

SRAVANA 10º – 23º 20′ CAPRICORN

Astronomical α Aquilae (Altair)
reference
Symbol A human ear or arrow tip
Temperament Divine
Sex Feminine
Planetary ruler The Moon
Dosha Kapha
Deity Vishnu (the preserver)
Shakti Connecting
Guna Rajas
Quality Mutable
Caste Outcast
Auspicious Spiritual devotion, performance of ritual, mantra and music, preparation of medicinal
action remedies (especially rasāyana formulae).
Nakshatra and Ears, lymphatic system, reproductive system, testes and ovaries.
the body
Disease Weakness of lymphatic vessels, knees, skin, ears, urinary tract, dysentery, typhoid, allergies
tendencies or eczema.
Healing Metallic, mineral
Exaltation –
Debilitation –

DHANISTHA 23º 20′ CAPRICORN – 6º 40′ AQUARIUS

Astronomical β Delphini (Rotanev)
reference
Symbol Mridangam (drum)
Temperament Demon
Sex Feminine
Planetary Mars
ruler
Dosha Pitta
Deity Vasus (collective name for eight deities: Moon, pole star, daybreak, daylight, twilight, water,
wind and firelight)
Shakti Joining
Guna Tamas
Quality Mutable
Caste Farmer
Auspicious Energising and wearing of gemstones, medicinal treatment (surgery), burning, cutting and
action forging of metals.
Nakshatra Spine, cerebrospinal fluid, ankles and calf muscles.
and the body
Disease Weakness of the lower back, liver, urinary tract, high blood pressure, neurosis, arthritis of knees
tendencies and ankles, injury to the shins and the fracturing of leg bones.
Healing Surgery
Exaltation Mars 28º 00' Capricorn
Debilitation –

SHATABHISHAK 6º 40′ – 20º AQUARIUS

Astronomical λ Aquarii
reference
Symbol Lotus flower or circle, basket of one hundred herbs
Temperament Demon
Sex Feminine
Planetary ruler Rahu
Dosha Vāta
Deity Varuna (god of the oceans)
Shakti Healing
Guna Sattva
Quality Mutable
Caste Butcher
Auspicious Practice of Āyurveda/rasāyana therapies, shodhana of poison, the purification of
action narcotic/hallucinogenic herbs (Rasa Shāstra).
Nakshatra and Teeth, lower jaw, knees and ankles.
the body
Disease Diabetes, weakness of the calves, injury to the chin, bilious attacks, typhoid, high blood
tendencies pressure, paralysis and high fevers.
Healing Surgery
Exaltation –
Debilitation –
 PURVABHADRA 20º AQUARIUS – 3º 20′ PISCES
Astronomical α Pegasi (Markab)
reference
Symbol Twins or two-faced man
Temperament Human
Sex Masculine
Planetary Jupiter
ruler
Dosha Vāta
Deity Aja Ekapat (a one-footed goat, as in lightning striking the earth)
Shakti Uprising
Guna Rajas
Quality Fierce
Caste Brahmin
Auspicious Cleansing with salt water (purgation by Vamana), gemstone purification, mantra and use of
action herbal medicines, agriculture and irrigation, planting of herbal medicines, construction of yantra.
Nakshatra Sides of torso, navel, ankles, feet and toes.
and the body
Disease Weakness of the lungs, mental trauma, rheumatism, liver complaints, constipation, swelling of
tendencies the ankles, feet and toes.
Healing Herbal
Exaltation –
Debilitation –
 UTTRABHADRA 3º 20′ – 16º 40′ PISCES
Astronomical γ Pegasi (Algenib)
reference
Symbol A sword or coiled serpent or sea monster
Temperament Human
Sex Feminine
Planetary ruler Saturn
Dosha Pitta
Deity Ahirbudhnya (coiled snake or sleeping dragon)
Shakti Stabilising
Guna Tamas
Quality Fixed
Caste Brahmin
Auspicious Auspicious for the worship of deities, construction of sacred buildings or yantra, planting of
action herbs and the potentising of gemstones.
Nakshatra and Sides of the torso, navel, ankles, feet, toes and toenails.
the body
Disease Weakness of feet, lungs and teeth, associated with anaemia, fever, digestive irritability,
tendencies constipation, piles and epilepsy.
Healing Herbal
Exaltation –
Debilitation –
 REVATI 16º 40′ PISCES – 0º ARIES
Astronomical ζ Piscium
reference
Symbol A fish
Temperament Divine
Sex Feminine
Planetary Mercury
ruler
Dosha Kapha
Deity Pushan (guardian and knower of paths)
Shakti Nourishing
Guna Sattva
Quality Soft
Caste Shudra
Auspicious Jyotish, consecration of protective yantra, healing, empowering of gemstones, planting and
action growing of healing herbs.
Nakshatra Armpits, lymph system and feet.
and the body
Disease Weakness of the feet and toes, congestive diseases of the chest, mental disorders, stomach ulcer,
tendencies nephritis, lethargy, excessive bile production, genital diseases caused by excessive sexual
indulgence.
Healing Metallic/minerals
Exaltation Venus 27º Pisces
Debilitation –

In relation to auspicious action, Nakshatra were broadly divided into the qualities of:
fixed, sharp, fierce, swift, tender, sharp/tender and mutable. Each was then assigned
preferential activities thought to be favourable in that particular group.

1. Fixed The planting of trees and sowing of seeds, coronations, propitiation acts and the laying of
foundation stones.
1. Sharp Incantations and rising of spirits, the alliance of kings, the capture and the incarceration of
wrong-doers.
1. Fierce Capture and defeat of enemies, working with poisons, starting fires and forging, the striking
of weapons and the imprisonment of enemies.
1. Swift Medical treatments and healing, short journeys, for trading and pleasurable pursuits, artistic
endeavours, educational undertakings and the wearing of fine clothes and jewellery.
1. Tender Performance of auspicious ceremony, the wearing of fine clothes and jewellery, artistic
endeavours and musical performances, the forming of friendship or sexual union.
1. Sharp/tender Propitiation and acts of devotion (see also Sharp and Tender).
 1. Mutable Communication, education, pilgrimage and short journeys, devotion to one’s chosen deity.

21.3
Nakshatrapurusha

Nakshatrapurusha

‘A person who observes the Nakshatrapurusha Vrita87 will after his death become
a star and along with the innumerable stars of brilliant lustre, live until the end of
Brahma’s day (432,000,000 years), after which occurs the dissolution of the
universe.’
Brihat Saṃhitā, Varahimira
Generally, zodiacal signs and their body correspondences are taken to be the overriding factor of any physical
manifestation (see Section 16.2); however, Nakshatra are also useful for helping pinpoint additional health
information. All nine graha, Upagraha and ascendants reside in one of the 27 Nakshatra; these are then to be
studied for potential strengths and weaknesses in relation to that asterism and its controlling planetary lord.
 Sample chart complete with planetary Nakshatra placements

As with all horoscopes, the Moon’s Nakshatra placement takes precedent. Here in our
sample chart the Moon resides in Magha, ruled by Ketu (the southern node). Ketu
itself is in Vishaka (Jupiter ruled); Jupiter is in Punarvasu (its own Nakshatra). This
process of tracing planetary hierarchy is known as final depositor88 and is useful in
determining the ultimate manifestation of each graha (i.e. who ultimately holds its
reigns). In the case of our sample chart the underpinning of the Moon energy is by
Jupiter, a potent benefic. In terms of affliction to corresponding Nakshatrapurusha
positions (in this case, injury to the spinal cord (dorsal region), spleen and kidneys,
rhinitis, sensitivity of the stomach/digestive tract and migraine headaches), these
possible disturbances are somewhat de-emphasised due to the influence of a strong
benefic (Jupiter); however, the Moon still resides in a Nakshatra ruled by Ketu. The
southern node is itself in the 4th house and resting in the sign Scorpio. Mars, the
ruler of Scorpio, is itself situated in a Nakshatra controlled by the northern node,
Rahu.

PLANETARY NAKSHATRA
Planet Nakshatra Planetary ruler
Magha Ketu
1. Moon
Pushyami Saturn
2. Sun
Aslesha Mercury
3. Mercury
Ardra Rahu
4. Mars
Punarvasu Jupiter
5. Jupiter
Ardra Rahu
6. Venus
 Uttrabhadra Sun
7. Saturn
Krittika Sun
8. Rahu
Vishaka Jupiter
9. Ketu
Chitra Mars
10. Mandi
Purva Phalguni Venus
11. Ascendant

As there is a close affiliation between the 4th house, the Moon, mind and emotions, it
should also be noted that some considerable strain might be placed upon the Moon’s
sensitivities in association with these malefic forces. One interpretation of this
influence might be manifestation of illness due to physiological factors, Ketu’s
involvement additionally muddying the waters, making diagnosis more problematic
and the origin of these disturbances more karmic in nature.
Other factors that should be kept in mind when assessing the general state and
strength of the Moon’s Nakshatra include the following: the Moon finds favour in
Rohini Nakshatra, is exalted in Krittika and at rest in its own Nakshatra. The Moon
shows no enmity toward any of the planets but feels more at ease when residing in
Nakshatra ruled by the Sun and Jupiter. Generally, the Moon delivers less beneficial
results when transiting asterisms ruled by Mercury, Venus, Saturn, Ketu and Rahu89
(and in that order).
 SECTION 22
IN CONCLUSION

22.1
Directing Outcomes

The Demon King of Lanka

What can be said at this point is that positioning and dispositions of planets are the
key to reaping the best from any chart presented to you. However, there’s a saying,
‘You cannot buy your way out of karma’, and the planets (it seems) have a way of
allotting gain when appropriate and calling in the loan when your time is up. This
twisting and turning of fate is best summed up in the following tale from the classic
Hindu epic, The Ramayana.90
It happened that Ravaṇa, King of Lankadweepa (Sri Lanka), was a wise and
powerful ruler. Master of many great Shāstras, he held sway over ten earthly
kingdoms91 (denoted by his wearing of ten crowns92). He ministered over these
kingdoms using a magical flying chariot called the Dandu Monara Yantra.93 His list of
accomplishments was long and his healing skills legendary. Aside from being a
Jyotisha of some note he was also a skilled Āyurvedic physician, specialising in
paediatrics and pulse-taking techniques.
His deep commitment to gaining knowledge and austerity elevated him still further,
eventually gaining him a boon with Lord Brahma, who granted him unrivalled earthly
power. Desiring his fame to spread still further and his offspring to greatly prosper, he
used his intimate knowledge of Jyotish to manipulate both rashi and graha to produce
a superior horoscope for his soon to be born son (Indrajit). Using all his powers he
forcibly moved all nine graha into the zodiac’s 11th house (gain94) at the very moment
of the child’s birth. As the infant began to emerge from his mother’s body, all nine
planetary rays shone down upon him from their sequestered positioning, making him
invincible to any foe. It was at this critical juncture that Shani (Saturn), the lord of
karma, placed his right leg into the adjacent 12th house (loss), thereby breaking the
child’s power and making him vulnerable to attack.
Ravaṇa, seeing this treachery, broke Shani’s leg with his mace, leaving him lame,
and in his anger he imprisoned all the graha inside gemstones and embedded them
into the steps leading up to his throne. All of the gems were embedded face up to be
able to see Ravaṇa’s feet stepping on them as he ascended the throne, but Shani
(whose terrible stare was renowned to bring great misfortune) was embedded face
down.
 The rest of the gods, now seeing Ravaṇa’s true power, became fearful of him and
petitioned Lord Brahma to withdraw his boon. Unwilling to comply, Brahma suggested
another approach to help dispel their fears. He suggested that by asking the sage
Narada Muni (traveller of celestial realms) to visit Ravaṇa on behalf of the gods to pay
him compliments about his victory over the planets, a way could be found to release
the planets from their captivity and restore the balance of power.
The gods, not understanding how this would alleviate their worries, decided to
follow Brahma’s advice and invited the sage to pay a visit to Ravaṇa to extend their
admiration for his powerful display over the planets, where he had manipulated their
celestial courses.
Narada was duly dispatched and, promptly arriving in Lanka, bowed low before
King Ravaṇa. His admittance into the royal court seemed to be somewhat diminished
by the king’s sister Surpanakha, who was bitterly complaining to her brother about a
recent attack upon herself in the southern forests across the sea. It appeared that a
young man had resisted her advances and cut her nose off in the ensuing argument.
She then continued telling Ravaṇa about her attacker’s accomplices – his brother
(Lord Rama) and accompanying wife (Sita), a woman whose beauty was fit only for a
king such as him. The king appeared to be considering his course of action over the
affair when the travelling sage interjected and stepped forward to announce his
arrival.
Bowing low, Narada Muni delivered his message to the king while skilfully
surveying the situation in the palace. Spying the imprisoned graha, he quickly
formulated a plan to end their captivity.
Bowing lower and appealing to the king’s vanity he asked, ‘Why does your majesty
set the blue sapphire face down when the other gems are upward facing for all to
admire?’
‘The answer is simple,’ said the king. ‘To have Shani look upon you is to invite
misfortune95 and, as you can see, we have none of that here in Lanka.’
‘But’, continued Narada Muni, ‘you have already proved yourself to be beyond the
powers of all the graha, including Shani. Have you not broken his leg and imprisoned
him within the blue gem?’ Goading the king, he said, ‘Surely this act of holding him
downward facing is admittance of your fear of him?’
Ravaṇa, starting to tire of the visiting sage, became impatient and ordered the
stone to be dislodged and reset so that the graha might now look upon his captor in
the presence of Narada Muni. As the large blue stone was dislodged and turned,
Shani’s gaze fell upon the seated king and his effect was both subtle and
instantaneous. As their eyes met, Shani implanted the desire for the King of Lanka to
abduct Rama’s wife (Sita) and so bring a war upon him that would engulf the island,
his family and the people, eventually destroying everything he’d built.
In time it was the vanara96 Hanuman who infiltrated Ravaṇa’s palace and freed the
planets from their captivity; and, with Shani and the other planets free to return to
their celestial abodes, the weight of the king’s karma began to bear fruit, with
catastrophic results. And the rest, as they say, is history.
It is said that every myth has the remnants of some truth or wisdom deeply encoded
into its symbolism, and this story is probably no exception. In Sri Lanka, King Ravaṇa
is pretty highly regarded and well respected as both a wise ruler and an author of
medical texts on pulse-taking and paediatrics.97 As can be seen from the story, he was
probably also an adept astrologer well able to interpret future events and turn them
to his advantage.
This powerful tale from the ancient classics is a good portrayal of the misuse of
astrological knowledge. However, it also shows that willingness to accept karma
allows some mitigation of its actual delivery – you may indeed be destined to have a
heavy stone dropped on your head, but fore-knowledge of events could prepare you
for the blow by wearing a hard hat.

22.2
Jyotish and Rasa Shāstra

Good base materials and meticulous processing are half the battle and essential for
producing a high grade of finished medicine, but there are additional methods of
potentising all remedies. In India both Jyotish (celestial timing) and mantra
(vocational prayer) are employed before, during and after the manufacturing process.
Although this aspect of the work has somewhat fallen into decline in latter years,
some manufacturers may still employ some level of astrological consideration prior to
undertaking the preparation of remedies. Traditional practitioners of Āyurveda and its
equivalents in Asia may still recommend that clients engage the services of an
astrologer prior to their own appraisal of the patient.

22.3
Summing Up

The introduction to this book gave a brief account of one particular experience I had
during my time in Sri Lanka and hopefully started to convey my own background in
this work. I’m hopeful that the information contained within these pages will inspire
others to explore traditional systems of medicine such as Āyurveda, Unani, etc. In
time perhaps a greater acknowledgement of their effectiveness will come to be
expressed, as these traditional alternatives98 begin to percolate more into Western
cultures.
As has been shown, alchemically styled medicines continue to treat, support and
manage many illnesses beyond the ability of many modern healthcare systems. What I
was able to witness in Sri Lanka and India is the willingness of its people to follow
treatment protocols laid down millennia ago by masters of these healing sciences.
Many of these formulations do attempt to treat diseases that some allopathic
medicines would be hard pressed to equal, and all without the terrible side-effects we
have come to accept and be burdened with from our pharmacopeia of petro-chemical
synthetics.
I am sometimes asked about the overall effectiveness of Āyurveda/Rasa Shāstra
remedies in regard to actually rendering a cure. In fairness, it has to be said that
these medicines are not cure-alls. Āyurvedic texts focus upon avoidance of conditions
via a daily regime, promoting a philosophy of good daily living. By adhering to these
suggestions, it was hoped, many of life’s pitfalls could be avoided. Indeed, these
ancient texts tend to excel in preventive measures, seeing treatment as a secondary
and less desirable course of action. In complicated ‘difficult-to-cure’ and incurable
conditions Āyurveda works toward management and stabilisation of chronic diseases.
This is especially so in the case of the elderly or infirm, but even here it can offer a
wealth of techniques that if undertaken can often prolong life or at the very least
bring a level of comfort that can make life more bearable.
All Āyurvedic medicines have some part to play in long-term health and ultimately
longevity – but how far life can be extended by their use is difficult to say. Many rasa
medicines (particularly those containing Pārada99) were developed to push the
lifespan of human beings well beyond any normal expectancy. Perhaps these remedies
are not quite the ‘elixirs of the immortals’, but certainly they featured highly on the
menu of those who wished to see years not normally within their grasp.

