Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7

Rocks at the bottom of the Grand Canyon

are 2 billion years old.
CHAPTER 5

Plate Tectonics
and Earth’s
Structure

What geologic forces have

shaped Earth’s landscape?

264
Mt. Whitney, Sequoia National Park, California
 Lesson 1
Earth’s Moving Plates

PAGE 268
Lesson 2
Plate Tectonics:
A Unifying Theory

PAGE 280
Lesson 3
Earthquakes

PAGE 296
Lesson 4
Volcanoes

PAGE 308
Lesson 5
How Plate Tectonics
Affects California

PAGE 324
6 ES 1. Plate tectonics accounts for important features of
Earth’s surface and major geologic events.

265
 Literature
MAGAZINE ARTICLE

ELA R 6.2.7.
Make reasonable
assertions about a
text through accurate,
supporting citations.
• ELA W 6.2.1. Write
narratives.

266
 from CURRENT SCIENCE

by Nicola Jones

Take a close look at Hawaii and you’ll notice something

interesting. The Aloha State is a string of volcanic islands.
If you follow the islands to the northwest, you’ll find
that they get progressively older, smaller, and less active.
Look under the ocean and you’ll discover that the line
continues for thousands of kilometers, with very old, dead
volcanoes, called the Emperor Seamounts, lying on the
seafloor at its farthest reaches.
It’s also interesting that the volcanoes of Hawaii pop up
right in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. Most volcanoes
are found at the boundaries between two tectonic plates—
giant, slowly moving slabs of Earth’s crust. Molten rock
forms in the cracks at plate boundaries and trickles upward
to create volcanoes.
But Hawaii is nowhere near a plate boundary. It is
located smack-dab in the middle of a plate—the Pacific Plate.
What on Earth is going on? For decades, researchers
thought they knew how Hawaii formed, but now they’re
not sure. New theories are shaking up their understanding
of how Earth works.

Write About It
Response to Literature In this article the author
describes a string of volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean.
Some of these volcanoes make up the Hawaiian
Islands. Others are located on the seafloor. Which
volcanoes are older? Which ones are most active?
Write a story about a scientific expedition to study the
volcanoes of the Pacific. Describe how the researchers
would travel and what they might find.

-Journal Write about it online

@ www.macmillanmh.com

267
Lesson 1

Earth’s Moving
Plates

Look at the coastlines of Africa and South

America. They look as if they could fit together
like gigantic puzzle pieces. Have Earth’s continents
always been in the same locations? Are they moving
now? How will they be arranged in the future?

6 ES 1.a. Students know evidence of plate tectonics is derived from the fit of the
continents; the location of earthquakes, volcanoes, and midocean ridges; and the
distribution of fossils, rock types, and ancient climatic zones. • 6 IE 7.g. Interpret events by
268 sequence and time from natural phenomena (e.g., the relative age of rocks and intrusions).
ENGAGE
Are the continents moving? Materials

Form a Hypothesis
Were the separate continents we know today one
huge supercontinent in the past? Do the outlines
of continents fit together? Write your answer as a
hypothesis in the form “If the continents were once
a supercontinent, then . . .”

Test Your Hypothesis

• world map
Place tracing paper over a map of the world.
• tracing paper
Trace the coastlines of North America, South
America, Europe and Asia (including India), • pencil
Africa, Australia, and Antarctica. • safety scissors
Be Careful. Cut the traced continents along • safety goggles
their coastlines, and label them.
Step
Using the continent cutouts like pieces of a jigsaw
puzzle, find ways the continents fit together.
Draw a sketch showing ways you can fit them
together.

Draw Conclusions
Analyze Which continents have coastlines that
fit together most closely?
Did your results support your hypothesis?
Infer Which of your sketches shows the
greatest number of continents fitting together? Step
Do all of the coastlines in the sketch fit together
equally well?

Explore More
What if the continents in your finished puzzle moved
apart to the positions they are in today? If they kept
moving, how might they be arranged in the distant
future? Make a prediction and test it. Then analyze
and present your results.

6 IE 7.a. Develop a hypothesis. • 6 IE 7.e. Recognize whether

evidence is consistent with a proposed explanation.

269
EXPLORE
 What forces shape Earth?
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 1.a
Many things change over time. Many changes
Moving plates cause
happen quickly, but many other changes happen
Earth’s surface to change. very slowly. Even Earth’s surface has changed
over time. Mountains rise, only to be worn
▶ Vocabulary down by water, wind, and particles of rock.
continental drift, p. 270 The ground is so firm it can support the tallest
Pangaea, p. 271 buildings with ease. However, the ground can
geologist, p. 271 suddenly shift, bringing those buildings down.
mid-ocean ridge, p. 274 Even something as large as the continent you
ocean trench, p. 275 live on has slowly moved to its present position.
volcano, p. 276 The idea that the position of huge continents can
earthquake, p. 276 change over time might seem strange.
Alfred Wegener was a German scientist
-Glossary who proposed a theory to explain changes in
@ www.macmillanmh.com
Earth’s surface over long time periods. Like
▶ Reading Skill many other people, he noticed how closely Africa
and South America would fit together if the
Draw Conclusions
two continents were pushed against each other.
BSfb1ZcSa 1]\QZcaW]\a Wegener wondered if the other continents
would fit in similar ways if they were moved
together. In 1912 Wegener proposed a hypothesis
of continental drift : the idea that a past
Explore Earth’s
supercontinent split apart into pieces, which
moving plates with drifted over time to their present locations.
a seismologist.

older weathered mountains newer rugged mountains

270
EXPLAIN
Motion of Continents
Continental Drift
According to Wegener’s hypothesis,
Earth once had one single landmass,
or “supercontinent.” Wegener called
this landmass Pangaea (pan•JEE•uh),
from the Greek words meaning “all
land.” About 200 million years ago,
225
Pangaea split into two parts, which are
million years called Laurasia and Gondwanaland.
ago Later these two landmasses broke
apart to form North America, Eurasia,
South America, Africa, Australia, and
Antarctica. Over millions of years,
these continents slowly drifted to their
present locations.
A geologist (jee•AHL•uh•jist) is a
135 scientist who studies Earth’s origin,
million history, structure, composition, and
years ago
processes. In the 1960s new discoveries
led geologists to take another look
at Wegener’s work. However, during
Wegener’s lifetime few geologists
accepted his theory.

Quick Check
65
million Draw Conclusions What does
years ago
the term Pangaea refer to?
Critical Thinking Compare
the map of the continents
135 million years ago to the
map of the continents today.
How have the positions of the
continents changed?
present
day

Reading Maps

What evidence suggests that Africa and

South America were once connected?
Clue: How have the positions of the
continents changed over time? 271
EXPLAIN
What evidence supports Fossil Evidence
continental drift?
Wegener provided several kinds of
Fossils of
evidence to support his explanation Glossopteris, a fern,
of continental drift. He noted similar have been found
fossils and rocks on distant continents. in South America,
He also pointed out changes in the Africa, India,
Antarctica, and
continents’ climates over millions of
Australia.
years.

Evidence from Rocks Fossils of Cynognathus, a Triassic land

reptile about 3 m (10 ft) long, have been
Rock formations can provide found in South America and Africa.
evidence about past events that took
place in a particular location. For
example, parts of Africa and
South America contain rocks
of the same age and type. If
these continents were once
joined, similar rock layers
would continue across their
borders. Mountain ranges
and mineral deposits across
today’s continents would also
line up in the same way. These facts
suggest that the continents drifted
apart. Evidence from Rocks’ Ages
Other evidence indicates that How can scientists tell which rocks
the continents have also drifted to are older? Scientists compare the age
different climate zones. For example, of one rock with the age of another to
North America and Antarctica contain find the rocks’ relative ages. When two
coal deposits. Coal is formed from rock layers are found in the same rock
decaying tropical plants found near formation, normally the lower rock
the equator. Today neither North layer is older. Scientists also compare
America nor Antarctica lies near the ages of similar rock layers that formed
equator. For coal to be found on these in different areas. Sometimes the types
continents, North America must have of fossils found in a rock can help
moved north from a tropical region, scientists determine the age of the rock.
and Antarctica must have moved Index fossils—fossils of organisms that
south. lived only during a particular time—
can help narrow down the age of the
rocks in which they are found.
272
EXPLAIN
 Fossils of Mesosaurus,
a freshwater reptile,
have been found in
South America and
Africa.

Fossils of the Triassic land reptile

Lystrosaurus have been found in
The map shows where fossils of Africa, India, and Antarctica.
ancient organisms have been found
in the southern continents. It also
shows how these continents would
once have fit together in a way that
explains the distribution of the fossils.

Evidence from Fossils

Ancient fossils of some extinct Antarctica. They could not survive in
animals and plants have been found in Antarctica today because it is too cold.
parts of Africa, South America, India, This suggests that Antarctica drifted
Australia, and Antarctica. These fossils from a warmer region to a colder
include three reptiles—Lystrosaurus, one. Despite all of the evidence, some
Cynognathus, and Mesosaurus—and scientists remained skeptical that the
a plant, Glossopteris. These organisms continents were together at one time.
would not have been able to travel
across an ocean. However, their fossils Quick Check
have been found on continents that are
separated by vast oceans today. This Draw Conclusions What do the coal
suggests that the continents they lived deposits found in North America and
on were once connected. Antarctica indicate about the way
these continents may have drifted?
Another bit of fossil evidence
supports the hypothesis of continental Critical Thinking What evidence
drift. Fossils of Glossopteris and supports the hypothesis of
Lystrosaurus have been found in continental drift?
273
EXPLAIN
What clues are found Mid-Ocean Ridge
on the ocean floor?
Technology that was not available [WR]QSO\`WRUS
to Wegener in the early 1900s helped
answer this question. Scientists
]QSO\WQQ`cab ]QSO\WQQ`cab
discovered that Earth’s crust seemed
to be made of a number of large
pieces. These large pieces of Earth’s
surface are called plates. The plates
may include continents, ocean floors,
or both. When plates move, they carry
the continents and oceans with them.
Plates may move apart, move together,
or slide past one another.
When plates move apart, new rock The addition of new rock has built
from below the surface may form up a vast underwater mountain chain
between them. In the 1960s scientists called the mid-ocean ridge . As new
found evidence that new rock from rock is added, it moves away from
below was being added to plates the ridge in opposite directions. This
moving apart under the oceans. process is called seafloor spreading.

a thermal spring in Iceland

274
EXPLAIN
 Ocean Trench

Model Plate Movement

]QSO\WQb`S\QV
Stack sheets of paper into two
piles.
Slowly push the short ends of the
two paper piles together.