NOTES

1. Jyotish allows the calculation of longevity to be determined.

2. See Kirk, A. (2013) The Seven Ages of Man. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Lifelight 365.
3. The word Ayanāṃśa is thought to mean Ayana (solstice) and Amśa (the division of).
4. Also known as Meshadi.
5. Sidereal, also known as Nirayana (or fixed star positions), were considered unchanging and so became
excellent reference positions. Recent astronomical calculations have shown stellar positions change in the
order of 2–3 minutes of arc every thousand years.
6. Tropical, also known as Sāyana (denoting a zodiac tied to the earthly seasons).
7. Multiple dates for the coincidence of zodiacs range from 231–570 AD. The phenomenon of precession appears
to shift the Sun backward through zodiacal signs 1º every 72 years. Needless to say, both zodiacs are
assumed to coincide every 25,000 (+/-) years and thereafter drift apart for an ensuing 12,500 years (+/-).
Recent data seems to suggest the rate of precession is somewhat variable over the centuries (including the
perturbations of stars), adding even more instability to any final calculation. Those wishing to view a visual
simulation of the phenomena of precession might consider installing Stellarium, freely available from
www.stellarium.org.
8. The time it takes the Sun to precess through all 12 zodiacal signs every 25,920 years.
9. Archeoastronomy aims to re-evaluate the importance of ancient cultural calendars and monuments
(particularly through their stellar alignment) to coincide with certain celestial events. Due to precession of
the equinox, ancient recorded solar/stellar positions can be used to determine historical dates for their
occurrence or sighting.
10. The effects of precession have been discussed at some length in Hamlet’s Mill (1969) by Giorgio de Santillana
and Hertha von Dechend, The Astrology of Inner Space (1972) by Carl Payne Tobey and Making Sense of
Astrology (2012) by Andrew Kirk.
11. See The Seven Ages of Man (2012) by Andrew Kirk.
12. All planets (including earth) follow heliocentric orbits, never straying more than 8º above or below the
ecliptic.
13. Dated from around 600 AD, author unknown.
14. See Section 21.1 in Part IV.
15. 13º 20ʹ × 27 = 356º 7ʹ = one lunar sidereal month (fixed star to fixed star).
16. See Chapter VIII (on the conjunctions of the planets with the stars) in the translation of Sūrya Siddhānta by
Pundit Bapu Deva Sastri.
17. Epoch 522 AD had also been advised by the sixteenth century Jotisha Gaṇeśa Daivajńa.
18. Hindu Astrology (Jyotisha-Shastra) by Shil Ponde, Sagar Publications 1975.
19. Shil Ponde uses an epoch value of 522 AD in his Ayanāṃśa calculation (a value supported by such authors as
Varahamihira), yet later mistakenly cites 239 AD as being the most recent epoch the vernal equinox coincided
with the fixed stars of Aries. He also cites the annual precessional rate as being 50 instead of his later
amended 50.1. These anomalies in the book are frustrating but should not detract from the overall validity of
the calculation. It’s possible these irregularities are just publishing oversights.
20. Varga charts = divisional charts. The use of Varga requires accurate birth data, with some calculations resting
on less than 1 minute of arc. Ayanāṃśa value radically modifies some Varga, especially when working with
smaller increments. The accuracy of divisional charts is often a good place to test the effectiveness of
Ayanāṃśa calculation.
21. D9 denotes the 9th divisional chart, commonly consulted along with the rashi (birth chart). After 36 years of
age the D9 is thought to have the greatest influence upon the individual.
22. One of the four world Yugas, Kali was the goddess of time, creation, transformation and destruction (death).
23. Dasha is a planetary period calculated in a horoscope whereby the individual comes under the influence of a
specific graha or sign, during its allotted time period.
24. The 12 marker constellations of the zodiac: Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, etc.
25. Time-personified cosmic man.
26. The nine graha/planets in the Vedic era were: the Sun, the Moon, Mercury, Mars, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Rahu
and Ketu.
27. Each sign spans 30º of the sky (called an equal house), often extending well beyond the boundaries of the
Stella constellation. This difference illustrates that the ancients were observing the entire 30º, not just events
 directly within the boundaries of the constellation.
28. Rulership of zodiacal signs is relative to the distribution of the planets in their correct order from the Sun,
demonstrating the ancients’ ability to determine distance based on direct observation.
29. See Section 18.9 for more information about the lunar nodes.
30. Shani (Saturn) was known to be lame and hence was delayed in his transit of 29.5 years.
31. Brihat Parasara Hora Shāstra by Maharishi Parasara was composed about 600 BC and believed to be a
collection of different works composed in earlier epochs by a number of authors.
32. Determination of dosha by horoscope is a complex affair, with many considerations to be factored in to arrive
at an accurate assessment. Additional considerations include the sign positioning of the Moon and Sun, sixth
and ascendant lord, etc.
33. Navamsha is considered to be the most important Varga (divisional chart). Its division into nine allows for the
exploration of one’s personal Dharma and future incarnations. After the 36th year of life one’s Navamsha can
be read as the rashi, indicating how an individual grows into the 9th divisional Varga with the passage of
time.
34. Kshatriya = those that defend; capable of punishing wrong-doers.
35. Atma = soul or sustainer of consciousness, considered eternal or without beginning.
36. Sattwika = one of three gunas (states of matter). Sattwika is thought to be pure and without defect,
promoting non-attachment to worldly desires.
37. With the decline of modern-day kings, one might consider kingly status befitting of the super-wealthy/large
estate owners/corporations/businesses/large employers.
38. Vaishya = having a commercial nature – a trader/merchant or profiteer. The Moon also represents Chitta
(spiritual nourishment) on a higher level or mass media on a low level, and the general public and their
acceptance or rejection of ideas.
39. Chitta represents the core of consciousness – how we feel and relate to our experiences. Just as the tissues,
limbs and organs support the functionality of the body, so does the mind and five senses support Chitta.
40. Rajas = one of three gunas (states of matter). Rajas is considered to be outwardly seeking, reactive, turbulent
and without rest.
41. Shakti = personal power/force of action.
42. Tamas = one of three gunas (states of matter). Tamas is considered primal; survival instincts are heightened
as well as strong attachments to worldly pleasures. Tamas is darkness and the inability to determine wrong
from right.
43. Although once a kingly advisor, Venus was later relegated to become the Guru of the Raksha (demons).
44. The sex of both Venus (Shukra) and Moon (Chandra) appear to change according to parts in different stories.
45. Shudra = servant class – those that serve the community, engaging in lower levels of activity.
46. See ‘Sagar Manthan (Churning of the Milky Ocean)’ in Part I for more information on Rahu/Ketu origins.
47. Scorpio is the Rasi of serpent fire/venom itself and would thusly exhilarate Raha and Ketu having a natural
affinity toward them both. Following the basic 180º rule of graha debilitation it would follow that both nodes
would subsequently be debilitated in Taurus.
48. The 12 Upagraha are: Mandi, Dhooma, Vyatipata, Parivesha, Indra Chaapa, Upketu, Gulika, Pranapada,
Yamaghantika, Ardhaprahara, Kala and Mrityu. Mandi and Gulika are often described as one and the same,
yet Parasara assigns Yama as father of Mandi and Shani the father of Gulika.
49. The Sun, the Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn. Rahu and Ketu are excluded due to their
shadowy natures.
50. See Section 20.
51. ct = carat/unit of gemstone weight; 1 carat = 0.2g (200mg).
52. Suraya = kavacha, protective talisman worn to empower a particular graha.
53. Ksara = alchemically prepared herbs, incinerated, washed and filtered to release their precious alkalising
salts.
54. Panchayudaya are typically cast in gold or silver pendants bearing the five weapons of Prince Viyaya. These
weapons are: sword, spear, bow, battle axe and shield. Modern interpretations of the design also include a
trident. At its centre a gemstone suited to the individual’s horoscope is affixed.
55. Offerings made at specific times and days to specific deities, seeking their blessing.
56. Based on current data (often citing Babylonian astrological records), some researchers have concluded that
no recognisable zodiac existed prior to 500 BC. Oral Vedic Astrology histories hold these examples of
timescale to be incorrect, maintaining their traditions predate these estimates by several millennia.
57. The 12 zodiacal signs are solar in origin; the passage of the Sun along the ecliptic frames the appropriate
constellation on its yearly course. Nakshatra are almost certainly lunar in their origin (as the myth also
attests). Nightly observations of the rapidly traversing Moon would be much easier to catalogue, retracing its
course each lunar month. Detailed solar observations would have to be made year to year and would also
have to content with the obliteration of faint residual starlight swallowed up by the earth’s great luminary.
58. Although signs and constellations are not commensurable to one another, of the 12 constellations Scorpio (in
unison with Libra) is perhaps the best candidate for a visual match to its supposed iconography.
59. Hipparchus (second century BC) also makes note of a new star in Scorpio in 134 BC.
60. Western astrologers also partly attribute Libra’s borrowed 30º to be from its neighbouring sign Kanya (Virgo).
61. Different spelling of Rajasic.
62. The midway point between Scorpio and Sagittarius marks the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy.
63. Ophiuchus (the serpent bearer) has been suggested to be a missing 13th sign of the zodiac. While this
constellation featured in ancient cosmology it seems astrologically unsound for it to have been considered a
 true zodiacal sign.
64. This practice was common in older cultures where existing gods were eventually usurped by arising popular
figures to become syncretic deities.
65. One Babylonian star catalogue c.475 BC records the use of 12 zodiacal signs, their division into 30° and
sidereal axis as defined by fiducial stars a Tori (Alder barran) and a Scorpionis (Antares).
66. The iconography of the Water Bearer may be a later Greek influence on the earlier Vedic deity Varuna.
Originally given the title ‘god of the earth and sky’, Varuna had aspects of both deva and asura, suggesting a
semi-violent nature. Later he was relegated to an oceanic god, often depicted riding upon a Makara (or sea
monster), pouring the deluge upon the plains of earth.
67. Mean calculation of the lunar nodes can incur direct motion, slowing and stationary nodes.
68. Moksha = ultimate liberation, enlightenment.
69. See Section 1.1 in Part I.
70. See Harness, D.M. (1999) The Nakshatras: The Lunar Mansions of Vedic Astrology. Twin Lakes, WI: Lotus
Press.
71. Also known as the 27 daughters of Daksha Prajapati (son of Brahma).
72. This tale later became the origin of Ojaksaya/phthisis or what used to be called consumption.
73. Though the Sun was seen drawn life from the ground its overall action was drying and eventually depleting.
The fertility of the earth was assigned to the Moon, observed to counter and nourish the malefic nature of the
Sun.
74. Vagbhatta c.800–850 AD, Buddhist commentator and compiler of Aṣṭāñga Hṛdayam.
75. Luffa echinata Roxb.
76. Currently unknown species.
77. This extract from Rasanavakalpa discusses favourable seasons in which to prepare and energetically balance
Haritāla (yellow arsenic).
78. During his passage through the lunar mansions, his waxing phase saw him fill with Soma (nectar); during his
waning, the gods drink his accumulated bounty, draining him of essence and lustre.
79. Sixty-four divine herbs imparting semi-supernatural remunerative powers; however, despite painstaking
research into their modern equivalents, most still elude successful identification.
80. Chandramáh variety of Soma was said to be harvested from rivers and lakes.
81. Rig Veda (book 9) is almost exclusively dedicated to Soma.
82. Perhaps a variety of creeper/hanging vine or spores that dispersed upon the winds.
83. Silver seems originally to have been prized above gold, its healing (anti-bacterial) properties already being
utilised to some degree.
84. Susrutha advises the use of silver vessels to store the fermented juice of Chandramáh (one of a number of
Soma varieties). Other containing materials included gold, copper, earthenware and animal skins. The uses of
some metals make the argument for mercurial-Soma unlikely due to its amalgam properties.
85. The deity Agni was the originator of fever; he was assigned the task of extinguishing human life by his
manifestation of fever.
86. Rudras were generally used to identify wrathful/angry deities; in contrast, Soma was seen as a pacifying
force, bringing joyfulness and contentment.
87. After ritual fasting, a specific ceremony is performed on each day of the lunar month to honour Krishna’s
manifestation as the 27 asterisms, each of which represented a body part. For more information see Agni
Purana (6.22.3).
88. A planet ultimately found to be residing in its own sign or Nakshatra.
89. Nakshatra ruled by Rahu and Ketu can be problematic as both nodes afflict the luminaries (see ‘Sagar
Manthan (Churning of the Milky Ocean)’ in Part I); Ketu appears more damaging to the Sun and Rahu the
Moon.
90. The Ramayana is believed to have been composed in its original Sanskrit about 400–500 BC in India. It
chronicles the tale of Lord Rama’s exile into the forest with his wife and brother. This tale also brings Rama
(avatar of Lord Krishna) into direct conflict with Ravaṇa (King of Lanka).
91. Ravaṇa’s ten heads are interpreted to account for his mastery of the four Vedas and six Shāstras or his
rulership over ten provinces.
92. Ravaṇa was also called Dasha Mukha or ‘the ten-faced one’. This related to the ten personalities he
prominently displayed (i.e. anger, pride, jealously, happiness, sadness, fear, selfishness, passion, ambition and
intellect).
93. Dandu Monara Yantra translates to something like ‘great or large peacock apparatus/machinery’.
94. Traditionally the 11th house represents the fruit of the life. All planets benefit in the 11th house, but its lord
(planetary ruler) tends toward being highly malefic, causing many problems. Principally the 11th house holds
one to the material world/desires, leading an individual toward self-indulgence and ultimate suffering.
95. The gaze of Shani is renowned to drain life-force; Shani is the most feared of all graha.
96. Vanara were typically described as human/monkey hybrids created by Brahma to aid Lord Rama in his war
against Lanka. Hanuman was the most famous of vanara and most devoted to Rama.
97. Ravaṇa was thought to have authored a number of treatises on Āyurvedic medicine, as well as being a master
of pulse-taking. Commonly credited works include: Uddisha Tantra (unknown content), Nadi Triksha (pulse
examination), Kamara Tantra (alchemical works) and Arkaprakasha (the distillation of herbal drugs).
98. Āyurvedic medicine currently services a large percentage of India’s population, currently 1.2 billion, greater
than its allopathic equivalent.
99. Mercury-based medicines using Kajjali, combined with other herbo-metallic-mineral formulations.
 Appendix 1
MISCELLANEOUS RASA
INFORMATION

1. Classification of materials in Rasa Shāstra Works on

Vedic Alchemy span many volumes and, although intimately
linked to Āyurveda, it is for all intents and purposes a self-
contained science. The following represents a fairly concise
overview of most materials utilised in Rasa Shāstra. All
materials have been presented in their various categories
along with Sanskrit/English translations.

TABLE OF RASA SHĀSTRA

Sanskrit English Sanskrit English
Maha Rasa (Great) Uparasa (Secondary)
Abhraka Mica Gandhaka Sulphur
Vaikrānta Fluorite Gaireeka Red Iron Oxide
Swarna Maksika Copper Pyrite Kasisa Ferrous Sulphate
Vimala Iron Pyrite Kanksi Alum
Shilajit Bitumen Haritāla Arsenic Trisulphide
Sasyaka Copper Sulphate Manah Shila Arsenic Disulphide
Chapala Bismuth Sulphide Anjana Antimony Sulphide
Rasaka Calamine Nilanjuna Galena
Kankusta Malabar Tamarind
Sadharana Rasa (Universal) Dhātu (Metals)
Kampilla Monkey Face Fruit Swarna Gold
Gauri Pashana Arsenic Trioxide Rajata Silver
Nara Sara Ammonium Tamra Copper
Chloride
Karpardika Cowrie Shell Loha Iron
Agnijara Ambergris Mandura Rust of Iron
Giri Sindoora Mercuric Oxide Vanga Tin
Hiṅgula Cinnabar Nāga Lead
Mrddara Śrnga Lead Monoxide Yasada Zinc
Pittala Brass
Kansya Bronze
Tri-Loha 3 Metals
Varta Loha 5 Metals
Ratna (Precious gemstones) Uparatna (Semi-precious
gemstones)
Maanikya Ruby Akika Agate
Mukta Pearl Suryakaanta Sunstone
Pravala Coral Chandrakaanta Moonstone
Tarksya Emerald Rajavarta Lapis Lazuli
Pushparaga Topaz Sangeyasab Jade
Hiraka Diamond Pirojaka Turquoise
Nilama Sapphire Vaikrānta Tourmaline
Gomeda Garnet Kaharuba Amber
Vaiduryam Chrysoberyl
Sudha Varga (Calcium Carbonate) Visha and Upavisha (Poisons)
Shankha Conch Shell Sarpa-Visha Cobra Venom
Mrga Śrnga Deer Horn Vatsanābha Aconite
Kukkutanda Eggshell Arka Crown Flower
Sukti Mother of Pearl Sehunda Milk Hedge
Samudra Phena Cuttlefish Bone Dattura Datura
Ajasthi Goat Bone Langali Flame Lily
Sudha Limestone Karaveera Indian Oleander
Godhanti Gypsum Gunja Indian Liquorice
Haritāla
Surama Sapheda Calcite Khasabeeja Opium Poppy
Dugdha Pashana Soapstone Vijaya Cannabis Indica
Khatika Chalk Jayapāla Croton
 Bhallātaka Marking Nut
Kuchala Poison Nut
Miscellaneous
Kauseyasma Asbestos Abresham Silkworm Cocoon
Badarasma Jew’s Stone Kasturi Deer Musk
Kanta Pashana Lodestone Mayūr Piccha Peacock Feather
Nāga Pashana Serpentine Gorochana Bezoar Stone
Sphatika Quartz Kalmi Sora Salt Petre
Nāga Sindoora Lead Tetroxide Sarji Kshara Sodium Carbonate
Tankana Sodium Borate

2. Types of iron
Munda Loha Mrdu: malleable, having a shiny surface and melting quickly
Kuntha: malleable, but requiring much hammering to form it
Kadara: brittle, un-malleable and breaking easily, revealing a
blackened surface
Tikshna Khara: inflexible with a lined surface, coarse in texture
Loha
Sara: similar to steel, showing fine lines/grain – very hard
Hrnnala: yellow/black colouration, distinctive beak pattern on
cut surfaces
Tarapatta: glazed smooth blackish finish, fine curved lines
upon its surface, highly durable and rust resistant (like
stainless)
Vajra: glazed, smooth blackened finish with deep fine lines,
bright flashy surface like a diamond
Kala: blue-black colouration and heavy, brittle if struck by
other higher grades of iron
Kanta Loha Bhramaka: magnetic repelling (strong lodestone)
Cumbaka: magnetic attracting (strong lodestone)
Karsaka: magnetic attracting (weak lodestone)
Dravaka: used for alloying purposes
 Roma: used for piercing the skin, encourages hair growth
Kanta Loha Yellow variety: used in the art of gold-making Red variety: used
colour for the fixation of mercury Black variety: used for medicines
grades

3. Kūkai and Nyū Mountain Kōbō-Diashi (774–835 AD), or

Kūkai, was indeed a unique historical character, steeped in
wisdom, mysticism and a diversity of intellectual
disciplines, including architect, engineer, poet, artist,
alchemist, scriptural translator, linguist and spiritual
teacher.
I would very much like to think Mr Tamotsu Sato and Takao Yamamoto for their
contributions to this short section.

Kūkai/Kōbō Daishi, founder of Shingon Mikkyō

In Osaka, November 2009, I was lucky enough to meet the author Mr Tamotsu
Sato, who had kindly agreed to walk me through some of his research on the
subject of Esoteric Buddhist Alchemy in Japan. With the aid of photos, diagrams
and hand-written notes he started to introduce me to his intensive research of
nearly 25 years. This brief whirlwind tour intrigued me greatly, so much so he
later mailed me a selection of his most relevant books and photos on the
subject. One of the main themes behind Mr Sato’s work focuses on the life and
exploits of Kōbō-Daishi, or Kūkai (as he’s more popularly known in Japan). Most
Japanese recognise this historical figure as the founder of Shingon Mikkyō, and
in general attribute nothing more than this role to his name. However, a closer
examination of his tale starts to raise some interesting questions about his life
and motives or, as Mr Sato so aptly puts it: ‘Mikkyō is alchemy, it is nothing less
than alchemical literature as its works contain information about chemistry,
medicine, astrology and metallurgy; all of these are essential to understanding
alchemy. Koyasan Complex (Wakayama, Japan) was an ancient source of
mercuric sulphide (cinnabar). The shrine of Nyū (Goddess of Mercury) is
directly related to mercury, and Kūkai (Kōbō-Daishi) was an alchemist,
mountaineer and miner. Mie Prefecture had a proliferation of Mercury mines,
rich in sources of this ore/precious metal. Still standing in Mie Prefecture, near
a once prominent mercury mine, there’s a statue of Shinsho (a direct disciple of
Kūkai).’
The Gods of Shingon Mikkyō (The Hidden Symbolism of Mikkyō), Tamotsu
Sato During our brief conversation one phrase really stuck in my head,
namely, ‘Wherever you find the Goddess Nyū, you will find mercury, and
wherever you find mercury, you will find Kūkai.’ And though there is little
openly written to verify this connection, much is apparent indeed that
seems to indicate Kūkai’s true interests were often at odds with his
governmental obligations. This observation often seems to be borne out
when looking a little closer at the proliferation of mines (particularly
mercury-yielding), showing a prominent connection to Shingon, as well as
some Buddhist iconography throughout Japan.
Tanjōsan, formerly known as Nyū Mountain (丹生山), 514m high and situated in
Hyōgo Prefecture, geographically close to Japan’s Median Tectonic Line1

On one follow-up visit to Japan in 2011, I took it upon myself to do a little

sleuthing and, being positioned reasonably close to a historical site known to
have mercurial ties, I decided to explore. Juggling between train and bus I paid
a short visit to Tanjōsan (formerly Nyū Mountain). The final bus journey to this
more remote locale made life easy by dropping its remaining passengers (my
partner and I) right at the Torii,2 signifying the entrance to the mountain. From
here a small road wound its way for about half a mile, passing a few residential
properties and a local community hall before arriving at the pathway to start
the ascent of the mountain.
Once into the bamboo tree line it was a steady incline, onward and upward
through thickening forest and winding earthen track. Conveniently the path
looped back and forth in an effort to relieve leg strain and to break the
monotony of unending bamboo, the zigzagging ascent varying the scenery just
enough to disguise the long trudge to the summit. Although Tanjōsan is little off
the beaten track, the area itself quite magical if not a little eerie, evoking a
cross between calm serenity and paranoia (the uneasiness of feeling watched).
As usual, my special gift for picking strange destinations and inappropriate
weather delivered in spectacular style as the day swiftly became a scorcher.
The air became extremely humid and the light cooling breeze quickly vanished.
Luckily, the intermittent tree cover made it almost bearable.
After about an hour of trudging, the track flattened out and the tree cover
pulled back, exposing a ravine with the peak of Nyū rising up to the left. This
was to be the best view we got of the peak, and it was quite impressive. After
20 minutes of further trekking and crossing a bridged ravine, we began to
realise the day was now too short make the summit and stopped in a shaded
clearing to drink and rest. Looking around, I found a small stone Jizo3 and an
old wooden sign stating I had only reached the official entrance. From this
position I estimated it to be another 2–3 hours to reach the summit. It appears
for all my earlier enthusiasm the first hour of the climb only brought you to this
point. Reluctantly we turned and headed back, collecting a few soil samples
along the way before descending once again to the bus stop and riding back to
the local train station.
Earlier, intrigued by Tanjō’s name and history, I’d contacted Mr Sato to ask
whether the mountain had featured in his ongoing research. He’d told me that
he had not made any special references to Tanjō, though he’d obviously
commented on the name, repeating his axiom ‘Wherever you find the Goddess
Nyū, you will find mercury, and wherever you find mercury, you will find Kūkai.’
He also commented that on his travels through Hyōgo Prefecture he’d visited
Inagawa Village, an area connected with the mining of copper and silver ore
deposits. He also added, ‘Historically this area has been acknowledged for its
contribution of copper used in the construction of the Great Daibutsu in Nara.
Additionally, some of the soils and clays of this district may have been collected
for iron-working – the material known as Akōmei Satetsu4 was a fine reddish-
brown iron-sand.’
Tanjō is but one peak in a range of mountains in that area with a history of
mining cinnabar,5 gold and iron, etc. Predictably, it boasts a shrine dedicated to
the Goddess Nyū; however, it appears its current placement near the summit
was a later edition.6 In its history Tanjōsan has seen both Shintō and Buddhist
activity, as well as the comings and goings of various mining interests. This
area was populated and worked by the Nyū clan, who were famed for their
mining skills. Geographically this range of mountains is but a short distance
from an area known to have rich deposits of copper, tin and silver. The Ikuno
Ginzan Mine is no longer in production, but throughout its long history had
steadily produced a selection of metals including gold, copper, lead and tin.
Ginzan means ‘Mountain of Silver’ and had been mined since 807 AD. During its
1200 years of operational activity it yielded over 70 different types of minerals.
The mine was finally closed in 1973 and re-opened as a museum in 1992.
Though no direct connection is made between Kūkai and Tanjōsan, there is a
high probability that the bounty of this peak and area were known to him, for a
number of reasons. First, there was a prominent Buddhist presence felt upon
the mountain until fairly recent times. Second, this area has been a reliable
source of raw materials for multiple temples and their effigies, as well as
yielding a number of precious metals. Finally, Hyōgo, Nara, Kyoto and
Wakayama Prefectures were renowned as key areas of Kūkai activity during his
most prolific years.

Interview with Mr Takao Yamamoto 2012

Tanjō originally hosted Myōyō-ji Buddhist Temple, which is believed to have
been established by the seventh-century Monk Hōdō Sennin.7 Built during the
Korean era of Myōuyōu, the temple was named Myōyō-ji. It was eventually
destroyed by Hideyopshi Yototomi, whilst in the employs of the notorious
daimyo named Oda Nobunaga, during the provincial wars in Japan (1467–1615
AD).
Delving a little deeper into Nyū Mountain and its mysteries I eventually found
and contacted Mr Takao Yamamoto. I came across his name and work while
researching the history of Tanjō. I was later able to establish written
connections that eventually lead to a series telephone conversations with the
man himself. A resident of those parts, he also had ancestral connections to
Myōyō-ji Temple.
Our communication over a period of several months convinced me of Mr
Yamamoto’s sincerity and his stories seemed to dovetail nicely into other pieces
of the Nyū jigsaw puzzle. The following is an abridged question-and-answer
session with Mr Yamamoto – a continuation of our discussion of Tanjōsan and
its associated mysteries.
AM: Hi and good evening. Thanks for letting me ask you a few more questions
about your own research into Tanjō.
TY: No problem.
AM: Can I just confirm your full name, as you website has different names
shown?
TY: Yes, its Takao Yamamoto, I use the name Yamamoto Niu on my webpage –
that’s the internet name I like to use.
AM: I was really interested in what you told me about your grandmother. She
mentioned how red soil collected from Tanjō was sent to Kyoto – did she
ever mention why this was being done?
TY: The story of the red soil goes back to when my grandmother was a child.
She said this practice had been going on a very long time. Anyway, it
seems this red clay/sand was being used to build and repair Yasaka-jinja8
in Kyoto. As well as the soil collection she also explained how the same
material was used to make a human figurine. It’s not clear why this was
done but it seems it had some kind of ceremonial use. I’ve asked others
about this but it seems there are no living persons who remember it.
There are some records showing this temple was the site of a religious
festival that had some bearing on the well-being of the city, possibly
health-related issues?
AM: Who asked for the collection to be made?
TY: As I recall, it was Kiyomizu Temple in Kyoto (also known as Otowa-san
Kiyomizu-dera Buddhist Temple9).
AM: Have you ever heard anyone openly make a connection between the red
soil and oxides of mercury or iron?
TY: Tanjō was known to be a source of both materials, so naturally I think
people knew these things were there. Traditionally it was the Nyū clan
that mined the area and also searched for other precious metals, including
gold. This area was associated with wealth in the past and so has been
fought over throughout its history. According to historical books on Kobe,
the clay mined in that area was rich in both cinnabar and iron oxide. From
 what I remember, it’s mentioned that this area partly contributed mercury
to be used in the fire gilding of the Daibutsu in Nara.10
AM: The Daibutsu at Todai-ji Temple?
TY: Yes, that’s what I had read.
AM: Were there many mines around the area of Tanjō?
TY: According to local history this whole area has an extensive history of
mining; there are many old mines long since abandoned, or exhausted.
Directly around the base of Tanjō there are thought to be some remaining
rich deposits. This is partly the reason why there remains so much interest
in the mountain. Currently Tanjō has no official owner; it’s in the custody
of the Tokyo Courts. There are interested parties waiting to see what will
happen, but for now the last attempt to develop that area went bankrupt
and so nothing’s happened since.
AM: Do you know why they favoured collecting soil from Tanjō?
TY: Tanjō has always been a sacred place and was believed to have great
spiritual power. The clay from there was thought to carry that power and
so favoured for the construction of temples and shrines, etc. That power
was then thought to pass to the building, making the place of worship
more special or somehow protected.
AM: There’s a story written at Niutsuhine-jinja11 about the goddess Nyū having
advised the imperial fleet of Jingu Kōgō12 to paint their warships,
armaments and soldiers with the red pigment of ground cinnabar prior to
their expansion into Korea; she told them this would ensure their victory.
Do you know if the red clay from Tanjō was thought of in the same way,
perhaps bringing a kind of physical strength to those using it?
TY: Yes, it’s the same thing, I think. This area was and is special – every year I
learn more about it. I was recently contacted by an adult education tutor
who wanted to look around the ruins of Myōyō-ji Temple. He’d contacted
me after reading some of the material on my website and blog.13 As I said,
I have ancestral connections to the temple and go into some detail about
this on my site. This teacher also had a real passion for the place;
according to his research the site of Myōyō-ji was particularly important
for early Buddhist activity in Japan. He was explaining it had a high
probability of being established by Hōdō Sennin, a visiting monk from
India, via China and Korea. I did a little checking and found another
document in Kobe City saying, ‘The Korean monk Dodan-gyojya and a
combined crew of 250 came in boats made of copper. Some of these were
farmers, scouts, foragers, miners, labourers and medicine men. With these
followers he built the temple on Tanjō and here Buddhism first became
established. Anyway, I have no reason to doubt this teacher’s sincerity
about this site being established by a visiting monk from foreign lands.
Hōdō Sennin is thought to have established a number of monasteries
and temples in Hyōgo Prefecture, particularly in Himeji, but the stories
are sometimes difficult to confirm. In the case of Tanjō it seemed possible
 because of the mountain’s known mineral wealth. As for the document in
Kobe, Dodan-gyojya may also be possibility due to chosen skills of his
passengers and his own knowledge of bronze-working and fire gilding, etc.
There is also the connection between Tanjō, healing and medicine. This is
also an interesting question, as you had been asking me about this very
subject – longevity remedies/medicines, etc.’
AM: Had you never heard about the clay or soil of Tanjō being used as a
medicine or having medicinal properties?
TY: As I said, it was thought to have magical properties; whether it was
literally taken as a medicine I’m not sure – it’s possible. People around
these parts still have information about healing techniques; my
grandmother also had knowledge in this respect. I was telling you about a
recipe for Uiro she taught me, I think you would call it a rice-pudding
cake, well that could be one translation. It’s difficult to prepare and there
are strict rules for its use but if you follow the procedure (combined with
an initial long period of fasting), it can cure many different types of illness,
even serious types of disease or injury.
AM: Have you used this treatment on anyone?
TY: Yes, a number of people, friends, etc., I also now get asked to prepare for
others living abroad; however, the shipping of Uiro is problematic. I myself
developed diabetes (type II) and after using this method of treatment was
able to cure myself. This was something I had to do for myself before I
became confident it would cure others. I know it’s a big statement to make
but this treatment method does seem to be effective on even the most
obstinate illnesses. I call this treatment Myōyō-ji Ryohou (Myōyō-ji after
the temple and Ryohou meaning treatment).
AM: Are there any herbal/mineral ingredients used in your particular Uiro
formula?
TY: The recipe is a traditional one and the equipment is also traditional – there
are no special ingredients as such, it’s the method of preparing the rice
that makes it special. It is quite rewarding to make, to see its shape form
and know it’s been correctly prepared.
AM: So, if I understand that answer, there are some secrets to making it
correctly?
TY: If you put it like that, then yes. I cannot tell you the whole process. It is
something that is traditionally passed on from one to family member to
another. It was like that for me and my grandmother. Someday I will do
the same.
AM: I understand. Thank you for supplying a sample of the red soil for me to
analyse. I was able to submit a small amount to a laboratory here in the
UK to see what it might turn up. As you said, when a little water is added
to the dried powdered clay it quickly pastes and becomes a vibrant
vermillion colour. The EDX analysis (see below) showed this material to
contain high levels of iron oxide, aluminium silicates and carbon, with
 trace elements of titanium, aluminium and potassium; however, this
particular sample showed no signs of mercury.
TY: The sample I sent you was taken higher up on Tanjō; there are a number
of sites where the red clay can be collected, I’d heard that iron was a key
ingredient. Some areas of Tanjō are now closed to the public – I am not
sure why. There are now signs that forbid entry. There were some rumours
that someone was exploring with a view to mining, but this is not
conformed. There may be any number of reasons why this has happened,
I’m not sure. Historically Tanjō has always been fought over and will
continue to be.
AM: Thank you for your time, Mr Yamamoto. I look forward to talking more in
the future. For now, good luck in your search for more information about
this interesting location in Japan and continued success with Myōyō-ji
Ryohou.
TY: Thank you for contacting me, it was nice to be able to communicate this
information.