The rock located farther from the

ridge is older than the rock located
at the center.
The mid-ocean ridge extends Observe What happens? How is
this model similar to the formation
through the Atlantic, Pacific, and
of a mountain range such as the
Indian oceans. In some places parts Himalayas?
of the ridge have emerged as islands.
Iceland is an island of this kind. As
part of the ridge, Iceland is attached
to the ocean floor.

part of a trench in the western Pacific,

Continental Drift: is the deepest part of the Pacific Ocean.
Clues from Ocean Trenches It lies about 11,000 m (36,000 ft)
Another feature of the ocean floor below sea level. It is deeper than
occurs where plates move together. Mount Everest—the world’s tallest
When plates move toward each mountain—is high.
other, one sinks under the other,
and this movement creates an ocean Quick Check
trench. Ocean trenches are long,
Draw Conclusions Do ocean
narrow, deep valleys on the ocean
floor. They are the deepest parts of the trenches occur where plates are
oceans. Most ocean trenches are found moving apart or where they are
around the rim of the Pacific Ocean. moving together?
Many are thousands of kilometers Critical Thinking What is unusual
(miles) long. The Challenger Deep, about the mid-ocean ridge?

275
EXPLAIN
What other events occur where most earthquakes and volcanic
at plate boundaries? eruptions occur.
Besides ridges and trenches, other In some places where plates move
geologic events take place along plate toward each other, the rocks crumple
boundaries and change Earth’s surface. and fold and are pushed up onto the
One of the most spectacular events in continents. These folded bands of rock
nature is the eruption of a volcano. form mountain ranges. The Himalayas
A volcano is a place where molten in Asia and the Appalachian Mountains
rock, hot gases, and solid rock erupt in North America are examples of
through an opening in the crust. mountain ranges that formed this way.
A mountain that formed from these
materials is also called a volcano. Quick Check
Another dramatic natural event
Draw Conclusions Examine the
is an earthquake , the shaking of the
map on this page. Where do most
ground that occurs when plates shift
volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
and change positions. It may be mild
occur?
enough to be hardly felt, or it may be
violent enough to cause great damage. Critical Thinking Compare and
Look at the map on this page to see contrast volcanoes and earthquakes.

Earthquake and Volcano Activity

/@1B71=13/<

>/17471
=13/<
7<27/<
=13/< /B:/<B71
=13/<

/QbWdSd]ZQO\]

;OX]`SO`bV_cOYS Reading Maps

BSQb]\WQ^ZObS
Along which ocean’s coastline do earthquakes occur
closest to the shore?
276 Clue: Where are most of the earthquake icons located?
EXPLAIN
 Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Main Idea Earth’s surface changes
Continental drift is
due to .
the theory that a past
supercontinent split Vocabulary The vast underwater
apart to form separate mountain chain is called the .
continents.
Draw Conclusions What evidence did
(pp. 270–271)
Alfred Wegener have to support his
]QSO\WQb`S\QV Evidence from rocks, theory?
fossils, and the ocean
BSfb1ZcSa 1]\QZcaW]\a
floor supports the
theory of continental
drift.
(pp. 272–275)
/@1B71=13/<
B71=13/<
Critical Thinking Describe the theory
Volcanoes and of continental drift.
earthquakes take place
along plate boundaries Test Practice Which of the following
and change Earth’s is a long, narrow, deep valley on the
>/17471
surface. ocean floor?
=13/<
(p. 276) A ocean trench
/B:/<B71 B mid-ocean ridge
=13/<
C earthquake
Make a D volcano
Study Guide
Test Practice Evidence from
Make a three-tab book
supports the theory of continental drift.
(see pp. 487–490). Use
A trees
the titles shown. On the
B fish
inside of each tab, draw
C fossils
conclusions about the
D weather
terms on each tab.

Writing Link Math Link

Write a Story Seafloor Spreading
Suppose you could observe continental Scientists estimate that the seafloor
drift in action. Write a story that can spread at a rate of about 3 cm
explains what happens as Pangaea per year. How long would it take for
breaks apart and moves. Use scientific 1 km of new seafloor to be added?
terms and descriptive language.

-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 277

EVALUATE
Draw Conclusions
Scientists read a lot of data and collect data
themselves through exploration and experimentation.
Then they study the data, analyze them, and draw
conclusions, or decide what is and is not true. In the
previous lesson, you learned about the evidence
that helped scientists draw the conclusion that the
continental drift theory was correct.

Learn It
When you draw conclusions, you have to look at all the
data and facts before you can decide what is true. You have
to be careful not to jump to conclusions. Here is an example:
It’s time to go home from school, but you discover that your new
jacket is missing. Outside you see a student you don’t know wearing
a jacket just like yours. Can you draw the conclusion that this person
took your jacket?
No, that assumption would be jumping to a conclusion. You need
to ask questions and maybe even examine the jacket carefully to find
all the facts. Suppose you do, and then you discover that the other
person’s jacket merely looks like yours. The only conclusion you can
draw is that the other person has really good taste, just as you do.

Try It
▶ Use a hard-boiled egg as a model of Earth to gather evidence
about moving plates. Use the evidence to draw conclusions.
You will need a hard-boiled egg, a paper plate, and glue.

▶ Crack the egg. Pull off the pieces of eggshell, and pile them
on the paper plate. They represent Earth’s plates. Record the
number of pieces on a table like the one on this page. Set
the egg and the pieces of the shell aside for 20 minutes.
Can you draw a conclusion at this time
about whether the pieces of eggshell can
be replaced to completely cover the egg?

▶ Try to glue the shell pieces back on the

egg. Use a light dab of glue on each piece.
Then pick up the egg, and squeeze gently.
What happens? Record your observations
on the chart.

278
6 IE 7.e. Recognize whether evidence is consistent with a proposed explanation.
EXTEND
 Apply It
▶ Now use all the information you have gathered to
draw conclusions, and answer these questions. Record
your conclusions on a chart like the one begun here.

▶ How are Earth’s plates similar to the pieces of the eggshell?

▶ Why did the pieces of eggshell push against each other

when you picked the egg up?

▶ What might happen if Earth’s plates broke into as many

pieces as the eggshell?

279
EXTEND
Lesson 2

Plate Tectonics:
A Unifying
Theory

Have you ever wondered what Earth is made

of? Scientists have learned a great deal about
what lies beneath the continents and the ocean
floor. What would a model of Earth’s interior
look like?

6 ES 1.b. Students know Earth is composed of several layers: a cold, brittle

lithosphere; a hot, convecting mantle; and a dense, metallic core. • 6 ES 1.c.
Students know lithospheric plates the size of continents and oceans move
280 at rates of centimeters per year in response to movements in the mantle.
ENGAGE
How can you make a model Materials

of Earth’s interior?
Purpose
In this activity you will make a model to compare
the thickness of Earth’s layers.

• chalk
Procedure
• measuring tape
Make a Model Draw a small X on the ground.
or meter stick
This will be your center point for making three
circles. • string

Measure Tie one end of a string to a piece of Step

chalk. Then measure the string to a length of 185
cm. Hold the string at your center point in the
center of the X, and have a partner draw a circle
around the X, keeping the string straight and
taut all the way around.
Repeat the process two times, first cutting your
string to 182 cm and then cutting it to 100 cm.

Draw Conclusions
Analyze The scale for your model is 1 cm = 35 km.
How many real kilometers are represented by
each layer in your model?
Are the layers in your model the same thickness?
According to your model, what is the distance
from the surface of Earth to its center?

Explore More
Research different ways to travel to the center of Earth, using
different modes of transportation. Determine how long it
would take to travel there. Analyze and present your results.

6 IE 7.b. Select and use appropriate tools and technology (including calculators,
computers, balances, spring scales, microscopes, and binoculars) to perform tests,
collect data, and display data. • 6 MA NS 1.2. Interpret and use ratios in different contexts
(e.g., batting averages, miles per hour) to show the relative sizes of two quantities, using
appropriate notations (a/b, a to b, a:b).

281
EXPLORE
 How do scientists study
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 1.b, c Earth’s structure?
Earth is made up of several Scientists study features on Earth’s surface
different layers. The to determine how and when these surfaces were
outermost part of Earth formed. They are not able to dig holes deep
consists of a number of
separate, rigid plates
enough to see what goes on in the center of the
that move. planet with their own eyes. How do you suppose
they are able to understand the forces that create
▶ Vocabulary these surface features?
seismic wave, p. 283
crust, p. 284
mantle, p. 285
core, p. 285
San Andreas Fault
lithosphere, p. 286
semimolten, p. 287
asthenosphere, p. 287
magma, p. 287
lava, p. 287
convective flow, p. 288
plate tectonics, p. 290
subduction, p. 291

-Glossary
@ www.macmillanmh.com

▶ Reading Skill
Main Idea
;OW\7RSO 2SbOWZa

282
EXPLAIN
Waves together. When they pull, they stretch
or expand the material. This pushing
One way scientists learn about
and pulling causes the material the
Earth’s interior and its structure
wave is moving through to vibrate
is by studying seismic (SIZE•mik)
forward and backward in the same
waves. A seismic wave is a vibration
direction in which the waves are
that travels through Earth. Seismic
moving.
waves are produced by earthquakes
and volcanic eruptions. Sometimes S waves, or secondary waves, are
explosions can also cause seismic much slower than P waves. They travel
waves. There are two main kinds of only through solids. They vibrate at a
seismic waves: surface waves and body right angle to their direction of travel.
waves. Each kind vibrates and travels This means that if an S wave is moving
in a different way and at a different ahead, the vibrations will move either
speed. Waves that are trapped near up and down or from side to side. This
the surface of Earth are called surface causes the material that the wave is
waves. Surface waves move more passing through to shake up and down
slowly than body waves. They travel or from side to side. Instruments on
along the surface of the planet like Earth’s surface record these movements
ripples on the surface of a pond. or vibrations. By studying these waves,
scientists learn about the different
Waves that travel through the
layers of Earth.
interior of Earth are called body
waves. There are two kinds of body
waves. P waves, also called primary Quick Check
waves, are the fastest seismic waves. Main Idea How are S waves
They travel through gases, liquids, different from P waves?
and solids. P waves travel by pushing
and pulling against the material they Critical Thinking How might
pass through. When the waves push, scientists use P waves and S
they compress, or bunch, the material waves to study Earth’s interior?

▶ Seismographs detect, measure,

and record the energy of
earthquake vibrations. As the
ground vibrates, the pen traces
a record of these seismic waves. 283
EXPLAIN
What are the main layers of Earth?
By studying seismic waves, scientists have learned that
Earth has three main layers. Each layer has a different
composition, thickness, temperature, and density. Density is
a measure of how much material there is in a given amount
of space. Materials with lower densities often float in water,
and materials with higher densities often sink in water. To
observe this, try the Quick Lab on the next page.