Tanjō sample

EDX analysis of the red clay from Tanjō ‘Nyū’ Mountain in Hyōgo Prefecture,
2012

The results of this scan were taken from a sample supplied by Mr Yamamoto in
the summer of 2012. Whilst the material did not show any traces of mercury, it
was rich in other metals and minerals, including iron as iron oxides, titanium
minerals and the expected potassium and aluminium silicates that are typical of
clay minerals. There was also a significant amount of carbon in the material,
indicating the presence of organic matter. Although this particular batch of
material showed no traces of mercury, that area in Hyogō Prefecture was
known to be an abundant source of minerals bearing the liquid metal. It is
possible that later mining activity in this area may have recovered ferrous/clay
deposits that could have appeared strikingly similar to an untrained eye. Being
in such close proximity to cinnabar it therefore might have been mistaken to be
one and the same.
It is not unlikely that this clay/soil had been used for medicinal purposes both
externally and internally. Its higher iron content may have been useful for the
building of blood/marrow in conjunction with its carbon content acting as a
catalytic agent, neutralising and absorbing toxins.

4. The Moon transits through Rohini

Nakshatra
The following three sidereal transits describe the Moon’s journey through the
27 Nakshatras (lunar mansions) over a period of approximately 27 days. Three
geographical locations were selected: the UK, India and Australia; with two
locations showing the longer transition of the Moon through Rohini Nakshatra.
This slower transition seems to confirm the mythology of Chandra lingering a
little longer with his favourite celestial bride Rohini in equatorial/southerly
skies. Even the UK transits showed Rohini Nakshatra to be second longest after
Krittika. This data demonstrates the incredible observational skills on the part
of ancient sky-watchers, who were able to delineate differences of less than
nine minutes of transiting time. This information was then encoded into the
mythos of Rohini Nakshatra.

SIDEREAL MOON TRANSITS, DORCHESTER, UK

SIDEREAL LUNAR MONTH (27 DAYS 7 HOURS 43 MINUTES AND
11.5 SECONDS)
Longitude: 2º 26′ W/Latitude: 50º 43′ N
Date Time Nakshatra Transiting
time
3/9/12 22:26:43 Ashwini 0º – 13º 20′ Aries 26:20:36
5/9/12 00:47:19 Bharani 13º 20′ – 26º 40′ Aries 26:22:09
6/9/12 03:25:28 Krittika 26º 40′ Aries – 10º Taurus 27:14:28
7/9/12 06:39:56 Rohini 10º – 23º 20′ Taurus 27:06:15
8/9/12 09:46:11 Mrigashirsha 23º 20′ Taurus – 6º 40′ 26:52:17
Gemini
9/9/12 12:38:28 Ardra 6º 40′ Gemini – 20º Gemini 26:24:03
10/9/12 15:02:31 Punarvasu 20º Gemini – 3º 20′ Cancer 25:45:18
11/9/12 16:47:49 Pushyami 3º 20′ Cancer – 16º 40′ Cancer 25:00:54
12/9/12 17:48:43 Aslesha 16º 40′ Cancer – 0º Leo 24:25:49
13/9/12 18:04:32 Magha 0º – 13º 20′ Leo 23:34:13
14/9/12 17:38:45 Purva Phalguni 13º 20′ – 26º 40′ Leo 22:59:05
15/9/12 16:37:50 Uttra Phalguni 26º 40′ Leo – 10º Virgo 22:32:11
16/9/12 15:10:01 Hasta 10º – 23º 20′ Virgo 22:14:10
17/9/12 13:24:11 Chitra 23º 20′ Virgo – 6º 40′ Libra 22:04:51
18/9/12 11:29:02 Swati 6º 40′ – 20º Libra 22:03:25
19/9/12 09:32:27 Vishaka 20º Libra – 3º 20′ Scorpio 21:48:35
20/9/12 07:41:02 Anuradha 3º 20′ – 16º 40′ Scorpio 22:18:48
21/9/12 05:59:50 Jyestha 16º 40′ Scorpio – 0º Sagittarius 22:32:35
22/9/12 04:32:25 Mula 0º – 13º 20′ Sagittarius 22:48:36
23/9/12 03:21:01 Purvashada 13º 20′ – 26º 40′ Sagittarius 23:02:01
24/9/12 02:27:02 Uttrashadha 26º 40′ Sagittarius – 10º 23:34:25
Capricorn
25/9/12 01:51:27 Sravana 10º – 23º 20′ Capricorn 23:43:55
26/9/12 01:35:22 Dhanistha 23º 20′ Capricorn – 6º 40′ 24:04:54
Aquarius
27/9/12 01:40:16 Shatabhishak 6º 40′ – 20º Aquarius 24:27:57
28/9/12 02:08:13 Purvabhadra 20º 00′ Aquarius – 3º 20′ 24:53:22
Pisces
29/9/12 03:01:35 Uttrabhadra 3º 20′ – 16º 40′ Pisces 25:21:03
30/9/12 04:22:38 Revati 16º 40′ Pisces – 0º Aries 25:50:07
1/10/12 06:12:45 Ashwini – 0º Aries –

SIDEREAL MOON TRANSITS, MUMBAI, INDIA

Longitude: 72º 50′ E/Latitude: 18º 58′ N
Date Time Nakshatra Transiting
time
4/9/12 02:56:43 Ashwini 0º – 13º 20′ Aries 26:20:36
5/9/12 05:17:19 Bharani 13º 20′ – 26º 40′ Aries 26:48:09
6/9/12 08:05:28 Krittika 26º 40′ Aries – 10º Taurus 27:04:28
7/9/12 11:09:56 Rohini 10º – 23º 20′ Taurus 27:06:15
8/9/12 14:16:11 Mrigashirsha 23º 20′ Taurus – 6º 40′ 26:52:17
Gemini
9/9/12 17:08:28 Ardra 6º 40′ Gemini – 20º Gemini 26:24:03
10/9/12 19:32:31 Punarvasu 20º Gemini – 3º 20′ Cancer 25:45:18
11/9/12 21:17:49 Pushyami 3º 20′ Cancer – 16º 40′ Cancer 25:00:54
12/9/12 22:18:43 Aslesha 16º 40′ Cancer – 0º Leo 24:15:49
13/9/12 22:34:32 Magha 0º – 13º 20′ Leo 23:34:13
14/9/12 22:08:45 Purva Phalguni 13º 20′ – 26º 40′ Leo 22:59:05
15/9/12 21:07:50 Uttra Phalguni 26º 40′ Leo – 10º Virgo 22:32:11
16/9/12 19:40:01 Hasta 10º – 23º 20′ Virgo 22:14:10
17/9/12 17:54:11 Chitra 23º 20′ Virgo – 6º 40′ Libra 22:04:51
18/9/12 15:59:02 Swati 6º 40′ – 20º Libra 22:03:25
19/9/12 14:02:27 Vishaka 20º Libra – 3º 20′ Scorpio 22:08:35
20/9/12 12:11:02 Anuradha 3º 20′ – 16º 40′ Scorpio 22:18:48
21/9/12 10:29:50 Jyestha 16º 40′ Scorpio – 0º Sagittarius 22:32:35
22/9/12 09:02:25 Mula 0º – 13º 20′ Sagittarius 22:48:36
23/9/12 07:51:01 Purvashada 13º 20′ – 26º 40′ Sagittarius 23:05:01
24/9/12 06:57:02 Uttrashadha 26º 40′ Sagittarius – 10º 23:24:25
Capricorn
25/9/12 06:21:27 Sravana 10º – 23º 20′ Capricorn 23:43:55
26/9/12 06:05:22 Dhanistha 23º 20′ Capricorn – 6º 40′ 24:04:54
Aquarius
27/9/12 06:10:16 Shatabhishak 6º 40′ – 20º Aquarius 24:27:57
28/9/12 06:38:13 Purvabhadra 20º Aquarius – 3º 20′ Pisces 24:53:22
29/9/12 07:31:35 Uttrabhadra 3º 20′ – 16º 40′ Pisces 25:21:09
30/9/12 08:52:38 Revati 16º 40′ Pisces – 0º Aries 25:50:07
1/10/12 10:42:45 Ashwini – 0º Aries –

SIDEREAL MOON TRANSITS, DARWIN, AUSTRALIA

Longitude: 130º 50′ E/Latitude: 12º 28′ S
Date Time Nakshatra Transiting
time
1/10/12 14:42:45 Ashwini 0º – 13º 20 Aries 26:18:36
2/10/12 17:01:21 Bharani 13º 20′ – 26º 40′ Aries 26:43:42
3/10/12 19:45:03 Krittika 26º 40′ Aries – 10º Taurus 27:01:56
4/10/12 22:46:59 Rohini 10º – 23º 20′ Taurus 27:09:45
6/10/12 01:56:44 Mrigashirsha 23º 20′ Taurus – 6º 40′ 27:04:29
Gemini
7/10/12 05:01:13 Ardra 6º 40′ Gemini – 20º Gemini 26:45:08
8/10/12 07:46:21 Punarvasu 20º Gemini – 3º 20′ Cancer 26:12:48
9/10/12 09:59:09 Pushyami 3º 20′ Cancer – 16º 40′ Cancer 25:30:36
10/10/12 11:29:45 Aslesha 16º 40′ Cancer – 0º Leo 24:42:52
11/10/12 12:12:37 Magha 0º – 13º 20′ Leo 23:54:19
12/10/12 12:06:56 Purva Phalguni 13º 20′ – 26º 40′ Leo 23:09:03
13/10/12 11:15:59 Uttra Phalguni 26º 40′ Leo – 10º Virgo 22:30:15
14/10/12 09:46:14 Hasta 10º – 23º 20′ Virgo 22:00:01
15/10/12 07:46:15 Chitra 23º 20′ Virgo – 6º 40′ Libra 21:39:22
16/10/12 05:25:37 Swati 6º 40′ – 20º Libra 21:28:41
17/10/12 02:54:18 Vishaka 20º Libra – 3º 20′ Scorpio 21:27:36
18/10/12 00:21:54 Anuradha 3º 20′ – 16º 40′ Scorpio 21:37:27
18/10/12 21:57:21 Jyestha 16º 40′ Scorpio – 0º Sagittarius 21:51:04
19/10/12 19:48:25 Mula 0º – 13º 20′ Sagittarius 22:13:02
20/10/12 18:01:27 Purvashada 13º 20′ – 26º 40′ Sagittarius 22:39:46
21/10/12 16:41:13 Uttrashadha 26º 40′ Sagittarius – 10º 23:09:36
Capricorn
22/10/12 15:50:49 Sravana 10º – 23º 20′ Capricorn 23:40:57
23/10/12 15:31:46 Dhanistha 23º 20′ Capricorn – 6º 40′ 23:47:29
Aquarius
24/10/12 15:44:17 Shatabhishak 6º 40′ – 20º Aquarius 24:43:17
25/10/12 16:27:34 Purvabhadra 20º Aquarius – 3º 20′ Pisces 25:12:34
26/10/12 17:40:08 Uttrabhadra 3º 20′ – 16º 40′ Pisces 25:39:55
27/10/12 19:20:03 Revati 16º 40′ Pisces – 0º Aries 27:05:05
28/10/12 21:25:08 Ashwini – 0º Aries –
Note: All data for these tables compiled using Sri Jyoti Star software.

It appears that the ancients had some understanding of the Moon’s somewhat
erratic orbit: its slow transition through some Nakshatras, whilst in others it
appeared to hasten.14 In time these motions became encoded into the myths
and legends of the lunar monthly transit in the skies.
 Appendix 2
CATALOGUE OF MATERIALS AND
THEIR USE

Note: Over the course of history the identity of some rasa materials has been
lost to us; wherever that is the case I’ve highlighted the items with an asterisk.

TABLE TEMPLATE

English English name(s)

   

Sanskrit Sanskrit name(s)

   

CCM Classical Chinese Medicine equivalents

   

Tibb Unani/Tibb equivalents

   

Chemical Breakdown of chemical formula

formula
 
 
Hardness Mohs hardness scale

   

Quality Qualitative descriptions of each material

   

Purification Associated materials used for shodhana

   

Calcinations Size of puṭa; number of puṭa required to convert to bhasma

   

Amṛītakarana Final purification procedures which add extra potency and

render potentially toxic elements safe for human
  consumption; also called nectarisation

Anupāna Vehicle of delivery

   

Attributes Energetics and effects on VPK

   

Taste The six tastes

   

Post- Post-digestive effect

digestive
 
 
Dynamics Heating or cooling effects

   

Dosage A guide to dosage (suggested)

   

Treatment of Commonly prescribed conditions

   

Visha Signs of poisoning due to improper processing

   

Anti-visha Treatment(s) to counteract poisoning

   

Information Essential background information about each specific

material
 
 

Note: Not all fields are relevant and have been deleted wherever appropriate.

Terminology: The concept of VPK (Vāta/Pitta/Kapha) is an integral part of Rasa

Shāstra, particularly in understanding the actions of certain ingredients.
Wherever possible the English equivalents have been used, but in places the
original Sanskrit terms have been left, as they better convey the energetics of
the material concerned.

1. MERCURY
  

English Mercury, Hydrargyrum, Quicksilver

   

Sanskrit Pārada, Rasendra, Chapala, Rasa Raja and Rasa (all synonyms
of Shiva are also acceptable)
 
 

CCM Dān

   

Tibb Simab, Para, Rasa

   

Chemical Hg
formula
 
 

Quality Deep blue in colour in its centre and a bright white out toward
its periphery and without imperfections. Mercury should have
  the ability to digest and assimilate other metals and minerals.
Discoloured, yellowing, pale or smoky examples should not be
used for medicinal ends

Purification Garlic juice, betel leaf juice, triphala decoction, bhringaraj

decoction, brick dust, turmeric, lemon juice
 
 

Anupāna Dependent upon formulation

    

Taste All six tastes

   

Dynamics VPK, yoga vāhin, rasāyana, general tonic, destroys parasites,

heals all wounds, extends life and cures all disease
 
 

Treatment Pārada (mercury) mixed with Gandhaka (sulphur) forms

of Kajjali,1 the base ingredient for many if not most rasa
preparations
 
 

Visha Skin disease, burning sensations, impotency, lethargy, vomiting,

bloody stools, digestive pains, abdominal bloating, vertigo,
  collapse, coma and death

Anti-visha Sulphur, goat’s milk, raw eggs, ghee and raw cow’s milk

   

1 See Section 7 in Part III for more information about Kajjali.

2. MERCURIC SULPHIDE
 

English Mercuric Sulphide

    

Sanskrit Kajjali

   

Chemical HgS
formula
 
 

Quality Yoga vāhin

   

Anupāna Betel leaf, milk, honey or sugar. Generally, sweet and oily foods
are increased when taking this medicine; sour and salty foods
  are minimised due to the heating nature of Kajjali

Information Kajjali is a base ingredient of rasa formulae containing mercury.

The sulphur content of this mixture is essential in allowing the
  full therapeutic energetic of the mercury to interact with the
bodily tissues. Although not commonly prescribed alone, there
are cases when Kajjali may be recommended as a rasāyana to
counteract the effects of ageing

Maha Rasa

3. MICA
  

English Mica, Muscovite (white), Biotite (black)

   

Sanskrit Abhraka, Girijabija, Gagana, Vajra, Koku, Akashagarbha

   

CCM Bái Yŭn Mü

   

Tibb Abhraq, Kabubulars

   

Chemical KAl2 (AlSi3O10) (F,OH)2 (muscovite)

formula K(MgFe)3(AlSi3)O10(OHF)2 (biotite)

   

Hardness Mus = 2.0–2.5/Bio = 2.5/3.0

   

Quality Mica should be dark (black), heavy, clear and hard. Sheet
should be wide and easily separated. Sheet should be
  thermally stable in fire. Mica is rasāyana, gives strength,
promotes good vision, improves metabolic function and
increases longevity

Purification Triphala decoction, castor oil, turmeric, milk

   
Calcinations 30–100 (gaja puṭa)

   

Amṛītakarana Triphala decoction and ghee

   

Anupāna Honey, milk or ghee

   

Attributes Unctuous

   

Taste Sweet

   

Dynamics Cold

   

Dosage 125–250mg

   

Treatment of Jaundice, chronic diarrhoea, dysentery, leprosy, fever, asthma,

diabetes, loss of appetite, abdominal disease, cough,
  anaemia, tuberculosis, diabetes (all types), gastritis, reduced
vision, piles, heart disease, vertigo, colic pain and urticaria

Visha Toxic if improperly purified and prepared. Impure mica is said

to aggravate the stomach like the fur of a tiger. Aggravates
  Vāta/Kapha, piercing pains, lowers agni and promotes
intestinal parasites
  

Anti-visha Turmeric

   

4. FLUORITE
 

English Fluorite (clear), Blue John (violet), Derbyshire Spar, Fluorspar

   

Sanskrit Vaikrānta, Kuvajra, Jīrna Vajraka

   

CCM Yíng Shí

   

Chemical CaF2
formula
 
 

Hardness
4.0
 
 

Quality Fluorite, feldspar and tourmaline, preferably clear without

blemishes and octahedral (see also tourmaline as an Uparatna)
 
  

Purification Lemon juice, sulphur

   

Calcinations 8 (gaja puṭa)

   

Anupāna Milk or honey

   

Attributes VPK, promotes longevity, complexion and strength, increases

agni and intellect. Called the monarch of Rasa Shāstra,
  Vaikrānta makes the body like Vajra (diamond)

Taste All six tastes

   

Post- Sweet
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Cold

   

Dosage 125–250mg

   

Treatment Fever, skin disease, poisons/anti-oxidants, anaemia, asthma,

of bronchitis, diabetes, urinary infections and abdominal
disorders
 
 

5. COPPER PYRITE
 

English Chalcopyrite, Copper Pyrite

   

Sanskrit Swarna Maksika, Tapija, Tapya, Garuda, Paksi, Brhadvarna

   

CCM Huâng Tông Kuâng

   

Tibb Suvarnamakshika

   

Chemical CuFeS2
formula
 
 

Hardness 3.5–4.0

   

Quality Preferably Swarna (with golden flecks). Surface should be

shiny and radiating with a black tinge. A bronze-looking
   variety (Kansya) is also acceptable

Purification Triphala decoction, castor oil, lemon juice, rock salt, sulphur,
kulatha decoction or juice of banana plant
 
 

Calcinations 10–14 (gaja puṭa)

   

Amṛītakarana Kidaram root, Suran (elephant yam)

   

Anupāna Milk, honey or ghee

   

Attributes −P −K, rasāyana, yoga vāhin

   

Taste Bitter/sweet

   

Post- Pungent
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Cold

   
Dosage 125mg

   

Treatment of Eye disease, piles, abdominal diseases, anaemia, skin disease,

tuberculosis, loss of taste, fistula, loss of appetite and
  digestive disorders

Visha Constipation, impairment of vision/eye disease, swelling of

abdomen, skin diseases (carbuncles) and loss of appetite
 
 

Anti-visha Kulatha decoction or pomegranate juice, sulphur

   

6. IRON PYRITE
 

English Iron Pyrite, Fool’s Gold

   

Sanskrit Vimala, Tara Vimala, Raupya Maksika

   

CCM Huâng Tië Kuâng

   

Tibb Raupya Maksika

    

Chemical FeS2
formula
 
 

Hardness 6.0–6.5

   

Quality Tara (containing silver). Vimala has similar properties to

Swarna Maksika, but lower potency. Its effect upon dosha is
  also slightly modified

Purification Castor oil, lemon juice, sour orange, rock salt, sulphur, vasā
decoction, banana leaf juice
 
 

Calcinations 10–12 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey

   

Attributes −V −P

   

Taste Bitter/sweet

   
Post- Pungent
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Cold

   

Dosage 125–250mg

   

Treatment Eye disease, piles, abdominal diseases, anaemia, skin disease,

of tuberculosis, loss of taste, fistula, loss of appetite and digestive
disorders
 
 

Visha Constipation, anaemia, impairment of vision/eye disease,

swelling of abdomen, skin diseases (carbuncles) and loss of
  appetite

Anti-visha Kulatha decoction or pomegranate juice

   

7. BITUMEN
 

English Bitumen, Asphaltum

   
Sanskrit Shilajit, Adrija, Shilajit, Asmaja, Giriniryasa, Suryathapi, Sila
Sveda and Girija
 
 

Tibb Shilajit, Hajrul Musa, Momiai Faqrul Yahud

   

Chemical Varied – iron, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, aloin, fulvic and

formula humic acids

   

Quality Different grades of Shilajit are associated with different metals:

Swarna (gold), Roupya (silver), Tamra (copper), Loha (iron),
  Nāga (lead) and Vanga (tin). Loha grade is said to be the most
therapeutic in value. Shilajit should be black, soft and heavy,
having a smell reminiscent of cow’s urine

Purification Hot water, triphala decoction, milk

   

Calcinations No heating required. However, it has been mentioned that a

preparation of Shilajit combined with Haritāla and Manah Shila
  is subjected to kapota puṭa.

Anupāna Warm milk

   

Attributes VPK, makes the body like a stone, strong rasāyana for kidneys
and urinary system, also yoga vāhin
 
  

Taste Pungent, bitter

   

Post- Pungent
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Hot

   

Dosage 500mg–1g (Caraka Saṃhitā recommends a dosage of 12g per

day)
 
 

Treatment Kidney stones, urinary calculi, rasāyana for kidneys, high Vāta,
of high blood sugar, asthma, piles, nausea, leprosy, growths,
cough and oedema, Shilajit is chedana in action (pulls toxins
  from deep tissues)

Visha Inflammation of the joints, vertigo, constipation and loss of

appetite, and internal haemorrhaging
 
 

Anti-visha Milk and ghee with black pepper administered for 7 days

   
 8. COPPER SULPHATE
 

English Copper Sulphate, Blue Vitriol

   

Sanskrit Sasyaka, Hemasara, Mayuraka, Tamaragarbha, Amritasanga,

Sikhigriva, Tuttha
 
 

CCM Liú Suān Tóng

   

Tibb Nila Thotha, Zajul Akhsar, Tobal Mis

   

Chemical CuSO4 (copper sulphate) Cu5FeS4 (bornite)

formula
 
 

Hardness
3.0
 
 

Quality Two types of Sasyaka are available: artificially produced

(copper sulphate) and naturally occurring (bornite)
 
 

Purification Borax, sulphur, lemon juice, triphala decoction, cow’s urine

    

Calcinations 4–8 laghu (copper sulphate), 8–12 gaja (bornite)

   

Amṛītakarana Ghee and honey

   

Anupāna Milk, honey or butter

   

Attributes rasāyana (highly recommended by Caraka)

   

Taste Pungent, astringent

   

Dynamics Hot and light (−P −K)

   

Dosage 75–125mg

   

Treatment of Poisoning, diseases of the eye, heart disease, vertigo, leprosy,

gastritis, consumption, vomiting, skin disease, ulcers, itching,
  diabetes, piles and rasāyana

Visha Vomiting, diarrhoea, vertigo, reduction of tissues, reduction

of ojas
    

Anti-visha Lemon or lime water, water of fried paddy rice for 3 days,
sulphur
 
 

9. BISMUTH SULPHIDE*

English Bismuth Sulphide, Bismuthinite, Bismuth Glance

   

Sanskrit Chapala, Shaila, Rasaraj Sahay

   

CCM Huî Bì Kuâng

   

Chemical Bi2S3
formula
 
 

Hardness 2.0–2.5

   

Quality Goura (yellow), swetha (white), krishna (black), rakta (red) –

yellow and white used mainly for the solidification of mercury
  in alchemical practices

 
Purification Triphala decoction, lemon juice, ginger juice or kanji

   

Calcinations None

   

Anupāna Unknown

   

Attributes Strengthens body tissues, aphrodisiac

   

Taste Bitter, sweet

   

Dynamics VPK, unctuous, heavy, purgative. Chapala is mostly used in

mercurial operations as a fixative and heat-stabilising agent
 
 

Dosage Unknown

   

Treatment Obesity, excess mucus, fevers, tuberculosis, gonorrhoea and

of menorrhagia

   

 
 10. CALAMINE
 

English Calamine, Smithsonite

   

Sanskrit Rasaka, Kharpara, Reetikrita, Tamraranjaka, Netraogari,

Yasada Karana
 
 

CCM Líng Xîn Kuâng

   

Tibb Kharpara, Sange Basari

   

Chemical (Fe,Mn)ZnCO3
formula
 
 

Hardness
4.5
 
 

Quality Dardura (fibrous and layered), Karavellaka (crystalline,

compact and without layers). Karavellaka is considered
  therapeutically more beneficial

 
Purification Cow’s urine, butter milk, horse urine, lemon juice or kanji

   

Calcinations Only to prepare ZnO

   

Anupāna Honey, ghee or aloe gel

   

Attributes Rasāyana for the lungs

   

Taste Pungent, astringent

   

Dynamics Cold and light, −P −K

   

Dosage 125–250mg

   

Treatment Tuberculosis, eye disease, diabetes, anaemia, chronic fever,

of asthma, menstrual disorders, diarrhoea, consumption, excess
bleeding of the uterus, skin disease, abscesses, excessive
  hiccups, urinary disorders, leprosy, chronic pyrexia and
trachoma

Visha See zinc

   
Anti-visha Cow’s urine or kanji

   

Uparasa

11. SULPHUR
 

English Sulphur, Sulfur

   

Sanskrit Gandhaka, Gandupashana, Keetaghna, Pamari, Shulvari, Bali,

Keetanashana, Sulvari, Puti Gandha and Sugandhika
 
 

CCM Liú Huáng

   

Tibb Gandhak, Kibreet

   

Chemical S
formula
 
 

Hardness 1.5–2.5
    

Quality Red (used mostly in gold-making), yellow (highest medicinal

value), white (external use only) and black (toxic)
 
 

Purification Warm milk, ghee, aloe gel, onion juice or bhringaraj decoction

   

Calcinations None

   

Anupāna Milk, ghee

   

Attributes Bonds with mercury, purifies metals except iron, also found in
egg, carrot, garlic, onion, milk, blood, bile
 
 

Taste Pungent

   

Post- Sweet
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Hot, −V −K, yoga vāhin

   

Dosage 125–250mg
    

Treatment Skin diseases, itching, leprosy, loss of appetite, excess mucus

of formation, āma, intestinal parasites, fevers, digestive disorders
and mercury poisoning
 
 

Visha Skin diseases, vertigo, burning pain and reduced strength

   

Anti-visha Ghee and milk

   

12. RED IRON OXIDE

 

English Iron Oxide, Hematite, Red Ochre, Limonite

   

Sanskrit Gaireeka, Raktadhatu, Girija, Dhātu, Raktapashana, Giri Mrt,

Loha Dathu, Giri Mrdbhava
 
 

CCM Chî Tië Kuâng

   

Tibb Gerumitti, Gil-e-surkh, Teen-i-rumi

    

Chemical Fe2O3
formula
 
 

Hardness 5.5–6.5

   

Quality Swarna Gaireeka (gold/soft) and Pashana Gaireeka (hard

stone). Swarna has the higher medicinal qualities
 
 

Purification Milk

   

Calcinations May be calcined with Kumārī (aloe) gel in an open crucible

   

Anupāna Milk, honey or kanji

   

Attributes Builds rakta (blood)

   

Taste Sweet and astringent

   

Post- Astringent
digestive
    

Dynamics Cold/astringent

   

Dosage 750mg–1.5g

   

Treatment Poisoning, snakebite, vomiting, impaired vision, abdominal

of bloating, cardio tonic, itching, anaemia, boils, urticaria, pustule
eruptions, stomatitis, sores and ulcers, burns, piles and
  bleeding

13. FERROUS SULPHATE

 

English Ferrous Sulphate, Green Vitriol, Copperas

   

Sanskrit Kasisa, Khechara, Khanga, Pamsuka, Puspa Kasisa

   

Tibb Hira Kasis, Tutiya-e-Sabz

   

Chemical FeSO4•7H2O
formula
 
  

Hardness
2.0
 
 

Quality Vālukā (sand coloured), Pushpa (green/artificial)

   

Purification Lemon juice, bhringaraj or triphala decoction

   

Calcinations 4 (Varaha)

   

Anupāna Honey and triphala churna

   

Attributes Builds rakta (blood)

   

Taste Astringent, sour

   

Dynamics Hot, −V −K

   

Dosage 125–250mg
    

Treatment Poisoning, skin diseases, tuberculosis, kidney stones, painful

of urination, falling or greying hair, falling teeth, excess Pitta.
Builds blood, strengthens liver and spleen, useful in cases of
  anaemia and leucoderma, prolapsed rectum and uterus

Visha See Iron

   

Anti-visha Triphala, ghee and honey

   

14. ALUM
 

English Potassium Aluminium Sulphate, Alum, Potash Alum, Kalanite

   

Sanskrit Kanksi, Saurastri (originally mined in Saurastri/North Gujarat),

Sphatika1 (rock crystal)
 
 

CCM Bái Fán

   

Tibb Phitkari, Shibb-e-Yamani, Gulabi Phitkari (pink alum)

    

Chemical KAl(SO4)2•12H2O
formula
 
 

Hardness 2.0–2.5

   

Quality Kanksi (white), Fatkadi (red ferric alum)

   

Purification Heating and hydration. Alum can also be triturated with bile
from a cow and then hydrated (this method is favoured in
  mercurial solidification practices)

Anupāna Rosewater, sugar, water or honey

   

Attributes Hot

   

Taste Sweet, sour and astringent

   

Post- Sweet
digestive
 
 
Dynamics VPK

   

Dosage 250–500mg

   

Treatment Poisons, animal/insect bites, leucoderma, bleeding gums,

of malaria, stomatitis (inflammation of the mouth and gums),
prolapsed rectum/uterus, scabies, ulcers, eye diseases (drops),
  epilepsy and cracked skin

1 Sphatika is used to identify a number of materials, including clear quartz,

calcite and alum crystals.

15. ARSENIC TRISULPHIDE

 

English Arsenic Trisulphide, Orpiment

   

Sanskrit Haritāla, Tala, Ala, Talaka, Natabhooshana, Pinjaka, Pita,

Lomahrita, Malla Gandhaja
 
 

CCM Cî Huâng

   
Tibb Hartal Warql, Zirnikh-e-Zard

   

Chemical As2S3
formula
 
 

Hardness 1.5–2.0

   

Quality Golden colouration, heavy and oily

   

Purification Kushmanda (ash pumpkin) juice, lime water, kanji, sesame oil,
sesame (ksara) ash-water, triphala decoction, lemon juice,
  borax

Calcinations Haritāla bhasma can be prepared; however, it is usually heated

between sheets of mica and the resulting crystals are
  powdered

Anupāna Honey and ghee or milk

   

Attributes Patra (layered leaves), Pinda (no layers) and Tabaki (artificial).
Patra is considered the medicinal grade
 
 

Dynamics Hot, −V −K (+P). All Pitta-increasing foods and lifestyle should

   be avoided whilst taking this remedy

Dosage 10–20mg

   

Treatment Pitta skin diseases, gout, leprosy, piles, fistula, asthma,

of poisoning, persistent cough and high fevers

   

Visha Vomiting, burning sensations, deep pains, diarrhoea, skin

eruptions and darkening of fingernails
 
 

Anti-visha Fennel seeds, garlic, sulphur (purified), ground cumin mixed

with raw cane sugar, kushmanda juice, goat’s milk sweetened
  with jaggery

16. ARSENIC DISULPHIDE

 

English Arsenic Disulphide/Realgar/Rahj al ghar (mine powder)

   

Sanskrit Manah Shila, Nāga Jihva, Nāga Mata, Kunnati, Manogupta,

Manohvā, Shila, Gola, Nāga Jihvika
 
 
CCM Xióng Huâng

   

Tibb Hartal Tabqi, Zirnikh-e-Surkh

   

Chemical As2S2
formula
 
 

Hardness 1.5–2.0

   

Quality Vermilion colouration and powdery, like a yellowish Hiṅgula

(cinnabar)
 
 

Purification Lime water, ginger juice, agastya (Sesbania grandiflora) leaf

juice, Harītakī (Terminalia chebula) decoction, or bhringaraj
  decoction

Calcinations None

   

Anupāna Ghee and honey

   

Attributes Syamangi (yellow/red and heavy), Kanaviraka (coppery),

Khandakhya (powdery and vermilion in colouration). Of these
   three grades Khandakhya is considered to have the highest
medicinal value

Taste Bitter and pungent

   

Dynamics Hot

   

Dosage 10–20mg

   

Treatment Skin disease, intestinal parasites, fever, gout, leprosy, chronic

of bronchitis, chronic fever, bronchial asthma, itching, anaemia,
tuberculosis and improves eyesight
 
 

Visha Vomiting, burning sensations, deep pains, diarrhoea, skin

eruptions and darkening of fingernails
 
 

Anti-visha Milk sweetened with honey, raw goat’s milk

   

17. ANTIMONY SULPHIDE*

English Antimony Sulphide, Stibnite, Antimony Glance, Grey Antimony,

Antimonite
    

Sanskrit Anjana,1 Sauvira, Krsnanjana

   

CCM Huî tî Kuâng

   

Tibb Surma, Sang-e-Surma, Sang-e-Basri

   

Chemical Sb2S3
formula
 
 

Hardness 2.0–2.5

   

Quality Srotonjana2 and Souviranjana,3 Rasanjana,4 Nilanjana5 and

Pushpanjana6
 
 

Purification Bhringaraj or triphala decoction, lemon/lime juice

   

Calcinations 8 (laghu)

   

Anupāna Honey or rice water

    

Attributes Rasāyana

   

Taste Sweet and astringent

   

Dynamics Cold, heavy and unctuous

   

Dosage 125mg

   

Treatment Obesity, improves vision, anti-visha, chronic bronchitis, toxic

of blood, ulcers, rakta Pitta (bleeding disorders), vomiting and
general rasāyana
 
 

1 Anjana is a broad term used to describe different materials used for the
prevention of eye diseases in the form of topical application.
2 Srotonjana is thought to be a sulphide of antimony (stibnite), described as
being smoky grey in colour.
3 Souviranjana is also thought to be a sulphide of antimony with inclusions of
arsenic, lead and silver.
4 Rasanjana is thought to be the yellow oxide of mercury.
5 Nilanjana (galena) is a sulphide of lead described as silver/blue in
colouration. Galena is commonly used as Kohl (eye makeup), used for both
healing and decorative purposes. For more information see Mason, A.
(2012) The Art of Vedic Alchemy Volume 4. Dorchester: Netera publishing.
6 Pushpanjana is commonly thought to be zinc oxide, alum or a plant extract.

 
 18. GALENA
 

English Lead Sulphide, Galena, Blue Lead

   

Sanskrit Nilanjana

   

CM Fâng Qiân Kuâng

   

Tibb Surma, Kajal, Krishna Surma

   

Chemical PbS
formula
 
 

Hardness 2.0–2.5

   

Purification Lemon juice or bhringaraj decoction

   

Anupāna Tandulodaka (water from washed rice)

   
Attributes Heavy and oily, −VPK (antimony substitute used in Kohl/Khul
cosmetic)
 
 

Taste Sweet and astringent

   

Dynamics Cold, heavy and unctuous

   

Dosage 125mg

   

Treatment Eye diseases (collyrium), ulcers, stops internal haemorrhaging

of and rasāyana. Mostly used in external applications

   

19. MALABAR TAMARIND*

English Malabar Tamarind, Garcinia cambogia

   

Sanskrit Kankushta, Recaka, Varanga, Kolavaluka

   

Quality Nilika (yellow, heavy and unctuous), Renuka (yellow/black and

light), Swetha (white and liquid). Nilika is thought to have the
  most medicinal power
  

Purification Sunthi (ginger powder)

   

Calcinations None

   

Attributes Strong purgative

   

Taste Bitter, pungent

   

Dynamics Hot

   

Dosage 75–125mg

   

Treatment Mucus build-up, abdominal bloating, colic, skin diseases, piles,

of fistula, water retention, weight loss and enlargement of the
spleen
 
 

Visha Avoid betel leaf juice in conjunction with this remedy

   

Anti-visha Babul root (decoction of Acacia arabica) mixed with Tankana

(borax) and jeeracam (Cuminum cyminum)
    

Sadharana Rasa

20. MONKEY FACE FRUIT

 

English Fruit of Monkey Faced Tree, Mallotus philippensis

   

Sanskrit Kampilla, Kampillaka, Rajanaka

   

Purification Water, juice of matulunga (Citrus medica)

   

Calcinations None

   

Anupāna Honey, milk, curd or yoghurt

   

Dynamics Hot, purgative

   

Dosage 250mg
    

Treatment Anti-fungal, kills parasites (worms), skin diseases, boils, piles,

of fistula, constipation and excess of phlegm

   

21. ARSENIC TRIOXIDE

 

English Arsenic Trioxide, White Arsenic, Asenolite

   

Sanskrit Gauri Pashana, Malla, Somala, Mooshak, Sambala, Dara Musa,

Mallaka
 
 

Tibb Sankh Visha, Sammulfar, Sankhiya

   

Chemical As2O3
formula
 
 

Hardness 1.5–2.0

   

Quality White, unctuous, semi-transparent and heavy

   
Purification Karawella (Momordica charantia), milk

   

Calcinations None

   

Anupāna Honey or ghee

   

Attributes Hot, −V −K (+P). All Pitta-increasing foods and lifestyle should

be avoided whilst taking this remedy
 
 

Taste Pungent

   

Dynamics Hot, −V −K

   

Dosage 1–2mg

   

Treatment Asthma, bronchitis, consumption, leprosy, weakness, fever, ring

of worm, itching, carbuncles, anaemia, bronchial asthma, malaria,
fever, enlargement of the spleen, filaria, rheumatism, skin
  disease, scorpion bite, heart disease, general swellings, cancer
and aphrodisiac

Visha Vomiting, burning sensations, deep pains, diarrhoea, skin

eruptions and darkening of fingernails
    

Anti-visha Goat’s milk, ghee or honey

   

22. AMMONIUM CHLORIDE

 

English Ammonium Chloride, Sal Ammoniac

   

Sanskrit Navasadar, Nara Sara, Navasadara

   

Tibb Armina, Noshadar

   

Chemical NH4Cl
formula
 
 

Quality Artificially manufactured, can be made from the ash of Peelu

(Salvadora oleiodes) and Karira (Capparis decidua) trees
 
 

Purification Boiling water

   
Calcinations None

   

Anupāna Honey or ghee

   

Dosage No set dosage imposed

   

Treatment Mouth ulcers, heart disease, eye disease, poisoning,

of headaches, strong acid reflux, liver disease, enlarged spleen,
fever, rakta Pitta, bone fractures, bites, poisoning and bleeding
  gums

23. COWRIE SHELLS

 

English Cowrie Shell, Cowry

   

Sanskrit Kapardika, Charachara, Kapardaka, Varatika, Varata

   

Chemical CaCO3
formula
 
 
Quality Yellow, white and brown shells; yellow variety has the greatest
therapeutic effects
 
 

Purification Vinegar, milk, bhringaraj decoction, kanji

   

Calcinations 4 (laghu)

   

Anupāna Hot water, lemon water or buttermilk, topically applied as a

paste with lemon juice
 
 

Taste Pungent

   

Dynamics Hot, −V −K

   

Dosage 250–500mg

   

Treatment Fever, headaches, removal of growths, cough, dislocations,

of heart disease. Improves digestion, beneficial for eyesight,
removes urinary stones, prevents cataracts, improves vision
  and hearing, hyperacidity, peptic ulcer and cures tuberculosis

 
 24. AMBERGRIS
 

English Ambergris, Ambra grasea

   

Sanskrit Agnijara, Vahnijara, Ambar, Tundamaya

   

Tibb Kahrabaa, Misbah al-Room

   

Quality Waxy and opaque, with a strong odour. Colour varies from
white, grey, grey-brown and light yellow, often seen with black
  spots upon its surface

Purification Salt water (prolonged exposure to sea water)

   

Calcinations None

   

Anupāna Honey, ghee or milk

   

Attributes Highly aromatic

   
Taste Pungent

   

Dynamics VPK

   

Dosage No set dosage imposed

   

Treatment Tetanus, high Vāta, poor digestion and appetite, coldness,

of colitis, convulsions, paralysis and stabbing pains and disorders
of the CNS, head and brain
 
 

25. MERCURIC OXIDE

 

English Red Mercuric Oxide

   

Sanskrit Giri Sindoora, Girisiaduram

   

Chemical HgO
formula
 
 

Purification Ginger juice, water

    

Calcinations None

   

Anupāna Honey

   

Attributes Heavy red fine powder. Generally Nāga Sindoora is used in its
place (see Red Lead)
 
 

Dynamics VPK, purgative

   

Dosage 25–50mg

   

Treatment External wounds, skin infections/disease, poisoning, leprosy,

of eye disease, digestive dysfunction, ulcers, herpes and chronic
itching, weakness and infirmity of limbs, general rasāyana
 
 

Visha See Mercury

   

Anti-visha Betel juice with honey, milk, ghee or sulphur

   
 26. CINNABAR
 

English Cinnabar, Dragon’s Blood, Chinese Red, Vermilion

   

Sanskrit Hiṅgula, Darada, Mlechcha, Chitranga, Rakta, Hingola, Curna

Pārada, Ranjana
 
 

CCM Zhū Shâ

   

Tibb Hingul, Sinjiraph

   

Chemical HgS
formula
 
 

Hardness 2.0–2.5

   

Quality Should be red like the feathers on a parrot’s head. Can be

made artificially by heating 1 part mercury to 4 parts sulphur
  and subjecting to high heat resulting in a red oxide of mercury

Purification Ginger juice, goat’s milk, lime/lemon juice, kanji

    

Calcinations None required, although there are Unani methods for

obtaining its bhasma
 
 

Anupāna Honey, betel leaf juice

   

Attributes Powerful rasāyana

   

Taste Pungent

   

Dynamics Hot, VPK, rasāyana

   

Dosage 25–50mg

   

Treatment Weakness and debilitation, leprosy, removes all dosha, anti-

of ageing, rasāyana, impotency, diabetes, skin diseases, high
fever, rheumatism, chronic rhinitis, hepatitis and splenomegaly
 
 

Visha Vertigo, urinary disorders, blindness, fatigue, fainting

   

Anti-visha Borax in water, betel juice with honey, milk or ghee

    

27. LEAD MONOXIDE

 

English Lead Monoxide, Massicot, Litharge

   

Sanskrit Mrddara Śrnga

   

Tibb Murdar Sang, Usrab, Seesha, Sufaida

   

Chemical PbO
formula
 
 

Hardness 3.0–4.0

   

Quality Pita (yellow), Pitapandura (yellow/white), Kritrima (artificial).