Layers
The crust is the thin layer of solid rock that makes up
the outermost part of Earth. The thickness of the crust varies
from place to place. Earth’s crust is very thin. To picture
how thin it is, think about the skin of an apple compared
to the rest of the apple. Almost all of the natural resources
people use are found within this thin crust. It is the layer
on which people walk, build buildings, and grow crops.

Earth’s Layers

The thin rigid crust

(6–70 km thick)
surrounds Earth.

The mantle (about 2,900

km thick) is less dense
near the crust, denser
near the core.

Lower pressure allows

the outer core (about
2,300 km thick) to
remain liquid.

Intense pressure makes

the inner core a solid
ball about 2,400 km
in diameter.

284
EXPLAIN
 Measuring Density
Measure 1 cup of vegetable oil,
1 cup of water, and 1 cup of corn
syrup.
Add four drops of a different
shade of food coloring to each
cup. Stir each cup.
Observe Pour the three cups
together into a large glass bowl.
Record your observations.
What happened? Why do you
▲ Diamonds form under great pressure.
think you saw these results?
Which layer of Earth corresponds
to the vegetable oil? The water?
The mantle is the thick layer of solid The corn syrup?
and molten rock that lies beneath the
crust. While the entire mantle is made
of rock, some of the rock in this layer
can move or flow slowly because of
great pressure and high temperatures.
The core is the central part of
Earth. It lies beneath the mantle and
is made up of an outer, liquid part
and an inner, solid part. Earth’s core
is made of iron and nickel, metals
that are denser than rock. The core is
almost twice as dense as the mantle.
The core is a sphere, and the distance
across it through Earth’s center is
about 6,900 km (4,300 mi).
Quick Check
Pressure and Temperature Main Idea Describe the three main
Suppose you could move through layers of Earth.
Earth’s layers to the core. As you Critical Thinking From which layer
moved deeper, pressure would increase. of Earth do people get most of their
The weight of the material above you resources?
would cause this increase in pressure.
The temperature would also increase
as you traveled deeper into Earth.
285
EXPLAIN
How are the main layers The mantle is divided into two
parts: the upper mantle and the lower
of Earth subdivided? mantle. Both continental crust and
There are two types of crust: oceanic crust form the lithosphere.
continental crust and oceanic crust. The lithosphere (LITH•uh•sfeer) is
Continental crust makes up Earth’s land, the rigid outer part of Earth made up
while oceanic crust is the floor of the of rocks in the crust attached to the
ocean. Continental crust, made mostly upper part of the mantle. The name
of a relatively lightweight kind of rock comes from the Greek word lithos,
called granite, is thicker and less dense meaning “stone.” The lithosphere
than oceanic crust. Continental crust is broken up into plates that move
has an average thickness of about 32 km slowly. These plates are also called
(20 mi). Oceanic crust is made mostly of lithospheric plates.
basalt, a denser rock than granite. The
thickness of the oceanic crust averages
about 6 or 7 km (4 or 5 mi).
▼ Each plate is constantly in
motion in a set direction. This
causes pressure to build in
locations between plates.
Lithospheric Plates

EURASIAN EURASIAN
PLATE NORTH PLATE
AMERICAN
JUAN
DE FUCA PLATE
PLATE
PHILIPPINE CARIBBEAN
ARABIAN
PLATE PLATE AFRICAN PLATE
COCOS INDIAN
PLATE
PLATE PLATE
SOUTH
NAZCA AMERICAN
PACIFIC
AUSTRALIAN PLATE PLATE
PLATE
PLATE

SCOTIA PLATE

Convergent boundary
Divergent boundary ANTARCTIC PLATE

Transform boundary Reading Maps

In which direction is the African Plate moving?

Clue: Examine the arrows.

286
EXPLAIN
Mantle
Because of intense heat and pressure, mantle rocks
below the lithosphere are semimolten , or almost
melted. These rocks can actually flow, bend,
stretch, and compress. They make up
the asthenosphere (as•THEE•nuh•sfeer),
the layer of semimolten mantle rock Q]\bW\S\bOZ
Q`cab ]QSO\WQ
that lies directly below the lithosphere. Q`cab
The name of this layer comes from ZWbV]a^VS`S
the Greek word asthenos, meaning OabVS\]a^VS`S
“weak.” These rocks are not as strong c^^S`[O\bZS
and solid as the rocks closer to Earth’s
surface. The lithospheric plates “float”
on the asthenosphere. They are supported and
moved around by the movements of the rocks of the
asthenosphere, in much the same way that logs are
carried and moved around by currents in a river.

Magma
Magma is molten, or melted, rock deep
below the surface of Earth. Its temperature
is between 650°C and 1,200°C (1,202°F and
2,192°F). Magma forms only under specific
conditions in Earth’s asthenosphere. Magma
forms when heat melts parts of the mantle and
lower crust. Because it is much hotter and less
dense than surrounding rock, magma rises
toward the surface. Magma is often found in
magma chambers under Earth’s surface, below
volcanoes. When volcanoes erupt, magma can
surface as rock or as lava , the surface form of
magma. When magma reaches the surface, it
cools and solidifies over time and crystallizes
into igneous rock.

Quick Check
Main Idea What causes magma to rise
out of fissures and cracks in the ground?
Critical Thinking Distinguish between
the lithosphere and the asthenosphere.