Of these, Pita is considered to be the most medicinal
 
 

Purification Lemon or ginger juice, salt water

   
Calcinations None

   

Anupāna Honey

   

Attributes Cold

   

Dynamics −V −K, rasāyana

   

Dosage None recommended (usually for external use only)

   

Treatment Greying hair, improves fertility, slow-healing fractures, falling

of of hair, eczema, scabies, external ulcers and syphilitic sores

   

28. LEAD TETROXIDE

 

English Red Lead, Minium

   

Sanskrit Nāga Sindoora, Nagaja, Nagagarbha, Mangalya

    

CCM Qiān Dān

   

Tibb Murdar Sang

   

Chemical Pb3O4
formula
 
 

Hardness 2.0–3.0

   

Purification Lemon or lime juice; sometimes no purification is undertaken

   

Anupāna Ghee, beeswax or butter

   

Dynamics Hot

   

Dosage To suit (mostly for external use), Chinese medicine does specify
internal dosages at 30–60mg not to exceed 1mg or be
  administered for more than a few days (high risk factor of lead
poisoning)

 
Treatment Eczema, bone fractures, ulcers, herpes, scabies, leprosy,
of swellings, inflammation and ringworm

   

Visha Lethargy, skin disease, stiff joints/arthritis, jaundice, oedema,

depression, erratic sleep patterns, inflammation of the brain,
  seizures and coma

Anti-visha Swarna bhasma (gold) and Harītakī with goat’s milk

   

Dhātu

29. GOLD
 

English Gold

   

Sanskrit Swarna, Suvarama, Kanaka, Hiranya, Hema, Hataha, Tapaniya,

Satakumba, Kanchana, Chamikara, Hataka
 
 

Tibb Swarna, Tila

   
Chemical Au
formula
 
 

Purification Sesame oil, curd, cow’s urine, kanji and kulatha, kanchanara
decoction (Bauhinia variegata), saffron and purified mercury
 
 

Calcinations 12–15 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey, ghee or buttermilk

   

Taste Sweet, astringent and bitter

   

Dynamics VPK, increases ojas, strongly rasāyana for the immune system

   

Dosage 10–25mg

   

Treatment Tuberculosis, diminished eyesight, skin complexion, heart

of disease, low immunity, diabetes, debility, senility, low
intelligence, low vitality, fertility issues, improves digestion,
  assimilation and taste

Visha Reduces strength, fertility and intellect

    

Anti-visha Warm milk with saffron

   

30. SILVER
 

English Silver

   

Sanskrit Rajata, Roupya, Tara, Chandra, Kaladhatu, Chandi, Rupa

   

Tibb Rajat, Nuqra, Fizza, Chandi

   

Chemical Ag
formula
 
 

Purification Sesame oil, curd, cow’s urine, kanji and kulatha, agastya
(Sesbania grandiflora), Snuhi (Euphorbia ligularis) and purified
  mercury

Calcinations 12–15 (Gaja)

    

Anupāna Honey or milk

   

Taste Sour and astringent

   

Post- Sweet
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Cold, −P −V +K, rasāyana

   

Dosage 50–75mg

   

Treatment Madness, stomach disorders, vertigo, intoxication, senility,

of diabetes, debility, cardiac ailments, piles and anaemia.
Improves appetite, reduces weight
 
 

Visha Reduces strength, stomach disorders, loss of appetite, diabetes

   

Anti-visha Goat’s milk sweetened with honey

   
 31. COPPER
 

English Copper

   

Sanskrit Tamra, Shulva, Bhaskar, Mleccha, Vaktra, Nagamatha,

Ravibriya, Rataka, Surya Loha
 
 

Tibb Nuhas, Tamba

   

Chemical Cu
formula
 
 

Purification Rock salt, lemon/lime juice, kanji, Hiṅgula (cinnabar),

Gandhaka (sulphur)
 
 

Quality Nepalaka (from Nepal, reddish and resistant to heating),

Mleccha (white or blackish, causes vomiting). Nepalaka is
  considered the best for the preparation of medicines

Calcinations 12–15 (Varaha)

   

Amṛītakarana Kidaram root, Suran, elephant yam

    

Anupāna Honey

   

Taste Astringent and bitter

   

Post- Sweet
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Hot, −P −K, anti-bacterial

   

Dosage 50–100mg

   

Treatment of Anaemia, abdominal disease, piles, fever, leprosy, cough,

asthma, oedema, hyperacidity, consumption, catarrh,
  parasitic infections (worms), colic, obesity, poisoning,
diseases of the eye, liver disorders, gastritis and colic pain

Visha Loss of strength, poor complexion, vertigo, painful urination,

pain in abdomen, vomiting and even death
 
 

Anti-visha Sulphur, goat’s milk and honey

   
 32. IRON
 

English Iron

   

Sanskrit Loha, Lauha

   

Tibb Hadida, Faulad, Ahna

   

Chemical Fe
formula
 
 

Quality Iron is of three kinds: Kanta (highest grade), Tikshna (medium

grade) and Munda (low grade). Kanta oxides (having a
  magnetic quality) are of 5 types. Tikshna is a high-resistant
grade of 5 types and Munda is a brittle iron of 3 types. For a
full breakdown of these subcategories see ‘2. Types of iron’ in
Appendix 2

Purification Triphala decoction, lemon/lime juice, milk, sesame oil, curd,

cow’s urine, kanji and kulatha method. Cow’s urine is also used
  in the purification/conversion of iron

Calcinations 30–60–100 (Gaja). 100 is recommended

    

Anupāna Honey, triphala churna or ghee

   

Taste Bitter and sweet

   

Post- Sweet
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Cold, heavy, −P −K, blood rasāyana

   

Dosage 75–175mg

   

Treatment Leprosy, abdominal disease, enlarged spleen/liver, dysentery,

of anaemia, colic pain, consumption, intestinal parasites,
impaired vision, obesity, diabetes, rakta dhātu disorders, low
  vitality and fertility issues

Visha Diseases of the skin, heart disorders, impotency, constipation

and burning sensation in the digestive tract
 
 

Anti-visha Ghee, goat’s milk, triphala churna

   
 33. RUST OF IRON
 

English Iron

   

Sanskrit Mandura, Kitta, Loha Mala, Loha Bhava

   

Tibb Manduram, Zang-e-Ahana, Khabsul Hadeed, Lohe Ka Zang

   

Chemical Fe2O3
formula
 
 

Quality Mandura (rust) should be over 100 years in age, or obtained

from iron sheets heated, beaten and cooled many times, then
  allowed to oxidise. Rust is also graded by source: Kanta (best),
Tikshna (medium) and Munda (lowest); see Iron table for more
information

Purification Triphala decoction, lemon/lime juice, milk, cow’s urine

   

Calcinations 10–12 (Gaja)

   
Anupāna Honey, triphala churna

   

Taste Astringent

   

Post- Sweet
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Cold, −P −K

   

Dosage 50–250mg

   

Treatment Childhood anaemia, intestinal parasites, jaundice, abdominal

of disease, enlarged spleen/liver, dysentery, colic pain, diabetes,
bleeding piles, menorrhagia
 
 

34. TIN
 

English Tin

   

Sanskrit Vanga, Ranga, Pichchata, Trapusa, Kutila, Ranya, Sukraloha

   and Trapu

Tibb Vanga, Qalai

   

Chemical Sn
formula
 
 

Quality Khuraka (Jersey Tin), Mishraka (Commercial Tin), Krishna

(Black Tin) not used for medicine
 
 

Purification Nirgundi (Vitex negundo), Apamarga (Achyranthus aspera),

turmeric, milk, sesame oil, curd, cow’s urine, kanji, kulatha,
  lime water, aloe vera juice

Calcinations 12–15 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey, cream, milk, betel leaf juice

   

Taste Bitter

   

Dynamics Cold

   
Dosage 75–125mg

   

Treatment Brain dysfunction/lowered intelligence, skin disease, fever,

of burning sensations, anorexia/emaciation, senility, diabetes,
infertility, premature ejaculation, diabetes, piles and urinary
  disorders

Visha Diabetes, anaemia, swellings, urinary disorders, kidney stones,

abdominal bloating, piles, skin disease
 
 

Anti-visha Warm goat’s milk with turmeric and honey

   

35. LEAD
 

English Lead

   

Sanskrit Nāga, Seesa, Kurana, Kuuvanga, Sisaka, Sindoorakara,

Kuranga
 
 

Tibb Nāga, Sisa

   
Chemical Pb
formula
 
 

Quality Kumara (quick melting, heavy, black and shiny, foul-smelling

upon heating) and Samala (contaminated with other metals,
  melts slowly, light coloured). Kumara is considered to be of
medicinal quality.

Purification Nirgundi (Vitex negundo), Apamarga (Achyranthus aspera),

turmeric, milk, sesame oil, curd, cow’s urine, kanji, kulatha,
  lime water, aloe vera juice

Calcinations 12–15 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey

   

Taste Sweet, bitter

   

Dynamics Hot, heavy, −V −K

   

Dosage 50–125mg

   

Treatment Diabetes, rheumatism, digestive disorders, piles, poisoning,

of skin disease, abdominal bloating, IBS, gives bala (strength to
tissues)
 
 

Visha Diabetes, skin disease, arthritis, jaundice, oedema and

tuberculosis
 
 

Anti-visha Swarna bhasma (gold) and Harītakī with goat’s milk

   

36. ZINC
 

English Zinc, Spelter

   

Sanskrit Yasada, Jashada, Ritihetu, Kharparaja

   

Tibb Putty, Jist, Tutiya

   

Chemical Zn
formula
 
 

Quality Yasada (zinc extracted from calamine), Puspanjana (oxide of

   strongly heated zinc)

Purification Lime leaves, cannabis leaves, opium leaves

   

Calcinations 5–7 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey

   

Taste Bitter

   

Dynamics Cold, −P −K

   

Dosage 75–125mg

   

Treatment Diabetes, asthma, eye disease, skin disease, reproductive and

of urinary disorders

   

Visha Abdominal distension, diabetes, urinary disorders, skin

diseases, consumption and loss of appetite
 
 
Anti-visha Bala (Sida cordifolia), Harītakī (Chebulic myroblan) and
jaggery
 
 

37. BRASS
 

English Brass (Cu: 3 parts, Zn: 2 parts)

   

Sanskrit Pittala, Pittalasa, Ritika, Aarakuta, Kapiloha

   

Quality Ritika (turns red upon heating), Kakatundi (turns black upon
heating). Ritika is considered to have the greater therapeutic
  value

Purification Nirgundi (Vitex negundo), turmeric, aloe vera gel, Manah Shila
and Gandhaka
 
 

Calcinations 6–8 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey

   
Taste Bitter

   

Dynamics Cold and drying, yogavahi. Can be warmed in application by

combining its bhasma with heating herbs
 
 

Dosage 60–125mg

   

Treatment Ritika variety: intestinal parasites, anaemia, blood disorders

of and diseases of the skin. Kakatundi variety: hepatitis, −P −K,
enlargement of both liver and spleen, lekana in action (cleans
  and scrapes)

38. BRONZE
 

English Bronze (Cu: 8 parts, Sn: 2 parts)

   

Sanskrit Kansya, Kansyaka, Ghoshaka and Vahniloha

   

Quality Pushpaka (brighter, with higher tin content), Tailika (dull with
more yellow colouration)
 
 
Purification Cow’s urine, kulatha decoction, Gandhaka and Haritāla, lemon
juice, Pancha Lavaṇa (5 salts)
 
 

Calcinations 6–8 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey

   

Taste Bitter and pungent

   

Dynamics Hot, −V −P

   

Dosage 60–125mg

   

Treatment Intestinal parasites, blood disorders, skin diseases, obesity,

of poor digestion and diseases of the eyes

   

Visha Bronze is thought to be toxic if taken in conjunction with

mercurial medicines; even eating with implements and plates
  made of bronze is ill-advised while taking Pārada

Anti-visha All foods are recommended to be stored in containers of

bronze, except ghee. This metal imparts health to stored goods
    

39. TRI-LOHA (3 METALS)

English Alloy of three metals (25 parts Gold, 16 parts Silver and 10
parts Copper)
 
 

Sanskrit Tri-Loha

   

Quality As gold

   

Purification Nirgundi (Vitex negundo), Apamarga (Achyranthus aspera),

turmeric, milk, sesame oil, curd, cow’s urine, kanji and kulatha,
  lime water and aloe vera juice

Calcinations 12–15 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey, ghee, trikatu1 and triphala

   

Taste Sweet and sour

   
Dynamics Hot, rasāyana, increases longevity

   

Dosage 125mg

   

Treatment Heart disease, low immunity, senility, low intelligence, low

of vitality, fertility issues, poor digestion, assimilation and loss of
taste
 
 

1 Trikatu: black pepper (Piper nigrum), long pepper (Piper longum) and dried
ginger (Zingiber officinalis).

40. VARTA LOHA (5 METALS)

English Alloy of five metals (1:1 Bronze, Copper, Lead, Brass and Iron),
also called Bell Metal
 
 

Sanskrit Varta Loha, Pancha Loha, Pasloha1

   

Quality Coarse

   

Purification Horse urine, lemon juice, Haritāla, Gandhaka

    

Calcinations 6–8 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey

   

Taste Pungent and sour

   

Dynamics Cold, −P −K

   

Dosage 125mg

   

Treatment Skin diseases, reduced vision, insufficient digestive power,

of intestinal parasites, constipation, urinary disorders and
promotes bala (physical strength)
 
 

1 In Sri Lanka, Pasloha can also be five metal strands wound into bracelet
form to be worn for negative astral protection.

Ratna

 
 41. RUBY
 

English Ruby/Corundum

   

Sanskrit Maanikya, Padma Raga, Ravi Ratna, Lohita

   

CCM Hóng Bäo Shí

   

Tibb Yaqoot Surkh, Sona Ratna

   

Chemical Al2O3
formula
 
 

Hardness
9.0
 
 

Quality Padmaraga (white/red, lustrous and resembling the colouration

of the lotus), Kuruvindaja (similar type of corundum, deep red
  in colour), Saugandhaka (usually found with spinel, having a
yellow/red colouration), Nilagandhi (turbid red/blue, obtained
from river beds). Padmaraga is considered to have the highest
medicinal quality.

 
Purification Lemon/lime juice, rosewater, orpiment, realgar, sulphur, rock
salt and lotus seed decoction
 
 

Calcinations 8–10 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey, milk or musk

   

Taste Sweet

   

Dynamics −V −P, oily

   

Dosage 125–175mg

   

Treatment Brain disorders, digestive weakness, tuberculosis, heart

of disease, reproductive disorders, toxins and psychic
disturbances
 
 

42. PEARL
 

English Pearl
    

Sanskrit Mukta, Chandraratna, Jeevaratna, Muktaphala, Sasi Ratna,

Muktaphala
 
 

CCM Zhēn Zhū

   

Tibb Mauktika, Moti

   

Chemical CaCO3
formula
 
 

Purification Rosewater, milk, kanji, bhringaraj decoction (Eclipta alba),

buttermilk, yoghurt
 
 

Calcinations 3–4 (Varaha)

   

Anupāna Milk, butter, cream, jaggery

   

Dynamics Cooling, −V −P

   

Dosage 50–75mg
    

Treatment Diminished eyesight, excessive cough, poisoning, impaired

of digestion, inflammation, asthma, general debility, fevers,
stomach disorders, bone disorders, heart disease, asthma and
  bronchitis

43. CORAL
 

English Coral

   

Sanskrit Pravala, Vidruma, Lathamani, Ambhodhivallabha,

Sagargarbhakeeta, Bhauma Ratna, Kuja Ratna
 
 

Chemical CaCO3
formula
 
 

Quality Red is preferable to white, grey and black varieties

   

Purification Kanji, milk, aloe vera juice, rosewater (pisti)

   

Calcinations 3–4 (laghu)

    

Anupāna Milk, butter, cream, jaggery

   

Taste Sweet and astringent

   

Dynamics Cold

   

Dosage 125–250mg

   

Treatment Diminished eyesight, bleeding disorders, cough, poisoning,

of impaired digestion, nervous disorders, fevers, tuberculosis,
blood disorders, excessive sweating and nourishes tissues
 
 

44. EMERALD
 

English Emerald

   

Sanskrit Tarksya, Marakata, Panna, Buddha Ratna, Harita Ratna

   
Tibb Zamrud, Zammarrud, Harid Ratna

   

Chemical Al2O3 (Oriental Emerald) – Beryl (Be3Al2(SiO3)6)

formula
 
 

Hardness 7.5–8.5

   

Quality Deep green, free of blemishes

   

Purification Lemon/lime juice, rosewater, orpiment, realgar, sulphur, rock

salt, triphala decoction, milk and lotus seed decoction
 
 

Calcinations 8–10 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey

   

Dynamics VPK, increases ojas

   

Dosage 100–175mg

   
Treatment Fever, poisoning, vomiting, asthma, piles, anaemia, oedema,
of digestive problems, immune dysfunction, diseases of the CNS,
general debility and senility
 
 

45. TOPAZ
 

English Topaz/Corundum

   

Sanskrit Pushparaga,1 Guru Ratna

   

CCM Huâng Yù

   

Tibb Yaqoot, Afsar, Yaqoot Zard

   

Chemical Al2SiO4(F,OH)2
formula
 
 

Hardness
8.0
 
 
Quality Pushparaga (dense pale yellow), kaurantaka (deep yellow/red),
kaṣāya (transparent yellow/red). Pushparaga is of the highest
  medicinal value

Purification Lemon/lime juice, rosewater, orpiment, realgar, sulphur, rock

salt and lotus seed decoction
 
 

Calcinations 8–10 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey and ghee

   

Dynamics −V −K

   

Dosage 100–175mg

   

Treatment Poisoning, vomiting, skin disease, digestive imbalance, reduces

of burning sensations, improves appetite, removes heaviness and
inflammation from limbs, aphrodisiac
 
 

1 Yellow sapphire is sometimes called Pushparaga because of its use as an

astrological gemstone for Guru (planet Jupiter; see Part V).

 
 46. DIAMOND
 

English Diamond

   

Sanskrit Hiraka, Vajra, Kulisa, Bhidura, Hira, Shukra Ratna

   

CCM Jîn Gân Shí

   

Tibb Vajra, Heera

   

Chemical C
formula
 
 

Hardness 10

   

Purification Lemon/lime juice, orpiment, realgar, sulphur, rock salt, triphala

decoction and kulatha decoction
 
 

Calcinations 10–12 (Gaja)

   
Anupāna Ghee and milk, cream or jaggery

   

Dynamics Yoga vāhin

   

Dosage 5–10mg

   

Treatment Cancer, tumours, AIDS, autoimmune disorders, diabetes,

of anaemia, impotency, diminished eyesight, learning disorders,
urinary infections, skin diseases, oedema and consumption
 
 

Visha Skin diseases, heart pains, burning sensations, vertigo, chest

pains
 
 

Anti-visha Milk sweetened with jaggery

   

47. SAPPHIRE
 

English Blue and Yellow Sapphire/Corundum

   

Sanskrit Nilama, Nila Ratna, Maha Nila, Shani Ratna

    

CCM Iân Bäo Shí

   

Chemical Al2O3
formula
 
 

Hardness
9.0
 
 

Quality Indranila (deep blue/purple), Jalanila (whiteish/blue)

   

Purification Lemon/lime juice, rosewater, orpiment, realgar, sulphur, rock

salt and lotus seed decoction
 
 

Calcinations 8–10 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey or milk

   

Dynamics VPK

   
Dosage 100–175mg

   

Treatment Arthritis, brain dysfunction, −V −P diseases, tuberculosis,

of infertility, skin diseases, consumption, poisons, general debility
and improves agni
 
 

48. GARNET
 

English Hessonite, Garnet, Cinnamon Stone

   

Sanskrit Gomeda, Pinga Spatika, Rahu Ratna, Tamo Mani

   

Chemical Ca3Al2(SiO4)3
formula
 
 

Hardness
7.5
 
 

Quality Should resemble the colour of cow’s fat or urine

   
Purification Lemon/lime juice, rosewater, orpiment, realgar, sulphur, rock
salt, triphala decoction and lotus seed decoction
 
 

Calcinations 8–10 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey or sweetened milk

   

Dynamics −P −K

   

Dosage 100–175mg

   

Treatment Digestive disorders, learning difficulties, anaemia, fever, skin

of diseases, loss of taste and consumption

   

49. CHRYSOBERYL
 

English Chrysoberyl, Cat’s Eye, Alexandrite

   

Sanskrit Vaiduryam, Marjakanetra, Lahasuniya, Ketu Ratna, Viduraja,

Vayaja
    

Chemical BeAl2O4
formula
 
 

Hardness
8.5
 
 

Quality The best examples are a light golden brown colouration,

resembling milk and honey. Alexandrite examples displaying a
  red-to-green colouration are also highly prized

Purification Lemon/lime juice, rosewater, orpiment, realgar, sulphur, rock

salt, triphala decoction and lotus seed decoction
 
 

Calcinations 8–10 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey or sweetened milk

   

Taste Sweet

   

Dynamics Cold, −P

   
Dosage 100–175mg

   

Treatment Heart disease, brain functioning, diseases of the blood,

of constipation, general debility, senility and enhanced longevity

   

Uparatna

50. AGATE
 

English Red Agate, Chalcedony

   

Sanskrit Akika, Rudhirapalanka

   

CCM Mänäo

   

Tibb Aqeeq Surkh

   

Chemical SiO2
formula
    

Hardness 6.5–7.0

   

Quality Deep unblemished blood red/vermilion

   

Purification Lemon/lime juice, rosewater, sulphur and rock salt, bhringaraj

decoction, milk, lotus seed decoction and Reetha (soap nut)
 
 

Calcinations 7–8 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey, milk or butter

   

Dynamics Cold, dry

   

Dosage 125–250mg

   

Treatment Heart disease, internal bleeding, infertility, insanity,

of menorrhea, general debility, urinary calculi, weakness of gums
and teeth and jaw
 
 
 51. SUNSTONE1

English Sunstone, Orthoclase Feldspar

   

Sanskrit Suryakanta, Agnigarbha, Suryopala, Suryamani

   

CCM Rì Cháng Shí

   

Tibb Suryamani, Vahni Garbha, Jvalanopala

   

Chemical KAlSi3O8 traces FeO3

formula
 
 

Hardness 6.0–7.0

   

Quality Red and yellow colouration, appearing like burning coals

   

Purification Rock salt, rosewater, sulphur, realgar, lemon/lime juice, lotus

seed decoction
 
 
Calcinations 7–8 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey

   

Dynamics Hot, −V −K

   

Dosage 125–250mg

   

Treatment of Brain dysfunction, poor digestion, VK imbalances and senility

   

1 Sunstone is part of the Feldspar group of minerals. In Sri Lanka red spinel
is used to substitute sunstone or red coral in Nava Ratna jewellery. The
Spinel group of minerals is a mix of magnesium and aluminium.

52. MOONSTONE
 

English Moonstone, Orthoclase Feldspar

   

Sanskrit Chandrakanta, Chandramani, Chandropala, Sasi Kanta, Indu

Kanta
    

CCM Yuè Cháng Shí

   

Chemical KAlSi3O8 opalescent

formula
 
 

Hardness 6.0–7.0

   

Quality Lustrous and oily, looking like moonlight on water

   

Purification Rock salt, rosewater, sulphur, realgar, aloe vera juice, lotus
seed decoction
 
 

Calcinations 7–8 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey

   

Dynamics Cold, −P

   

Dosage 125–250mg
    

Treatment of Digestive disorders, heart disease, fever, blood diseases and

Pitta imbalances
 
 

53. LAPIS LAZULI

 

English Lapis Lazuli, Lazurite

   

Sanskrit Rajavarta, Nilasma, Avarta Mani, Lajavarda

   

Tibb Lajward

   

Chemical 3(NaAlSiO4)•Na2
formula
 
 

Hardness
5.5
 
 

Quality Without white contamination, deep peacock blue and heavy

    

Purification Lemon/lime juice, cow’s urine, sulphur, bhringaraj decoction

   

Calcinations 7–8 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey, milk or butter

   

Taste Pungent, bitter

   

Dynamics Cold, −V −K, rasāyana

   

Dosage 50–175mg

   

Treatment Consumption, diabetes, anaemia, insanity, blood disorders,

of piles, poor digestion, urinary disorders, tuberculosis, asthma,
brain dysfunction, vomiting, high Pitta conditions and promotes
  feelings of wellbeing

54. JADE
 
English Jade, Jadeite, Loin Stone

   

Sanskrit Sangeyasab, Vyomāshma, Bhimapashana

   

CCM Yìng Yù

   

Tibb Sang-e-Yasara

   

Chemical NaAl(Si2O6)
formula
 
 

Hardness 6.5–7.0

   

Quality −K

   

Purification Lemon/lime juice, rosewater, orpiment, realgar, sulphur and

rock salt, triphala decoction, milk and lotus seed decoction
 
 

Calcinations 8–10 (Gaja)

   
Anupāna Honey, milk or butter

   

Taste Sweet

   

Dynamics Heart and blood rasāyana

   

Dosage 125–250mg

   

Treatment Heart disease, stomach disorders, gastric pain, dysentery,

of urinary calculi, internal wounds/bruising, internal bleeding,
infertility, colic pain, gastric pain and dysentery
 
 

55. TURQUOISE
 

English Turquoise

   

Sanskrit Pirojaka, Peroja

   

Chemical CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8•4(H2O)
formula
    

Hardness
6.0
 
 

Quality Without white contamination, deep green/blue and heavy

   

Purification Lemon/lime juice, cow’s urine, sulphur, bhringaraj decoction

   

Calcinations 7–8 (Gaja)

   

Amṛītakarana Kidaram root, Suran (elephant yam)

   

Anupāna Honey, milk or butter

   

Taste Sweet and astringent

   

Dynamics Cold

   

Dosage 50–175mg
    

Treatment of Eye disease, poor digestion, poisoning, renal calculi,

duodenal ulcers, heart disease (palpitations), constipation
  and learning difficulties

56. TOURMALINE
 

English Tourmaline, Schorl

   

Sanskrit Vaikrānta, Kuvajra, Curna Vajra, Jīrna Vajraka

   

Chemical (Na,Ca)(Mg,Fe2+,Al,Li)3B3(Al,Fe3+)6O27(OH,F)4
formula
 
 

Hardness 7.0–7.5

   

Quality Swetha (white – silver-making), Pita (yellow – gold-making),

rakta (red – healing), Nila (blue), Paravataprabha (pigeon
  grey), Syamala (brown), Krishna (black – longevity) and
Marakata (emerald-coloured – healing). Black is considered
best for bhasma; grey, brown and blue have lesser actions.
Tourmaline was also known to score metal (cut) and
agglutinates with impurities in molten iron to form slag
  

Purification Salt water, kulatha decoction, lemon/lime juice, orpiment,

realgar and sulphur
 
 

Calcinations 7–8 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Milk and honey

   

Dynamics VPK. Tourmaline has all six tastes, can be used in place of
diamond and it is a powerful rasāyana
 
 

Dosage 125–250mg

   

Treatment Skin diseases, anaemia, fever, ascites (abdominal disease),

of asthma, bronchitis, tuberculosis, weakness of the lungs,
urinary disorders including diabetes and promotes physical
  strength

Visha Diseases of the skin and anaemia

   

Anti-visha Kulatha decoction and ghee

   
 57. AMBER
 

English Amber, Copal

   

Sanskrit Kaharuba, Trinakanta, Trnakanta Mani

   

CCM Hŭ Pò

   

Hardness 2.0–2.5

   

Quality Lemon yellow; when rubbed on silk fabric should smell like
lemons
 
 

Purification Rosewater

   

Calcinations None required

   

Anupāna Honey, milk or cream

    

Taste Sweet

   

Dynamics Neutral and drying, heart and brain tonic

   

Dosage 75–150mg

   

Treatment Blood circulation, dysentery, heart disease, bleeding piles,

of menorrhea, internal bleeding, gastro-intestinal weakness,
sensitive stomach, nervous disorders, menorrhagia
 
 

58. QUARTZ
 

English Clear Quartz

   

Sanskrit Spatika, Shiva Ratna, Amala Mani, Dhātu Śāli, Sphatikopala

   

CCM Shí Yîng

   
Chemical SiO2
formula
 
 

Hardness
7.0
 
 

Quality Clear, bright, free from blemishes

   

Purification Lemon/lime juice, rosewater, sulphur and rock salt, kulatha

decoction
 
 

Calcinations 7–8 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Honey and ghee

   

Taste Sweet

   

Dynamics Cold, −P

   

Dosage 125–250mg
    

Treatment of General debility, blood disorders, high fever, burning

sensations, internal bleeding
 
 

59. SERPENTINE
 

English Serpentine, Magnesium Silicate

   

Sanskrit Nāga Pashana, Nagasma

   

Tibb Zeher Mohra

   

Chemical Mg3Si2O5(OH)4
formula
 
 

Hardness 3.0–4.0

   

Purification Salt water, rosewater

   
Anupāna Milk or cream

   

Dynamics Hot, dry, anti-visha, rasāyana

   

Dosage 125–500mg

   

Treatment Heart disease, learning difficulties, tonic, snake bite, poisoning,

of vomiting, weakness and general debility

   

Miscellaneous

60. SODIUM BORATE

 

English Sodium Borate, Borax, Tinkal

   

Sanskrit Tankana, Tanga, Ranga, Saubhagya, Loha Shodhana

   
CCM Péng Shā

   

Tibb Suhaga, Tinkar

   

Chemical Na2B4O7•10H2O
formula
 
 

Hardness 2.0–2.5

   

Quality Pure white crystal mass

   

Purification Heating and dehydration

   

Calcinations None

   

Anupāna Honey/water

   

Attributes Anti-visha

   

Taste Pungent
    

Dynamics Hot, −V −K, fluxing agent for metals

   

Dosage 75–125mg

   

Treatment of Nervous disorders, fever, asthma, bronchitis, itching, ulcers

and bleeding
 
 

61. PEACOCK FEATHER

 

English Peacock Feather, Pavo, Indian Peafowl

   

Sanskrit Mayūr Piccha, Mayura Piccha, Mayura Pankha, Sikhi, Sikhandi,

Kalapi
 
 

Chemical CaCO3
formula
 
 

Quality Brightly coloured ‘eye’ tail feathers and spines

   
Purification Ghee, honey and aloe vera gel

   

Calcinations 1 (20–30 cow dung cakes)

   

Anupāna Ghee, Pippali and honey

   

Attributes Anti-visha

   

Taste Bitter

   

Dynamics Hot, −V −K

   

Dosage 125–250mg

   

Treatment Poisoning, chronic bronchitis, asthma, chronic hiccups,

of breathing difficulties, general weakness of the lungs (rasāyana)
and chronic colitis
 
 

62. JEW’S STONE

 
English Lime Silicate, Jew’s Stone, Fossil Encrinites

   

Sanskrit Badarasma

   

Tibb Sang-e-Yahood, Hajrul Yahood

   

Chemical CaSiO3
formula
 
 

Purification Salt water, rosewater, aloe vera gel, Arka latex (Calotropis
gigantea) and sandalwood water
 
 

Calcinations 3–4 (Gaja); some texts advise its use as a pisti

   

Anupāna Butter, ghee, warm water, traditional wines, rosewater

   

Dynamics Cold

   

Dosage 500mg–1g

   
Treatment Polycystic kidney disease, kidney stones and renal calculi,
of snake poisoning, skin diseases, itching and high Pitta
conditions
 
 

63. LODESTONE
 

English Magnetite, Lodestone

   

Sanskrit Kanta Pashana, Chamak

   

CCM Cí Tiě Kuàng, Ci Shi

   

Chemical Fe3O4
formula
 
 

Hardness 5.5–6.5

   

Quality Pita (yellow – Brahma), krsna (black – Vishnu) and rakta (red –
Shiva). Yellow variety is used in Lohasiddhi, black variety is
  best for rasāyana and red variety is best for use in mercurial
operations

 
Purification Rock salt, triphala decoction, aloe vera, lemon juice, Gandhaka,
ghee
 
 

Calcinations 7–8 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Milk sweetened with honey

   

Taste Bitter

   

Dynamics Cold, VPK, rasāyana

   

Dosage 125–250mg

   

Treatment Anaemia, consumption, obesity, parasitic infestation, oedema,

of diseases of the liver and spleen, heart disease, nervous system
disorders, nephritis, leucorrhoea, diabetes, colic, dysentery,
  piles, fistula, jaundice and parasitic infestation

64. ASBESTOS
 
English Asbestos (silicates), Actinolite, Crysotile

   

Sanskrit Kauseyasma

   

Purification Salt water, aloe vera gel, rosewater

   

Calcinations 7–8 (Gaja); some texts advise its use in pisti form

   

Anupāna Milk or honey

   

Dynamics Cooling, improves circulation

   

Dosage 125–250mg

   

Treatment Gum disease, diabetes, anaemia, urinary disorders, burning

of sensations, blood disorders, insufficient sweating, pyorrhoea
and epilepsy
 
 

65. BEZOAR STONE

  

English Gallstone (of cow), naturally occurring stones massing in the

animal’s gastrointestinal system, specifically the gallbladder or
  stomach

Sanskrit Gorochana

   

Tibb Hazrul Bahr, Pedaru Bazara, Fad Zeher Hewani

   

Purification Rosewater

   

Calcinations 4 (Varaha)

   

Anupāna Milk

   

Dynamics Cooling

   

Dosage 125mg

   

Treatment Poisoning, pain, stress, heart palpitations. Preserves

of pregnancy, prevents miscarriage
    

66. DEER HORN

 

English Deer Horn/Antelope Horn (calcium phosphate)

   

Sanskrit Mrga Śrnga, Harina Śrnga, Ena Śrnga, Mrga Vishanaka,

Krishna Mrigam
 
 

Tibb Qarn-ul-Aiyal, Sankh Gozan Sokhta

   

Chemical Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 with (CaCO3)

formula
 
 

Purification Kanji, milk, Katura Murunga (Sesbania grandiflora), Arka

(Calotropis gigantea) or aloe vera gel
 
 

Calcinations 4 (Gaja). Black bhasma is high in phosphate and white bhasma

high in calcium.
 
 

Anupāna Butter, milk or ghee

    

Dynamics Hot, −K

   

Dosage 250–500mg

   

Treatment Heart disease, pleurisy, eye disease, pain in the sides of the
of chest, sinus problems, migraine, cough, chronic hiccups

   

67. DEER MUSK

 

English Musk (Moschus moschiferus), Siberian Deer (musk gland/pod)

   

Sanskrit Kastūrī, Mriganābhi, Mringnaphā

   

CCM She Xiang

   

Tibb Mushk

   
Purification Drying in sunlight

   

Anupāna Honey or Makara Dwaja

   

Taste Acrid, aromatic

   

Dynamics −VK, pungent, heating, sharp and drying

   

Dosage 75–150mg

   

Treatment Eyes (improves vision), aphrodisiac (increases sperm count),

of inflammation/diseases of the mouth, reduces vomiting, rakta
Pitta (bleeding), skin diseases, nerve debility (paralysis),
  poisoning and general rasāyana

Visha Initially heating (eventually drying), headache, places strain

upon the heart, memory loss, yellows skin in excessive use.
  Kastūrī long-term becomes less heating with age but more
drying in nature

Anti-visha The heat of Kastūrī is reduced by camphor (Kapura) oil,

rosewater and bamboo salt (Vaṃśalocana)
 
 
Note: Kasturīmrig (Siberian Deer) is currently an endangered species.

Sudha Varga (Calcium Carbonate) animal

68. CONCH SHELL

 

English Conch Shell

   

Sanskrit Shankha, Kambu, Sunada, Dirgha Nada, Kamboja

   

Chemical CaCO3
formula
 
 

Quality Shankha is a composition of calcium carbonate, iron,

magnesium, phosphate and sulphate
 
 

Purification Kanji, milk, bhringaraj decoction

   

Calcinations 4 (Gaja)
    

Anupāna Warm water or lime juice, triphala decoction or the juice of

Nimbu (medicinal lemons)
 
 

Dynamics Cold

   

Dosage 125–250mg

   

Treatment Indigestion, IBS, diarrhoea, gastritis, duodenal ulcer, eye

of disease (cataract), lung disease, peptic ulcer and ear
discharges
 
 

69. EGGSHELL
 

English Eggshell

   

Sanskrit Kukkutanda Tvak

   

Tibb Bezae Murgh

   
Chemical CaCO3
formula
 
 

Purification Saline water (rock salt and Nara Sara), lemon juice or
bhringaraj decoction. Milk (grey bhasma), Kumārī (aloe vera)
  gel for a whitish bhasma. Other methods include the combined
use of Kukkutanda and Hiṅgula to produce Syama Varna
Bhasma

Anupāna Honey, ghee or butter

   

Dynamics VPK, builds asthi dhātu

   

Dosage 125–250mg

   

Treatment Osteoporosis, sciatica, asthma, leucorrhoea, bronchitis,

of diarrhoea, rickets, arthritis, fractured bones and arthritic joints

   

70. CUTTLEFISH BONE

 

English Cuttlefish Bone

    

Sanskrit Samudra Phena

   

CCM Hăi Piāo Xiāo

   

Tibb Kafe Darya

   

Chemical CaCO3
formula
 
 

Purification Salt water, lemon juice

   

Anupāna Milk

   

Dynamics VPK, builds asthi dhātu

   

Dosage 250–500mg

   

Treatment Osteoporosis, mineral and silica deficiency, low phosphoric acid,

of fractured bones, arthritic joints and earache
    

71. MOTHER OF PEARL

 

English Mother of Pearl

   

Sanskrit Sukti, Shuktika, Toutika, Durnama, Dirghakoshika, Muktamata,

Maha Sukti
 
 

CCM Zhēn Zhū Mǔ

   

Tibb Sadaf Sadiq

   

Purification Kanji, milk, bhringaraj decoction and lemon juice

   

Calcinations 3–4 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Warm water, lemon juice, ghee or honey

   
Dynamics Cold, Mukta Sukti (pearl-bearing oyster), Jala Sukti (edible
oyster). Of these two variations Mukta Sukti is considered
  preferable and more potent

Dosage 125–500g

   

Treatment Colic, urinary stones, asthma, heart disease, fever, impaired

of digestion, poisoning and diseases of the spleen

   

72. GOAT BONE

 

English Goat Bone (usually femur)

   

Sanskrit Ajasthi

   

Tibb Bakri

   

Chemical CaCO3
formula
 
 
Purification Aloe vera gel, milk, vinegar

   

Calcinations 3–4

   

Anupāna Honey or milk

   

Dynamics −V, improves agni

   

Dosage 250–500mg

   

Treatment Osteoperosis, rickets, pregnancy/early childhood calcium

of deficiencies, falling hair and teeth and inflammation of gums

   

Sudha Varga (Calcium Carbonate) mineral

73. GYPSUM
 

English Gypsum, Alabaster, Calcium Sulphate

    

Sanskrit Godanti Haritāla, Godantika, Godanta

   

CCM Shí Gâo

   

Tibb Godanti Haritāla

   

Chemical CaSO4•2H2O
formula
 
 

Hardness 1.5–2.0

   

Purification Hot water, Katumba (Leucas cephalotes) or Nimbu (medicinal

lemon juice), Kumārī (aloe vera) gel
 
 

Calcinations 3–4 (Gaja)

   

Anupāna Milk or honey

   

Dynamics Cooling, −P
    

Dosage 500mg–1g

   

Treatment Lung disease, asthma, anaemia, tuberculosis, rickets, low

of calcium, high fever, burning sensations, diarrhoea and
dysentery, rickets and osteoporosis
 
 

74. CALCITE
 

English Calcite

   

Sanskrit Surama Sapheda

   

CM Fâng Jië Shí

   

Chemical CaCO3
formula
 
 

Hardness 2.5–3.0

   
Purification Hot water, aloe vera juice

   

Calcinations 4 Gaja puṭa

   

Anupāna Milk or honey

   

Dynamics Cold, −P

   

Dosage 250–500mg

   

Treatment Fevers, diarrhoea, excessive thirst, anaemia, calcium

of deficiencies, lung disease, rickets and osteoporosis

   

75. CHALK
 

English Chalk

   

Sanskrit Khatika, Khantini, Lekhanamrittika, Khati, Shukladhatu

    

Tibb Gil-e-Safed, Vilayati Churna

   

Chemical CaCO3
formula
 
 

Purification Water

   

Anupāna Milk or water, usually taken in the form of Katikadi Churna (a

mixture of chalk, herbs and sugar)
 
 

Taste Sweet and bitter

   

Post- Sweet
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Cold, −P. Green-coloured chalk is useful in cases of diarrhoea

   

Dosage 125–250mg

   

Treatment Burning sensations, excessive bleeding, wounds, over-acidic

of conditions, reduces Kapha dosha, internal and external bleeding
and diseases of the eye
 
 

76. LIMESTONE
 

English Quicklime, Slaked Lime

   

Sanskrit Sehunda

   

Tibb Chuna, Ashak, Aahak, Kilsa, Nura

   

Chemical CaO quick lime, Ca(OH)2 hydrated lime

formula
 
 

Purification Water

   

Anupāna Lime water diluted with milk

   

Dynamics Strong anti-acid and anti-poison effects

    

Dosage To suit

   

Treatment Heart-burn (high Pitta), duodenal ulcer, intestinal parasites,

of painful joints, grazes and cuts, insect stings and bites,
inflammation, wart removal
 
 

77. SOAPSTONE
 

English Soapstone, Talc, Steatite

   

Sanskrit Dugdha Pashana, Kshiri, Madhavi, Vajrabhra, Medasannibha

   

CCM Huá Shí

   

Tibb Sang-e-Jerahat

   

Chemical Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
formula
 
 
Hardness
1.0
 
 

Purification Salt water, aloe vera juice, rosewater

   

Calcinations 2–3 (Varaha); some texts advise its use without heating

   

Anupāna Milk or honey

   

Taste Sweet

   

Dynamics Cold

   

Dosage 125–250mg

   

Treatment Internal/external bleeding, skin diseases, vaginal discharges,

of diarrhoea, dysentery, menorrhagia, leucorrhoea, gonorrhoea,
heart pains, cough and pyorrhoea
 
 

Visha
  

78. COBRA VENOM

 

English Cobra Venom

   

Sanskrit Sarpa-Visha

   

Quality Youthful black cobra venom is favoured, harvested in the cooler

months of the year
 
 

Purification Cow’s urine, fresh ginger juice and mustard seed oil

   

Anupāna Milk and honey

   

Taste Pungent

   

Dynamics Hot, VPK, rasāyana

   

Dosage 5–10mg
    

Treatment High blood pressure, fever, poor digestion, virility and senility
of
 
 

Visha Reduces strength, vomiting, drowsiness, diarrhoea, coma and

eventual death
 
 

Anti-visha Goat’s milk, Jayapāla, ghee, milk with saffron and jaggery,
saline water
 
 

79. ACONITE
 

English Aconite (Aconitum napellus, Aconitum ferox, Aconitum

lycoctonum, Aconitum palmatum, Aconitum carmichaelii and
  Aconitum kusnezoffii)

Sanskrit Vatsanābha, Vatsanaga, Visha, Halahala, Brahmaputra,

Sourastraka, Predeepana, Darada, Kakola, Haimavata, Kustha,
  Pippala, Patala, Sthavar, Gara, Amrita, Nilapushpak

CCM Zhì Fù Zĭ, Zhi Cao Wu

   
Tibb Beesh, Atees and Mitha Zahar

   

Quality White varieties (highly laxative and fast acting); darker

colouration has opposite properties
 
 

Purification Mustard seed oil, goat’s milk, cow’s milk/urine

   

Anupāna Milk or honey

   

Taste Pungent, bitter and astringent

   

Post- Pungent
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Hot, light, dry and sharp, −V −K, rasāyana

   

Dosage 5–20mg

   

Treatment Heart disease, rheumatism, skin diseases, leprosy, fever,

of inflammation, asthma, cough, consumption, impaired
perspiration ability, mercury poisoning, colitis, asthma,
  paralysis, facial palsy, stabbing pains and general rasāyana
  

Visha Paralysis, spasm and tremor, dilation of pupils

   

Anti-visha Nux vomica, Takana (borax) and juice of betel leaves (Piper
betle)
 
 

Upavisha

80. CROWN FLOWER

 

English Calotropis gigantea/Calatropis procera, Crown Flower, Swallow

Wort or Giant Milkweed
 
 

Sanskrit Arka, Alarka, Ksheera, Kheeradala, Nityapushpaka, Mandara

   

Tibb Gule Mudar, Ark

   

Quality Red and white flowers (for internal use), latex (milk of Arka) for
external use and the purification of other rasa materials
 
  

Purification Ghee, honey, castor oil, sesame seed oil

   

Anupāna Milk, butter

   

Taste Pungent and bitter

   

Post- Pungent
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Hot, −V −K

   

Dosage 5–10mg

   

Treatment Warts, whooping cough, asthma, oedema, enlarged spleen/liver,

of dyspepsia, jaundice, colic, flatulence, rheumatism, poisoning,
stiff limbs, leprosy, itching, growths (tumours), piles, itches,
  thread worm, asthma and syphilis. It is a purgative and a
laxative

Visha Stomach pains, burning sensations, vomiting, convulsions and

vertigo
 
 
Anti-visha Water mixed with Gaireeka (red ochre), goat’s milk and ghee

   

81. MILK HEDGE

 

English Euphorbia ligularis/Euphorbia neriifolia/Euphorbia

antiquorum/Milk Hedge
 
 

Sanskrit Sehunda, Snuhi, Daluk, Snuka, Vajrī, Sudha, Vajradruma,

Bahukantaka, Netrari, Ksheera, Vatari, Kandaka
 
 

Purification Tamarind leaf juice (Tamarindus indica)

   

Anupāna Milk

   

Taste Pungent

   

Post- Pungent
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Hot, bitter, heavy and oily, −V −K

    

Dosage 5–10mg

   

Treatment Poor digestion, colic, leprosy, abdominal disorders, toothache,

of piles, gout and rheumatic disorders, enlargement of liver and
loss of appetite. It removes growths and is a laxative
 
 

Visha Nausea and vomiting, lethargy, bloating and abdominal pain,

vertigo and diarrhoea
 
 

Anti-visha Tamarind leaf juice and water with jaggery

   

82. DATURA
 

English Datura stramonium/Datura metel/Datura alba, Datura fastuosa,

Datura tatula
 
 

Sanskrit Dattura, Kitava, Unmatta, Shiva Sekhara, Dhattura,

Kharjughna, Mahamoni, Ghantapushpa, Kantakaphala and
  Kanaka
  

CCM Yang Jin Hua, Nao Yang Hua

   

Tibb Datura, Turkhm Datura Safed

   

Quality Black flowering (Datura stramonium), also called blackcurrant

swirls, are considered Raja/King of Visha; white flowering
  (Thorn Apple) are also medicinal grade

Purification Cow’s urine, cow’s milk

   

Anupāna Milk and ghee

   

Taste Sweet and astringent

   

Post- Bitter
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Heavy, −P −K, warming, narcotic, +V

   

Dosage 10–20mg
    

Treatment Fevers, leprosy, intestinal parasites, colic, cough, neuralgia,

of sciatica, head lice, skin disorders, reduces rheumatic pains. It is
detoxifying, is antispasmodic and hepatic, improves complexion,
  improves digestion and promotes hair growth

Visha Paralysis, blindness, heaviness, coma and death

   

Anti-visha Saline water, cow’s milk sweetened with sugar or juice of

eggplant (Solanum melongena)
 
 