287
EXPLAIN
 What moves the plates?
Scientists do not fully understand what causes Earth’s
plates to move. Most agree that it is caused by movements in
the rock in the part of the mantle that lies below the plates—
a process called convective flow. Convective flow is the
continuous circular pattern of materials as they are heated
and cooled.
Warm matter rises, and cool matter sinks. This principle
is true of solids, of liquids, and of gases. Think about a
pot of boiling water. When the pot of water is heated, the
warmer water rises to the surface. In this example warmer
water is less dense than cooler water. When the water
molecules reach the surface, they begin to cool slightly and
move sideways across the surface. As they cool more, the
molecules grow closer together, so their density increases.
Once they become just a little cooler and denser, they sink
back to the bottom of the pot to be heated again. This is
only one example of convective flow.

Convection Currents

Convection currents
distribute heat through
the pot of boiling water.

cool
water
sinks

Concept sketch

warm
water
water is rises
heated

288
EXPLAIN
 Plate Movement

Reading Diagrams

What happens to warm matter?

Clue: Examine the arrows.

Watch plate
movement @ www.macmillanmh.com

Convective Flow in the Mantle

Convective flow in Earth’s mantle rock in the mantle comes up below
occurs in almost the same way as the rigid plates and moves sideways,
it does in water. Hotter, less dense the plates above it move as well.
rock at the bottom of the mantle rises Because convective flow is slow, the
toward the bottom of the plates. As movement of plates along their
it rises, it becomes cooler and denser, boundaries is also slow.
and it moves sideways. In time it
becomes cool enough and dense Quick Check
enough to move downward. As the
rock descends, it becomes hotter and Main Idea In what part of Earth
less dense, and it rises once more. does convective flow take place?
This circular pattern of movement Critical Thinking Why does
is repeated over and over. convective flow happen more
Convective flow in the mantle takes slowly in the mantle than it does
place much more slowly than it does in in a pot of boiling water?
a pot of boiling water. As the moving
289
EXPLAIN
What is plate tectonics? Most plate boundaries cannot be
seen the way continents and coastlines
Plate tectonics (playt tek•TAHN•iks)
can. Most continental plates include
is the theory that Earth’s surface is both continents and parts of the ocean
made up of separate, rigid plates that floor, so many of the boundaries lie
move slowly across the mantle. These below the oceans.
plates are called tectonic plates. The
word tectonic comes from the Greek Movements along plate boundaries
word tekton, meaning “builder.” produce earthquakes, volcanic activity,
the building of great mountain ranges,
Earth’s plates are curved like and other dramatic surface events.
Earth’s surface. There are seven large These events help show where the
plates and about a dozen smaller plate boundaries lie.
ones. The plates move along their
boundaries in different ways and at How Plates Move
different speeds. Although some may
move much faster, most plates move Tectonic plates can move in different
only a few centimeters or inches each directions. Boundaries between plates
year, about as much as your fingernails that are moving away from each other,
grow each year. or pulling apart, are called divergent
boundaries. The word divergent means
“moving away from each other.”

Types of Plate Boundaries

mid-ocean
ridge
trench

rift

continental
plate
lithosphere

convection convection
current current

290
EXPLAIN
 At a divergent plate boundary, new oceanic plate pulls the rest of the
crust is formed as magma wells up oceanic plate down. The oceanic plate
and moves away from the ridge. This moves under the continental plate. The
is the process of seafloor spreading. As convergence of these plates forms deep
spreading continues the Atlantic Ocean ocean trenches and, at the same time,
is slowly becoming wider. can push up mountains.
Boundaries between plates that are When two oceanic plates collide,
moving toward each other, or colliding, one plate sinks below the other plate.
are convergent boundaries. The word This kind of convergence is common
convergent means “coming together.” where the mainly oceanic Pacific Plate
When plates converge, usually one plate converges with other oceanic plates.
sinks or slides under the other one. This Movements here have formed many
is called subduction . Whether a plate volcanic islands and some of the
moves up or down depends on whether world’s deepest trenches.
the leading edges are continental or Something entirely different
oceanic. The leading edge of a plate happens when two continental plates
is the front part that leads it in the collide. In this case the crust buckles
direction it is moving. and folds. It is pushed upward or
When a dense oceanic plate and a sideways, creating vast, complex
less dense, more buoyant continental mountain ranges. The Himalayas
plate converge, the leading edge of the in Asia and the folded Appalachian
Mountains in North America are
examples.
Boundaries between plates that
slide past each other are called
transform boundaries. Most transform
boundaries occur on the ocean floor,
but some appear on Earth’s surface.
For example, the San Andreas Fault
lies along the boundary between the
Pacific and North American plates
in California.
continental
plate
Quick Check
Main Idea In what three ways
do tectonic plates move?
Critical Thinking Define
subduction in your own words.

291
EXPLAIN
What is a unifying theory?
A unifying theory ties other then began to develop a new theory
theories together to give a complete that came to be called plate tectonics.
picture of natural occurences. Plate The theory states that Earth’s surface
tectonics is a unifying theory that is broken into continental and oceanic
explains much about the history of plates that move. Plate tectonics
Earth. Plate tectonics explains what combines the continental drift theory
Earth was like in the past, how with other evidence that supports it,
and why it has changed, and how it such as the formation of new crust
continues to change. and the distribution of volcanoes and
Alfred Wegener, the scientist who earthquakes. The evidence fits together
developed the hypothesis of continental with Wegener’s theory to create a
drift, thought the continents were unifying theory.
floating away from one another. The Most scientists now accept the
discovery of seafloor spreading in the theory of plate tectonics. However,
1960s showed scientists that more than there is still much to learn about the
just continents were moving. Scientists forces that shape Earth’s surface.

Quick Check
Main Idea Why do many scientists
accept the theory of continental drift?
Critical Thinking What might be an
example of another unifying theory?

Many species of plants and

animals have become extinct
since Pangaea broke apart.
However, the coelacanth,
above, and the sea turtle,
right, have changed little
since that time.

292
EXPLAIN
 Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Main Idea The outermost part of Earth
Earth’s main layers are
consists of a number of separate, rigid
the crust, the mantle,
.
and the core.
(pp. 284–285) Vocabulary The central part of the
Earth is the .
Main Idea Why is Earth’s crust rigid?
The lithosphere is
solid rock that makes ;OW\7RSO 2SbOWZa
up the plates and lies
above the semimolten
asthenosphere.
(pp. 286–289)
Critical Thinking Compare and
Plate tectonics is the contrast the theories of continental drift
theory that the surface and plate tectonics.
Q]\bW\S\bOZ
^ZObS of Earth is made up of Test Practice What is the theory that
ZWbV]a^VS`S
rigid plates that move. Earth’s surface is made up of plates
(pp. 290–292) that move slowly across the mantle?
Q]\dSQbW]\
Qc``S\b
A continental drift
B plate tectonics
Make a C seismic waves
Study Guide D convective flow
Make a half-book Test Practice A(n) is a
(see pp. 487–490). place where Earth’s plates move apart.
Use the titles shown. A ocean plate
On the inside of B convergent boundary
the tab, write three C divergent boundary
sentences about D seismic wave
plate tectonics.

Writing Link Math Link

Descriptive Writing Estimate Time
Write a descriptive paragraph about Los Angeles is about 8,800 km from
each of Earth’s three layers. Be sure to Tokyo. The cities are on plates that are
include scientific terms. moving away from each other at the rate
of about 2.5 cm per year. In how many
years will the cities be 10,000 km apart?

-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 293

EVALUATE
Make a Model
A map is a useful tool that provides information, or
data, about Earth. When scientists create a map, they
make a model that shows information about a place
or a region. To use a map, you need to learn how to
interpret the information on it.

Learn It
Road maps show streets, roads, and
highways. Other maps include different
data, such as borders of countries or
bodies of water. When you make a drawing
showing streets in your neighborhood, you
make a model of the area.
All maps have legends, which include
additional information to help you read the
maps. For example, the legend on a road map shows the
map’s scale. Knowing the scale lets you determine distances.

Try It
▶ Now you will examine two different kinds of maps. The first map
is a geologic map. It shows the geological features of California,
such as the kinds of rocks found in the state. A geologic map
can also show features such as faults and volcanoes. Scientists
include these kinds of information on maps in order to make a
model that shows an area’s geological features.

▶ Look at the map, and select one place to study. Use the legend
to find out the meaning of the color used in the place you chose.
What information does the legend contribute to the map?

▶ The second map is a topographic map. This map shows only a

small part of California, near San Francisco. Topographic maps
show the shape of Earth’s surface. They use special contour
lines, which show points that are the same height. Contour
lines allow scientists to make a model that tells the height of a
hill above sea level or the depth of the ocean below its surface.
When contour lines are far apart, they tell you that changes
in altitude are gradual. When contour lines are close together,
they tell you that changes in altitude are steeper.

▶ Select a point on one of the contour lines on the map. What is

the height of Earth’s surface at the point you chose?

294
EXTEND
 Apply It
▶ How do geologic maps and topographic maps differ?

▶ Of the two types of maps shown here, which would be a

good type to use when planning a hike in the mountains?
Why do you think so?

▶ Make a model by drawing a map of the area around your

school. Find ways to indicate differences in height. In your
legend include the scale you used and keys to any features
on your map.

Geologic

Topographic

6 IE 7.f. Read a topographic map and a geologic map for evidence

295
provided on the maps and construct and interpret a simple scale map.
EXTEND
Lesson 3

Earthquakes
earthquake damage, San Francisco, California

Earthquakes are sudden motions in the

crust along plate boundaries. These sudden
motions can cause great damage and loss of
life. How can something that happens at plate
boundaries cause so much destruction?

6 ES 1.d. Students know that earthquakes are sudden motions along breaks in
the crust called faults and that volcanoes and fissures are locations where magma
reaches the surface. • 6 ES 1.g. Students know how to determine the epicenter
of an earthquake and know that the effects of an earthquake on any region vary,
depending on the size of the earthquake, the distance of the region from the
296 epicenter, the local geology, and the type of construction in the region.
ENGAGE
What happens when Earth’s Materials

surface breaks?
Make a Prediction
What would a scientist observe if Earth’s surfaces
were pushed together, pulled apart, or slid against
each other? Write your answer as a prediction in
the form “If Earth’s surfaces were pushed, pulled,
or slid against each other, then . . .”

Test Your Prediction

Be Careful. Place the candy bar on a flat • chocolate candy
bar with caramel
surface, and cut it in half through the center.
and nougat
Identify which layers of the bar represent the
• plastic knife
layers of Earth.
Then push the pieces together. Pull the pieces Step
apart. Take one of those pieces and pull it into
two pieces. Slide the pieces past each other.
Move the pieces up and down in relation to
each other.

Draw Conclusions
Analyze How would you explain what you
observed?
Did your observations support your prediction? Step

Infer What layer of the candy bar (“layer of

Earth”) was deformed the most? Why do you
think this happened?

Explore More
Try to relate each movement of the candy-bar pieces
to an actual Earth event. Explain. Then analyze each
and present your results.