83. FLAME LILY

 

English Gloriosa superba, Flame Lily, Night Flower, Glory Lily

   

Sanskrit Langali, Vishalya, Garbhapatini, Sarini, Swarnapushpa, Kalihari

   

Purification Cow’s urine

   

Anupāna Milk
    

Taste Bitter, pungent, astringent

   

Post- Pungent
digestive
 
 

Dynamics −V −K, light and sharp, rasāyana, +P, causes abortion of foetus

   

Dosage 5–10mg

   

Treatment Vertigo, skin diseases, piles, colic, delivery pains, boils,

of abdominal parasites, laxative, piles, ulcers and swellings

   

Visha Burning sensations, vomiting, vertigo, drowsiness, coma and

death
 
 

Anti-visha Goat’s milk with ghee

   

84. INDIAN OLEANDER

 
English Nerium indicum, Indian Oleander

   

Sanskrit Karaveera, Laguda, Shatakumba, Ashwamarak, Ashvamtaka,

Hayari, Chandataka
 
 

Quality Varieties include red (best), yellow, white, black and violet
flowering plants
 
 

Purification Milk

   

Anupāna Milk and ghee

   

Taste Pungent and bitter

   

Post- Pungent
digestive
 
 

Dynamics −V −K +P, light, drying, narcotic, highly toxic

   

Dosage 5–15mg

   
Treatment Congestive heart disease, ulcers, skin disease, boils, kidney
of stones, urinary stones, intestinal parasites, fever and toxic
blood
 
 

Visha Contains strychnine; fatal for all livestock except goat. Seeds
contain Oleandrin
 
 

Anti-visha Sugar candy mixed with buffalo milk; ground bark of Arka in
milk
 
 

85. INDIAN LIQUORICE

 

English Abrus precatorius, Indian Liquorice, Rosary Pea

   

Sanskrit Gunja, Choonamani, Swethagunja, Uchchata, Raktagunja,

Krishna Choornaka, Kakapilu, Kamboji, Raktika
 
 

CCM Hung Tou

   

Tibb Gowanchi

   
Quality Red, white and black legumes are considered the most
medically effective
 
 

Purification Milk, kanji and ghee

   

Anupāna Milk or honey

   

Taste Bitter, pungent and astringent

   

Post- Pungent
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Hot, light and drying, −V −K

   

Dosage 30–50mg

   

Treatment Hair loss (alopecia), vertigo, asthma, excessive thirst, boils,

of itching skin conditions, intestinal parasites, leprosy and
infertility
 
 

Visha Causes vomiting and diarrhoea; contains Abrin (intravenous

assimilation is 100 times more toxic than oral assimilation)
    

Anti-visha Honey, dates, grapes, tamarind, sour pomegranates and

Āmalakī ground together or prickly amaranth (Amaranthus
  spinosus) mixed with sugar and taken with milk

86. OPIUM POPPY

 

English Papaver somniferum, Opium Poppy

   

Sanskrit Khasabeeja, Khas Khas, Kasakasa, Ahiphena

   

CM O Fu Jung (Yin Tzū Shu)

   

Tibb Afyun

   

Purification Ginger juice, milk, water

   

Anupāna Honey

   
Taste Bitter and astringent

   

Post- Pungent
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Hot, −K −V (+P), aggravates Vāta in high or prolonged doses

   

Dosage 60–125mg

   

Treatment Pain, nerve spasms, restlessness, weak digestion, asthma,

of arthritis, inflammation, low appetite and convulsions

   

Visha Contains morphine, codeine, papaverine, narcotine and

thebaine. Causes inflammation, spermatorrhea and constipation
  if used for extended periods; reduces ojas over longer periods

Anti-visha Rock salt, Pippali (Piper longum) and emetic nut (Xeromphis
spinosa) ground and drunk with hot water or Tankana (borax)
  and Sasyaka (copper sulphate) taken with ghee

87. CANNABIS INDICA

  

English Cannabis indica, Cannabis sattiva, Cannabis ruderalis

   

Sanskrit Vijaya, Madika, Bhanga, Jaya, Madini, Matula, Bhangi, Chapala,

Ananda
 
 

CCM Hou Ma Ren, Ta Ma

   

Tibb Bhang

   

Quality Indica, Sattiva and Ruderalis. Indica is considered to be the

most medicinally effective
 
 

Purification Decoction of gum arabic bark (Acacia arabica), milk and ghee

   

Anupāna Milk

   

Taste Bitter

   

Post- Pungent
digestive
    

Dynamics Hot, −K +P. Aggravates Vāta if used in high dosage or for

prolonged periods.
 
 

Dosage 250–500mg

   

Treatment Loss of appetite, poor digestion, spasm in the intestines, poor

of blood circulation, heart disease, urine flow, impotency, tetanus,
hydrophobia, kidney disease, menorrhea, amenorrhea and
  tinnitus

Visha Contains cannabinoids

   

Anti-visha Ginger root and yoghurt or the juice of jackfruit leaves

(Artocarpus heterophyllus)
 
 

88. CROTON
 

English Croton, Croton tiglium

   

Sanskrit Jayapāla, Maladravi, Rachaka, Vibhedana, Saraka, Kumbhini

    

CCM Pa Tou

   

Tibb Aarand

   

Purification Milk, lemon/lime juice or kanji

   

Anupāna Cold water

   

Taste Bitter

   

Post- Pungent
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Hot, −V −K

   

Dosage 15–25mg

   

Treatment Constipation, jaundice, skin disease, abdominal pains, intestinal

of parasites, piles, water retention and urinary/kidney stones
    

Visha Cramps, dehydration, excessive thirst, abdominal pain, burning

sensations and spasms
 
 

Anti-visha Yoghurt, coriander seeds and jaggery

   

89. MARKING NUT

 

English Marking Nut, Semicarpus anacardium

   

Sanskrit Bhallātaka

   

Tibb Beladur

   

Purification Jaggery, cow’s urine or milk

   

Anupāna Milk

   
Taste Pungent, bitter and astringent

   

Post- Sweet
digestive
 
 

Dynamics Hot, −V −K (+P), rasāyana for (majjā1) marrow

   

Dosage 125–500mg

   

Treatment Piles, splenic disorders, persistent skin diseases, abdominal

of bloating, obesity, CNS, learning difficulties, intestinal parasites

   

Visha Itching of the anus or urethra, external skin irritation, nausea

   

Anti-visha Coconut flesh pulped, taken with water, ghee or milk

   

1 See Section 1 in Part I for more information about majjā.

90. POISON NUT

  

English Poison Nut, Quaker Buttons, Nux vomica

   

Sanskrit Kuchala, Vishadruma, Ramyaphala, Kalakoota, Kuchila,

Vishamushti, Kupaka, Vishatinduka, Jalapa, Kakapeeluka
 
 

CCM Lü Sung Kuo (Fan Mu Pieh)

   

Tibb Azaraqi, Kuchila

   

Purification Kanji (rice vinegar), ghee, milk

   

Anupāna Milk, ghee or butter

   

Taste Bitter and pungent

   

Post- Pungent
digestive
 
 

Dynamics VPK, dry, sharp and light

    

Dosage 25–50mg

   

Treatment Poor digestion, infertility, low urine flow, constipation, poor

of menstruation, hyperacidity, asthma, paralysis, abdominal
bloating, heart weakness, oedema and high cholesterol. Also an
  antiseptic

Visha Madness, high blood pressure, dilated pupils, protruding

eyeballs, asphyxia, titanic spasms
 
 

Anti-visha Aconite (Aconitum napellus), warm goat’s milk with honey, ghee
or camphor (Cinnamomum camphora) or coffee
 
 

NOTES

1. Japan’s MTL represents its longest running fault line or planar fracture.
Many of the country’s richest mineral deposits follow this line.
2. Torii = traditional Japanese gateway, usually found at the entrance of
shrines. Interestingly these gate markers were coloured using powdered
cinnabar or iron oxide. The shape of the character Tan ( 丹 ) means
red/cinnabar and is in itself reminiscent of a miniature Torii.
3. Ceremonial Buddha figurine most often clad in a bright scarlet cloth.
4. Sa = sand and Tetsu = iron.
5. From which mercury was then extracted. Mercury is more commonly
known as Shinsha in Japan.
6. There is some dispute over the shrine’s original dating – some researchers
suggest 520 AD (predating Buddhist activity).
7. In some accounts the sighting and construction of Myōyō-ji is attributed to
the monk Dodan-gyojya, who was believed to be an earlier
missionary/emissary of King Seimei of Kudara (Korea). Hōdō seems the
more likely candidate as he was known to have established a number of
Buddhist sites in Hyōgo Prefecture around that era. Additionally, the
Indian monk was largely identified as carrying a bowl made from iron, a
less commonly worked metal in those times. This intrepid Buddhist monk
is thought to have journeyed from his native India into China, through
Korea before finally reaching Japan. Though there is little reliable
information about either monk, the magical deeds ascribed to Hōdō
Sennin seem more in-keeping with the legends of Tanjōsan.
8. Situated in the Gion District of Kyoto, Yasaka-jinja (also known as Gion-
jinja) is primarily a Shinto shrine.
9. Also known as temple of pure waters, said to reflect a nearby waterfall to
the building.
10. The Great Buddha of Nara.
11. Niutsuhine-jinja, situated in Wakayama Prefecture in Japan, is an
important shrine to the mercury goddess Nyū or Niū. Though essentially a
Shinto deity, she enjoys a strong connection to Buddhism via Shingon. The
luxurious splendour of this shrine is echoed with its connecting shrine at
the nearby Koyasan complex.
12. Semi-mythological Japanese empress believed to have subjugated the
south-eastern kingdom of Silla (Korea) around c.200 AD.
13. At the time of writing this book: http://homepage2.nifty.com/tanjyou.
14. The gearing ratios of the Antikythera Mechanism (c.400 BC) apparently
allowed for this erratic motion, simulating the Moon’s perigee and apogee.
Incredibly, the secondary consideration of the Moon’s nine-year
precessional cycle is also catered for in the mechanism’s ultimate
calculation.

 
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Andrew Mason currently lives in the UK but lectures worldwide. Having
completed his training in Āyurveda and Rasa Shāstra he now focuses his
energies on cataloguing the practices of ancient medical systems, particularly
those deeply aligned with herbo-metallic-mineral preparations. To date he has
produced four volumes of work detailing some of these techniques. Each of
these volumes gives a unique glimpse into the ancient practice of Rasa Shāstra,
rarely seen outside of India or Sri Lanka.
These works are currently available and presented in both printed and digital
formats with high-quality photographs, commentary and easy-to-navigate on-
screen graphics. For more information about these presentations please visit
the author’s website at www.neterapublishing.com, or contact him via
[email protected].
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RESOURCES

Āyurveda Resources
Vaidya Ātreya Smith (Āyurvedic Training) Offering a three-level training
programme to anyone interested in learning Āyurveda through advanced
learning methods on an E-learning platform. Ātreya has been teaching since
1989 and his programmes are available for students all over the world.
Website: www.atreya.com

College of Āyurveda (UK)

The College of Āyurveda offers the opportunity to learn more about Āyurveda
and receive hands-on practical knowledge and skills from experienced
Āyurvedic physicians, practitioners and therapists.
Website: www.ayurvedacollege.co.uk

Dr Venkata Narayana Joshi (Āyurvedic practitioner)

74 Warren Road, Croydon, Greater

London, CRO 6PF
Website: www.croydonayurvedacentre.co.uk

Philip Weeks Clinic (Chinese/Āyurvedic practitioner) Wyeval House, Bridge

Street, Hereford, Herefordshire, HR4 9DG
Website: www.philipweeks.co.uk

Āyurveda UK (Pañcakarma retreat)

The Vedic Retreat, PO Box 5761, Burton-on-Trent, Staffordshire, DE13 9YW
Website: www.ayurveda.uk.com

Essential Āyurveda (Pañcakarma retreat) Essential Āyurveda, The Old Plough,

10–12 Fen Road, Halton Holegate, Linconshire, PE23 5PF
Website: www.essentialayurveda.co.uk

Pukka Herbs Ltd (organic Āyurvedic herbs)

8 Hawkfield Business Park, Bristol,

BS14 OBY
Website: www.pukkaherbs.com

Unani/Tibb Resources
Mohsin Clinic of Natural Medicine

446 East Park Road, Leicester, LE5

5HH
Website: www.mohsinhealthproducts.co.uk

Jyotish Resources
Andrew Foss (Jyotish)
Shri Jyoti Star is a powerful and elegant piece of Vedic Astrology Software for
both beginners and professionals, used by virtually all the leading Vedic
Astrologers in the West. Visit the website for more information about this
software, tutoring or consultations with Andrew Foss.
Website: www.vedicsoftware.com

Andrew Kirk (Lifelight 365)

Making Sense of Astrology and The Seven Ages of Men, textbooks for
beginners and practitioners of ancient Vedic Astrology. Over 40 years of
astrological involvement in firstly Western and then Eastern techniques.
Website: www.lifelight365.com
COLOUR PLATES

Preparation of Kansya (bronze) ingots

 
 Copper yantra/talisman (Sri Lanka)

Author’s production facility in Dompe (Sri Lanka) – picture taken during the
monsoon season 2005
  

Purification of Gandhaka (sulphur)

 
Kajjali mixing machine designed by Udaya Dandunnage (Sri Lanka)
Author preparing Kūpi jar for transportation
Mercury/gold amalgam

 
Pārada (mercury) being washed in Pol Vinakiri (coconut vinegar)
Miner recovers a piece of moonstone from a gem mine near Ratnapura (Sri
Lanka)
Pārada being recovered after being triturated with the juice of Nagavalli (Piper
betel)
Purification of Mayūr Piccha (peacock feathers)
Maha puṭa (approximately 1000 cow dung cakes)
Cloth and mud being prepared to seal sharaava (crucible)
Purification of copper using Kidaram root (elephant yam)
Purification of Yasada (zinc) using milk
 INDEX
Sub-entries in italics indicate diagrams and tables

abalone shell 267–8, 269

abraka (mica) 92, 143, 156, 157, 225–6
aconite (vatsanābha) 161, 285
benefits 287
Chinese medicine 286–7
formula 312
purification method 287
toxicity 284
uses 285–6
Agada Tantra 57
agate see red agate
agniijara (ambergris) 158, 262–3, 274
ajasthi (goat bone) 161
akika (red agate) 160, 254–6, 296, 305–6
alchemy 12, 42
Chinese alchemy 194–5
Japanese alchemy 481–8
alloys 232, 233
aloe gel (kūmāri) 140
alum (kanksi) 158
amber (kaharuba) 160
ambergris (agniijara) 158, 262–3, 274
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 325
ammonium chloride (nara sara) 158
amrita (divine nectar) 37, 38–40, 251
amṛitakarana 143
amulets 409–11
animal products 43, 48, 262–3
anjana (antimony sulphide) 158
Anna Lepa 78
antimony sulphide (anjana) 158
antlers see deer horn
anupāna 151
dairy products 152
honey 151–2
jaggery 152–3
Majun Asad Khurma 303
mercury 153
triphala decoction 152
water 153
Aparaojas 58, 59, 60
apple juice (rubb-e-seb) 140
apprentices 118
body measurements 121
competence and reliability 118–19
palm readings 122–4
Ariloha 86, 234, 239
arka (crown flower) 161
arq gulab (rosewater) 141
arsenic 49
arsenic disulphide (manah shila) 158
arsenic trioxide (gauri pashana) 158
arsenic trisulphide (haritāla) 158
benefits 224
formula 300–1
mythical origins 222
pigment 222
preparation of Rasa Maanikya 225–9
purification 222–3
purification method 1 223
purification method 2 223
purification method 3 224
purification method 4 224
asbestos (kauseyasma) 160
Ashokan Pillar, Delhi 83
asthi 58, 60
astrology 36, 40, 42, 44, 270
 building the Rasashala 114–15
constellations 414–17
karma 368–70, 398–9
Planets, status and metals 85
see also jyotish
Athar, Vohora Mohammed Mineral Drugs 317
Ayanāṃśa (0º Aries) 347–9, 350–1
applying Ayanāṃśa 354
calculation of Ayanāṃśa as proposed by Shil Ponde 351–2
Calendar Reform Committee (CRC) 349–50
Current sidereal position of the Sun 346
North Indian format and South Indian format 353, 354
Popular Ayanāṃśa calculations 351, 352
stars 348
Āyurveda 11, 12, 17–18, 21, 23, 36, 42, 474
anupāna 151
Eight Branches 57
Interaction of the three doshas and five elements in Āyurveda 50
principles 50–2
Sapta Dhātu 58
therapeutics 65–7
training 46

badarasma (Jew’s stone) 160

Bala Roga 57
bezoar stone (gorochana) 160, 274
bhallātaka (Bhilawan nut) 153, 162, 288–93, 313
bhasma 32, 44, 86, 250
anagnitapta bhasma 150
calcination 126, 143, 145
cooling 126
crucible sealing 126
drying cakrika 126
drying crucible 126
impregnation 126, 127
levigation 126
 Making bhasma 125
making cakrika 126, 145
mica bhasma 92, 143
pounding 127
snake bhasma 98
testing bhasma 130–1
bhavana 139–40, 142
aloe gel 140
apple juice 140
castor oil 141
lemons 140
lotus seeds 141
milk 140–1
rosewater 141
triphala 141, 152
Bhilawan nut (bhallātaka) 153, 162
anti-carcinogen 291
benefits 293
Diagram of basic Patala Yantra 290
irritant effects 288–9
oil applications 291
oil extraction 290–1
purification 292
purification method 1 292
purification method 2 292–3
uses 289
bhūta 56
Bhūtavidyā (Bhūtavijja) 57
bismuth sulphide (chapala) 157
bitumen (shilajit) 45–6, 157, 203, 206, 216–17, 296
analysis of bitumen 220–1
benefits 221
Dolā Yantra 218
formula 298–9
origins 217
purification method 217–20
blood-letting therapies 69, 74–5
blue sapphire (nilama) 159
benefits 259
EDX analysis 259
formula 306–9
purification method 1 257
purification method 2 257–8
body measurements 121
borax see sodium borate (tankana)
brass (pittala) 159, 232, 243
Bṛṃhana therapies 65, 66
bronze (kansya) 159, 232, 239
Bronze Age 83
Buddha (Mercury) 115, 191–2, 343, 393, 395
burning pits (puṭa) 142–4
temperature 145–6

calamine (rasaka) 136, 157, 243

calcination (mārana) 126
temperature 145–6
Types of puṭa/burning pits 142
calcite (surama sapheda) 161
calcium carbonates 262
Calendar Reform Committee (CRC) 349–50
California Proposition 65 (CP65) 325
cancer treatment 314
Anti-cancer herbs favoured by the late Dr Bernard Randeniya 314–15
Bhilawan nut 291
rasa formula 316
cannabis indica (vijaya) 162
Caraka Saṃhita 12, 56, 90, 116, 121, 435
caste of metals 85, 232
caste of visha (poison) 97–8
castor oil (eranda) 141
cattle dung (fuel) 143, 148–9
Standardisation of cow dung cake size 146
cattle gallstones 274
chalcedony 254
chalk (khatika) 161
Chandra (Moon) 40, 270, 343, 364, 377–8, 393, 395
Nakshatra 430–3, 436–65, 467–8
Soma 435–6
transits through Rohini Nakshatra 489–91
chandrakaanta (moonstone) 160
Chandrodaya Rasa see Makara Dwaja
chapala (bismuth sulphide) 157
Chauhan, Partap 46
China 12, 83, 176
freshwater pearls 268
Chinese alchemy 194–5
Chinese medicine 151, 196, 286–7
chrysoberyl (vaiduryam) 160
cinnabar (hiṅgula) 49, 133, 156, 158, 178, 193–4
benefits 198
Chinese alchemy 194–5
EDX analysis 198
extraction of mercury from cinnabar 174–5
formula 297
pigment 194
preparation 198–9
Preparation of Kushta Sangraf (cinnabar) 198
purification method, Chinese medicine 196
purification method, Rasa Shāstra 195
XRD analysis 197
clinical trials 317–18
cobra venom (sarpa-visha) 91, 98, 99, 161, 284, 285
conch shell (shankha) 161, 262, 269
constellations 414–17
contamination 328
serpentine 328–9
copper (tamra) 49, 82, 83, 159, 232, 233, 239, 243
attributes 234–5
 benefits 238
formula 301–2
purification 235–8
toxicity 234
copper pyrite (swarna maksika) 157
copper sulphate (sasyaka) 93, 157
coral, red (pravala) 159, 262
white 262
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), India 350
cowrie shell (kapardika) 158, 262
croton (jayapāla) 162
crown flower (arka) 161
crucibles (Sharaava Saṁpuṭa) 126, 142, 143
Rasa Maanikya preparation 226–7
cuttlefish bone (samudra phena) 161
Cyavana Prāśa 76–7

dairy products 152

Damascus steel 83
datura (dattura) 161, 281–2
benefits 283
formula 312–13
purification method 282–3
toxicity 282
deer horn (mrga śrnga) 161, 262, 264
benefits 266
formula 310–11
purification method 1 264–5
purification method 2 265–6
XRD analysis 266
deer musk (kasturi) 161
detoxification 44
Dhalana 86–7
Dhārā Karma 77
Dhātu 232–3
diamond (hiraka) 159, 250–1
 benefits 253
formula 304–5
purification method 1 251–2
purification method 2 252–3
XRD analysis 253
diet 17, 54, 56, 57, 58, 61–2
Dietary Supplement Act 1994 (USA) 319
disease 17, 44, 51, 52
bhūta 56
doshic cycle/disease process 53–4
therapeutics 65–7
Vyadhi-Nashana 171
dosha 44, 52
astrology 366–8
doshic cycle/disease process 53–4
elements 54–5
Sample chart dosha 367
Sign dosha 366
treatment of poisoning 92–3
Tridosha 65
Vāta, Pitta and Kapha 51, 66

eggshell (kukkutanda) 161

elements 51, 54–5, 170
astrology 366
Interaction of the three doshas and five elements in Āyurveda 50
tastes 62
emerald (tarksya) 159
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 319, 325
equipment 26
mechanisation 138
pestle and mortar (Khalwa Yantra) 134–7
eranda (castor oil) 141

FDA (Food and Drug Administration, USA) 330

Feng Shui 116
ferrous sulphate (kasisa) 157
fluorite (vaikrānta) 157
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
foods 54, 58, 59, 61, 62

gaireeka (iron oxide) 157

galena (nilanjana) 158
gandhaka (sulphur) 27, 28, 29, 93, 157, 206, 208–15, 296, 297–8
garnet (gomeda) 159
gauri pashana (arsenic trioxide) 158
gemstones 32, 37, 38, 48
Gemstones, metals and respective graha lords 403
mythical origins 248–9
Nava Ratna 404–7
planetary gemstones 402–3
Respective fingers/hand for gemstones 407
shodhana 68
geomancy 42
giri sindoora (mercuric oxide) 158
goat bone (ajasthi) 161
godanthi haritāla (gypsum) 161
godugdha (milk) 140–1
gold (swarna) 27, 28, 48, 49, 85, 158, 232
immune booster 88
mercury 165–6
Retort and water bath for gold extraction 166
transmutation from base metals 132–3, 170–3
gomeda (garnet) 159
gorochana (bezoar stone) 160, 274
graha (planets) 40, 114, 374
Buddha (Mercury) 379–80
Chandra (Moon) 377–8
effects of graha in zodiacal signs 364–5
Eight cardinal points with their respective planetary rulers 115
friendships, enmity and neutrality 393–5
Gemstones, metals and respective graha lords 403
 Guru (Jupiter) 385–6
Kuja (Mars) 381–2
Mandi 392
Moon/graha combinations 431–2
Nava Ratna 404–7
nine graha 343
planetary gemstones 402–3
Planets in signs 367
Planets, status and metals 85
propitiation 398–401
Rahu and Ketu 389–91
Ravana of Lanka 470–2
Shani (Saturn) 387–8
Shukra (Venus) 383–4
Surya (Sun) 375–6
gunja (Indian liquorice) 162
Guru (Jupiter) 111, 239, 243, 343, 365, 385–6, 394, 395
gypsum (godanthi haritāla) 161

haritāla (arsenic trisulphide) 158, 206, 222–9

Hast Rekha Shāstra 122–4
hatters 201–2
herbo-metallic-mineral medicines 42, 233, 320
immune booster 88
herbo-mineral medicines 29, 296
herbs 30, 32, 36, 42, 43, 48
Anti-cancer herbs favoured by the late Dr Bernard Randeniya 314–15
harvesting 432–3
ojas 59
Rasashala 107
taste 61
hiṅgula (cinnabar) 49, 133, 156, 158, 178, 193–8
extraction of mercury from cinnabar 174–5
hiraka (diamond) 159, 250–3, 304–5
honey 151–2
horns see deer horn
horoscopes 40, 114–15
ascendant signs 369–70
House positions 422

imbalances 50–1, 52
immortality 36, 37, 49
immortality drugs 133
Rasa Shāstra 42–3, 49
immune booster 88
India 11–12, 44, 46, 149, 474
availability of materials 156
Calendar Reform Committee (CRC) 349–50
importance of astrology 359, 399
mercury sources 176
Indus Valley civilisation 12
iron (loha) 83, 84, 85, 143, 159, 234, 296
mercury 165
types of iron 481
iron oxide (gaireeka) 157
iron pyrite (vimala) 49, 157

jade (sangeyasab) 160, 296

jaggery 152–3
Japanese alchemy 481–8
jayapāla (croton) 162
Jew’s stone (badarasma) 160
Journal of the American Medical Association 319–20, 330
Breakdown of Rasa Shāstra items and their ingredients 322–3, 326–7
Results of XRF testing on Ayurvedic medicines 321, 326
Jupiter (Guru) 111, 239, 243, 343, 365, 394, 395
attributes 385–6
Jyotish 36, 44, 85, 109, 342–3, 473
27 Nakshatra 430–65
applying Jyotish 344
ascendant signs 369–70
Ayanāṃśa 346–54
 building a Rasashala 114–15
elements, doshas and karma 366–70
Kalapurusha 356–8, 359–61
orientation, strength and disposition of signs 371–2
palmistry 122–4
planetary gemstones 402–7
planets and their attributes 374–92
planets and their relationships 393–5
propitiating the planets 398–401
Rasa Shatra 473
signs of the zodiac 418–28
Yagyas 408–9
yantras 409–11
see also astrology

kaharuba (amber) 160

Kajjali (black sulphide of mercury) 27, 28, 32, 92, 132, 138, 157, 171, 181–2,
296
benefits of kajjali 182
Preparation of kajjali 182
Rasa Parpati 183–4
Signs of acceptable kajjali 181
Kalapurusha 356, 359–61
effects of graha in zodiacal signs 364–5
mythical origin 356–8
Planetary doshas, attributes and karakash 360
Zodiacal signs and the human body 359
kamala/kanwal gitta (lotus seeds) 141
kampilla (monkey face fruit) 158
kanksi (alum) 158
kankusta (Malabar tamarind) 158
kansya (bronze) 159, 232, 239
kanta pashana (lodestone) 160
kapardika (cowrie shell) 158, 262
Kapha 51, 66
attributes 56
karaveera ( Indian oleander) 162
karma 368–70, 398–9
kasisa (ferrous sulphate) 157
kasturi (deer musk) 161
Kaumara Bhritya 57
kauseyasma (asbestos) 160
Kāya Chikitsa 57
Kāya Seka 77–8
Keralīya Pañcakarma 77
Anna Lepa 78
Dhārā Karma/Śirodhara 77
Kāya Seka/Pizichhil 77–8
Piṇḍa Sweda 78
Śiro Lepa 78
Ketu 343, 364, 394, 395
attributes 389–91
Rahu–Ketu myth 37, 39–40
Khalwa Yantra 134–7
Naukakruti Kharal 135, 136
khasabeeja (opium poppy) 162
khatika (chalk) 161
Krishna Sarpa Masi Bhasma 98
kuchala (poison nut) 162
Kuja (Mars) 115, 343, 381–2, 393, 395
Kūkai (Kōbō Daishi) 176–7, 481, 482, 484
kukkutanda (eggshell) 161
Kumaratunga, Chandrika Bandaranaike 314
kūmāri (aloe gel) 140
Kūpī jars 26, 28, 29
cleaving 31
emptying 31–2
heating 29, 30
Rasa Maanikya 227–9
Kushta Sangraf 198–200
Kyrgyzstan 176
Lahiri, Nimal Chandra 350
langali (flame lily) 162
Laṅghana therapies 65, 66
lapis lazuli (rajavarta) 160, 300
lead (naga) 159
red (naga sindoora) 158
lead monoxide (mrddara śrnga) 158
leeches 74–5
lemons (nimbu) 140
lily, flame (langali) 162
limestone (sehunda) 161
liquorice, Indian (gunja) 162
lodestone (kanta pashana) 160
loha (iron) 83, 84, 85, 143, 159, 165, 234, 296, 481
lotus seeds (kamala/kanwal gitta) 141

maanikya (ruby) 159

magicians 42
Maha Rasa 156, 243
majjā 58, 60
Majjā Dhātu 208
Majun Asad Khurma 303
Makara Dwaja (mercuric sulphide) 16, 18, 27, 28, 153, 185
benefits of Makara Dwaja 190
preparation method 186–8
regime while taking mercury drugs 190
Venting fumes from Kūpī jar 186
XRD/EDX analysis 188–90
maksika dhātu (copper pyrite) 209
māmśa 58, 60
manah shila (arsenic disulphide) 158
Mandi 392
mandura (rust of iron) 159
mārana (calcination) 126, 142–6
marking nut see Bhilawan nut
Mars (Kuja) 115, 343, 393, 395
 attributes 381–2
Mason, Andrew Rasa Shāstra: The Art of Vedic Alchemy 47, 296
materials 156–7
classification of materials 479–80
identification of materials 157
quick reference guide 157–62
mayūr piccha (peacock feather) 160, 275–8, 311
medas 58, 60
medicine 12, 49
testing bhasma 130–1
medicine-men 42
mercuric oxide (giri sindoora) 158
red (rasa sindoora) 138
mercuric sulphide (Makara Dwaja) 16, 18, 27, 28, 153, 185–90
Mercury (Buddha) 115, 191–2, 343, 393, 395
attributes 379–80
mercury (pārada) 18, 27, 28, 30, 43, 44, 48, 49, 85, 93, 157, 165, 191, 192, 474
Damaru Yantra 174
detoxification and chelating mercuric deposits in the body 202–3
eight impressions 171–2
extraction of mercury from cinnabar 174–5
geographical sources of mercury 176
gold extraction 165–6
impurities 167, 168, 175
iron 165
loss during processing 171
mercurial drug formulations 153, 164–5, 171
mythical origins 167
Naukakruti Kharal 135, 136
processing for medical administration 132–3
purification 179–80
regime while taking mercury drugs 190
Retort and water bath for gold extraction 166
sheaths 168
sulphur 156, 202, 208
ten impressions 172–3
 toxicity 169, 201–2
transmutation into gold 170
types 167–8
mercury, black sulphide of (kajjali) 27, 28, 32, 92, 132, 138, 157, 171, 181–4,
296
metallurgy 82–3, 233
blacksmithing 83–4
metals 32, 42, 43, 48, 232–3
acceptable exposure levels of heavy metals 319–20, 323–4, 325, 330
Ariloha 86, 234, 239
caste 85, 232
Dhalana 86–7
five metals (varta loha) 159
Gemstones, metals and respective graha lords 403
Planets, status and metals 85
shodhana 68
taste 61
three metals (tri-loha) 159
transmutation 49, 132–3, 170–3
Mhurta (auspicious timing) 109, 114
mica (abraka) 92, 143, 156, 157
Rasa Maanikya preparation 225–6
Mikimoto, Kokichi 268
milk (godugdha) 140–1
milk hedge (snuhi) 161
minerals 32, 42, 43, 44, 48, 206–7
shodhana 68
taste 61
moksha 40, 390, 427
monkey face fruit (kampilla) 158
Moon (Chandra) 40, 270, 343, 364, 393, 395
attributes 377–8
Moon/graha combinations 431–2
Nakshatra 430–3, 436–65, 467–8
seasons 433–4
Soma 435–6
 transits through Rohini Nakshatra 489–91
moonstone (chandrakaanta) 160
mother of pearl (sukti) 161, 262, 267–8
mrddara śrnga (lead monoxide) 158
mrga śrnga (deer horn) 161, 262, 264–6, 310–11
mukta (pearl) 159, 262, 267–74, 309–10

naga (lead) 159

naga sindoora (lead tetroxide) 158
nagapashana (serpentine) 160, 301, 328–9
Nāgārjuna, Ấrchấrya Rasendramaṅgalam 43–4
Nakshatra 114, 348, 354, 366, 414, 430–3, 436–7
Anuradha 454
Ardra 443
Ashwini 438
Aslesha 446
Bharani 439
Chitra 451
Dhanistha 460
Hasta 450
Jyestha 455
Krittika 440
Magha 447
Mrigashirsha 442
Mula 456
mythical origins 430–1
planetary Nakshatra 468
Planetary Nakshatra placements 467
Punavarsu 444
Purva Phalguni 448
Purvabhadra 462
Purvashadha 457
Pushyami 445
qualities 465
Revati 464
Rohini 441, 489–91
 Shatabhishak 461
Sravana 459
Swati 452
Uttra Phalguni 449
Uttrabhadra 463
Uttrashadha 458
Vishaka 453
Nakshatrapurusha 466, 467
nano-Veda 153, 191
nara sara (ammonium chloride) 158
Nasya 73
Nava Ratna 404–7
necromancy 42
Nihontō Katana 83
nilama (blue sapphire) 159, 257–9, 306–9
nilanjana (galena) 158
nimbu (lemons) 140
Nyū Mountain (Tanjōsan), Japan 483–4, 485–8

ojas 58–9
visha 91
oleander, Indian (karaveera) 162
opium poppy (khasabeeja) 162
oral traditions 11
orpiment see arsenic trisulphide (haritāla)
oyster shell 267–8

palmistry 122–3
Auspicious signs on the palm 124
Pañcakarma (PK) 68–9, 71, 79–80
Anuvāsana Basti (oil) 72–3
Keralīya Pañcakarma 77–8
Nasya 73
Nirūha Basti (decoction) 72–3
Raktamokshana 74–5
Vamana 71
 Virechana 71–2
Pancha Mahabhūta 51, 170
Attributes of Pancha Mahabhūta 52
pārada (mercury) 18, 27, 28, 30, 43, 44, 48, 49, 85, 93, 157, 165–8, 170–1, 176–
8, 191, 192, 474
detoxification and chelating mercuric deposits in the body 202–3
eight impressions 171–2
extraction of mercury from cinnabar 174–5
Naukakruti Kharal 135, 136
purification 179–80
regime while taking mercury drugs 190
sulphur 156, 202, 208
ten impressions 172–3
toxicity 169, 201–2
Paraojas 58–9
Paścatakarma 75, 80
Cyavana Prāśa 76–7
Rasāyanadi 75–6
Samanādi 77
Saṃsarjanakrama 75
peacock feather (mayūr piccha) 160, 275
benefits 278
formula 311
pigmentation 278
purification method 275–6
Puṭa for peacock feather bhasma 276
XRD analysis 277
pearl (mukta) 159, 262, 267
AAA grading system 269
benefits 273
cultured pearls 268–9
formula 309–10
Highly simplified guide to nacresation 269
marine or freshwater? 270
moti (eight sacred pearls) 273–4
nacre 270
 purification method 1 (pisti) 271
purification method 2 (bhasma) 271–2
XRD analysis 272
Persia 12
pestle and mortar 134
bronze and brass 134, 135
cast iron 134
ceramic/porcelain 136
glassware 136
granite 135–6
semi-precious stones 137
pills 44
Piṇḍa Sweda 78
pirojaka (turquoise) 160
pisti 32, 143, 250
pisti preparation 150
Pitta 51, 66, 293
attributes 55
pittala (brass) 159, 232, 243
Pizichhil 77–8
PK see Pañcakarma
plants 43, 107, 280
shodhana 68
Pliny the Elder 201
poison nut (kuchala) 162
Ponde, Shil Hindu Astrology 350, 351–2, 353, 354
Pradhanakarma 71–5
Prakriti 51
pravala (coral) 159, 262
precession 347–8
public sanitation 12
Puja see Yagyas
purgation 44
purification techniques 36–7
purification therapies see Pañcakarma (PK)
Purvakarma 69–71
 Pācana therapies 69–70
Snehana therapies 70
Svedana therapies 70–1
pushparaga (topaz) 159
puṭa 142–4
fuel (cattle dung) 143, 146
Puṭa for peacock feather bhasma 276
Sample puṭa 144
Types of puṭa/burning pits 142
puṭa paka (temperature) 145–6
Gaja puṭa 146
Kapota puṭa 148
Laghu puṭa 147
Results of puṭa temperature tests 148
Varaha puṭa 147

quartz (sphatika) 160

formula 304–5
quicksilver see mercury (pārada)

Rahu 343, 364, 394, 395

attributes 389–91
Rahu–Ketu myth 37, 39–40
rajata (silver) 49, 85, 158, 232, 239
rajavarta (lapis lazuli) 160, 300
rakta 58, 60
Raktamokshana 74–5
Raman, B.V. 351
Randeniya, Bernard 314
Anti-cancer herbs favoured by the late Dr Bernard Randeniya 314–15
rasa 58, 60
rasa formulae 296
aconite 312
agate 305–6
anti-cancer treament 316
arsenic trisulphide 300–1
 bhallātaka 313
bitumen 298–9
blue sapphire 306–9
cinnabar 297
copper 301–2
dattura 312–13
deer horn 310–11
diamond and quartz 304–5
lapis lazuli 300
peacock feather 311
pearl 309–10
serpentine 301
sulphur 297–8
tin 302
zinc 302–3
Rasa Maanikya 225
preparation 225–7
purification 227–9
XRD analysis 229
Rasa Parpati 183
benefits of Rasa Parpati 184
preparation method 184
Rasa Shāstra 12, 18, 21, 32, 44, 474
advantages of rasa medicines 131
categorisation of metals 85
‘Churning of the Milky Ocean’ 36–40
classification of materials 479–80
clinical trials 317–18
Dehasiddhi 49, 171
empowered elixirs 42–3
Journal of the American Medical Association 319–27, 330
Jyotish 473
Lohasiddhi 49, 171
materials 156–7
quick reference guide 157–62
medical alchemy 48–9
Rasa Sindoora (red mercuric oxide) 18–19, 27, 32, 139
rasaka (calamine) 136, 157, 243
Rasashala 106–7
astrological considerations 114–15
Central floor mandala 109
Classical floor plan 110
Floor-plan of Rasashala (modern interpretation) 113
modern interpretation 112–13
propitiating snakes 107, 108–11
Rasashala Yantra 106
Sarpa Bhaya Hara Asseeya Yantra 108
Sthir Vāstu diagram showing cardinal points and corresponding elements
111
rasāyana 17, 18, 49, 57
Saṁśodhana 68–9
Ravaṇa of Lanka 470–2
rectifying techniques 68–9
red agate (akika) 160, 254, 296
benefits 256
EDX analysis 256
formula 305–6
purification method 1 254
purification method 2 255
rejuvenation 17–18, 49
research 317–18
Rishis (wise men) 12, 56, 76, 343
Ritu 433–4
rosewater (arq gulab) 141
rubb-e-seb (apple juice) 140
ruby (maanikya) 159
Rūksana therapies 65, 66
rust of iron (mandura) 159

Ṣaḍupakarmas 65–7
safety considerations 296
Sagar Manthan 36–40
Saha, Meghanad 350
Saṁskāra 171–3
Saṁśodhana 68–9
Keralīya Pañcakarma 77–8
Pañcakarma 71–5
Paścatakarma 75–7
patients unsuited for Saṁśodhana 79–80
Purvakarma 69–71
Saṁśodhana regimen 69
samudra phena (cuttlefish bone) 161
Samudrik Shāstra 121
Factors derived from the mother and father 121
sand-baths (vālukā yantra) 26, 27, 28, 29
sangeyasab (jade) 160, 296
Sanskrit 11, 12, 45
Saper, Robert B. 319, 320, 324
sapphire see blue sapphire (nilama)
sapta dhātu (seven tissues) 58, 59, 60
selectivity 59
transformation 59
transmission 59
sarpa-visha (cobra venom) 91, 98, 99, 161, 284, 285
sasyaka (copper sulphate) 93, 157
Sato, Tamotsu 482, 484
Saturn (Shani) 115, 259, 343, 365, 394, 395
attributes 387–8
scorpion, powdered 91
seasons 433–4
sehunda (limestone) 161
serpentine (nagapashana) 160
contamination 328–9
formula 301
Shalakya Tantra 57
Shalya Tantra 57
shamanism 42, 340–1
Shani (Saturn) 115, 259, 343, 365, 387–8, 394, 395
shankha (conch shell) 161, 262, 269
Sharaava Saṁpuṭa (crucibles) 126, 142, 143, 226–7
Sheetal Parpati 153
shilajit (bitumen) 45–6, 157, 203, 206, 216–21, 296, 298–9
Shingon Mikkyo 481–8
shodhana (purification) 68, 125–7
Making bhasma 125
shukra 58, 60
Shukra (Venus) 111, 234, 243, 251, 343, 365, 383–4, 394, 395
silver (rajata) 49, 85, 158, 232, 239
Śiro Lepa 78
Śirodhara 77
Śirovirechana 73
Smith, Vaidya Ātreya Practical Āyurveda 45
smithing 83–4
snakes 97–8, 112, 432
siting the Rasashala 107, 108–11
snake bhasma 98
snake venom 99
Snehana therapies 65, 66–7, 70
snuhi (milk hedge) 161
soapstone (dugdha pashana) 161
sodium borate (tankana) 92, 93, 160
Soma 435–6
sphatika (quartz) 160, 304–5
Sri Lanka 16, 20, 21, 26, 474
climate 22
day length 23
importance of astrology 399
Memorial Herbal Immunotherapy Research and Cancer Information Centre
314–16
modern interpretation of Rasashala 112
public transport 24–5
shamanism 340–1
Sri Yukeswar 350–1
staff 119–20
Stambhana therapies 65, 67
stars 348, 414–17
sukti (mother of pearl) 161, 262, 267–8
sulphur (gandhaka) 27, 28, 29, 93, 157, 206, 208–9, 296
benefits 214–15
Different methods of gandhaka purification 213
formula 297–8
mercury 156, 202, 208
naturally occurring sulphur 214–15
purification method 1 209–11
purification method 2 211–13
purification method 3 214
Sun (Surya) 40, 343, 364, 393, 395
attributes 375–6
Current sidereal position of the Sun 346
precession 347–8
sunstone (suryakaanta) 160
surama sapheda (calcite) 161
surgery 57
Surya (Sun) 40, 343, 346–8, 364, 375–6, 393, 395
suryakaanta (sunstone) 160
Susrutha 57, 91, 107, 435
Svedana therapies 65, 67, 70–1
Svoboda, Robert Āyurveda: Life, Health and Longevity 18–19
swarna (gold) 27, 28, 48, 49, 85, 88, 158, 165–6, 232
transmutation from base metals 132–3, 170–3
swarna maksika (copper pyrite) 157
Swetha 153

tamarind, Malabar (kankusta) 158

tamra (copper) 49, 82, 83, 159, 232, 233, 234–8, 239, 243, 301–2
Tanjōsan (Nyū Mountain), Japan 483–4, 485–8
tankana (sodium borate) 92, 93, 160
tarksya (emerald) 159
tastes 61–2
astringent taste 64
 bitter taste 64
pungent taste 63
salty taste 63
Six tastes 61, 62
sour taste 63
sweet taste 62
therapeutics 65–6
Bṛṃhana therapies 66
Laṅghana therapies 66
Rūksana therapies 66
Snehana therapies 65, 66–7, 70
Stambhana therapies 67
Svedana therapies 65, 67, 70–1
Tibb 119, 198, 291, 296
Tibet 176
Buddhist mythology 176–8
tin (vanga) 49, 83, 159, 232, 233, 239
benefits 242
Cross-section of pithara yantra 242
formula 302
purification method 240–2
topaz (pushparaga) 159
tourmaline (vaikrānta) 160
toxins 90–1, 169, 201–2, 234, 282, 284
transmutation of metals 49
applications of mercury 170–3
gold 132–3
tri-loha (three metals) 159
triphala 141, 152
turmeric 92
turquoise (pirojaka) 160
tutors 119

Unani 139, 140, 156, 198, 274, 296, 317, 474

anupāna 151
red agate 254
Unmada 56
Upagraha 392
US Pharmacopeia (USP) 319
Uttrakarma 75–7

vaiduryam (chrysoberyl) 160

vaikrānta (fluorite) 157
vaikrānta (tourmaline) 160
Vajīkarana 57
vālukā yantra (sand-baths) 26, 27, 28, 29
Vamana 71
vanga (tin) 49, 83, 159, 232, 233, 240–2, 239, 302
varta loha (five metals) 159
Vāstu 109, 112, 114, 116
Sthir Vāstu diagram showing cardinal points and corresponding elements
111
The eight cardinal points with their respective planetary rulers 115
Vāta 51, 66, 239
attributes 55
vatsanābha (aconite) 161, 285–7, 312
Vedas 11, 12
Venus 111, 234, 243, 251, 343, 365, 394, 395
attributes 383–4
vijaya (cannabis indica) 162
vimala (iron pyrite) 49, 157
Virechana 71–2
visha (poison) 36, 37, 38
Brahmin visha 97
General anti-visha substances 93
Kshatriya visha 97
medical applications 91
mercury 169
mobile and immobile poisons 90–1, 92, 95
origins 90–1
peacocks 275
Shudra visha 97
 signs of poisoning 95
snake venom 99
snakes 97–8
Specific antidotes 94
Vaishya visha 97
visha as antidote 92–3
visha as medicine 96
Vishakalpa 285–6
Visha Chikitsa 57
Vyadhi-Nashana 171

water 153
wootz steel 83
World Health Organization (WHO)
written traditions 11

Yagyas 408–9
Yamamoto, Takao 485–8
yantras (amulets) 409–11
Honouring the Nava Graha 410
yasada (zinc) 49, 159, 233, 234, 235, 243–5, 302–3

zinc (yasada) 49, 159, 233, 234, 235, 243

benefits 246
formula 302–3
Gas furnace and palika yantra used to melt zinc 244
purification 243
purification method 1 244–5
purification method 2 246
zinc carbonate 243
zodiac 114, 115, 191, 343, 418–18
12 divisional zodiac 349, 418
ascendant signs 369–70
constellations 414–17
Distribution of signs amongst the seven planets 364
energetics of signs 419–21
houses of the zodiac 422–4
 Dussthana houses 427
Kendra houses 425–6
Trikona houses 426–7
Upachaya houses 428
orientation, strength and disposition of signs 371–2
palmistry 123, 124
planets and sign rulership 364–5
precession 347–8
Sidereal transits of planets 419
Zodiacal signs and the human body 359