6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and results from an investigation

in written reports and oral presentations. • 6 IE 7.e. Recognize
whether evidence is consistent with a proposed explanation.

297
EXPLORE
 Can earthquakes happen
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 1.d anywhere?
Faults are breaks in the An earthquake is a trembling or shaking
lithosphere along plate of the ground caused by the release of energy
boundaries. Movements following movement along a fault. Some of the
along faults cause
most damaging earthquakes in U.S. history
earthquakes.
have happened in the state of California. In
▶ Vocabulary fact, in the last 300 years, California has
faults, p. 299 been shaken by 76 strong earthquakes that
fault zone, p. 299 have caused loss of life and extensive property
focus, p. 301 damage.
epicenter, p. 301
triangulation, p. 301
magnitude, p. 302
Richter scale, p. 302
intensity, p. 303
Mercalli scale, p. 303

-Glossary
@ www.macmillanmh.com

▶ Reading Skill
Summarize

Ac[[O`g

▶ San Francisco
earthquake
of 1906

298
EXPLAIN
 California Earthquakes
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Reading Maps AO\2WSU]

Where are most earthquakes in

California located?
Clue: Look at where the fault line
is located on the map.

Fault Zones
Faults are breaks, or cracks, An earthquake can be one of the most
in the rocks of the lithosphere destructive of Earth’s natural forces.
along which movements take place. Only a few earthquakes cause serious
Fault zones are areas where there
damage. In California earthquakes are
are many interconnected faults. Most common in the fault zone that includes
faults and fault zones are located along the San Andreas Fault.
the boundaries between tectonic plates.
When stresses within Earth
become great enough to overcome Quick Check
the strength of the rocks along faults,
Summarize What are fault zones?
the rocks move, and energy is released,
producing seismic waves, also called Critical Thinking Before an
earthquake waves. These vibrations earthquake occurs, what events
radiate away from the earthquake. have to take place?
299
EXPLAIN
How do scientists learn These wavy lines represent P waves
and S waves. These waves start at
about earthquakes? the same time and place, but P
Scientists study seismic waves to find waves travel faster than S waves.
out where earthquakes begin and how The difference between their
strong they are. They use a special tool arrival times at the seismograph
called a seismograph. A seismograph enables scientists to calculate the
is an instrument that detects, measures, distance the waves traveled to
and records the energy of earthquake reach the stations.
vibrations at a given location. To understand this, think
Seismograph stations are set up all about a thunderstorm. People see
over the world. Many of them are near the flash of lightning before they hear
one another. the clap of thunder. This is because
As the ground vibrates, a roll of light waves travel faster than sound
paper in the seismograph vibrates with waves. When there is a little time
it. A pen is suspended above the roll of between the lightning and the thunder,
paper with a heavy weight attached to people know that the storm is some
it to keep it steady. The pen held above distance away. When the lightning
the roll of paper does not vibrate with and the thunder happen at almost the
the ground. As the roll of paper turns, same time, people know the storm is
the pen traces a record of vibrations nearby. This same concept applies to
that appear as wavy lines on the paper. earthquake waves.

Focus and Epicenter

Reading Diagrams

Where does an earthquake begin?

Clue: Where do the waves spread
out from?

300
EXPLAIN
 Earthquake Safety
Add sand to a pan, filling it deeply
and evenly.
abObW]\!
Add water to the sand below its
surface.

abObW]\ Place a brick on the sand on

its shortest side, as if it were
S^WQS\bS` a building.
abObW]\
Gently tap the side of the pan
with the hammer one time.
Be Careful.

▲ The point at which all three circles

come together is the epicenter of
the earthquake.

Observe Write down what you

saw happen to the brick and the
Using a Seismograph surrounding sand. What would
happen if you hit the pan a
Seismographs can also help second time, but harder? Try it.
scientists find an earthquake’s focus
and epicenter. The focus is the point
below the surface of Earth where an
earthquake begins. The epicenter is the far away the earthquake was in all
point on the surface of Earth directly directions from the station. The place
above the focus. It is the place where where all three circles intersect is the
the strongest shocks are felt and where approximate location of the epicenter
the greatest damage usually occurs. of the earthquake.
To locate the epicenter, scientists
use triangulation. Triangulation is a Quick Check
way of using information from at least Summarize What does a
three seismograph stations to find the seismograph show?
location of the epicenter. To pinpoint
the epicenter, a circle is drawn around Critical Thinking Why is it helpful
each seismograph station on a map. to have at least three stations record
The sizes of these circles show how an earthquake?
301
EXPLAIN
How is the strength of an Measuring Magnitude
earthquake measured? The Richter scale , developed
The information recorded by a in 1935, is a set of numbers used
seismograph is also used to measure to describe the magnitude of an
how strong an earthquake was. earthquake. The magnitude is
Earthquakes are classified in two calculated from the height of the
different ways: by magnitude and by largest seismic wave recorded by the
intensity. Magnitude is the measure seismograph. On the Richter scale,
of the energy released during an magnitude is expressed in whole
earthquake. It is measured based numbers and decimals. Each increase
on the amplitude of the seismic of 1 on the Richter scale means an
waves recorded on the seismograph. increase of about 30 times the energy
Amplitude is the measure of how far released. The strongest earthquake ever
the wavy lines on the seismograph go recorded occurred in Chile in 1960.
above or below a central baseline. It registered 9.5 on the Richter scale.

Summary of the Richter Scale

Magnitude Descripton

Recorded on local
1–2+ seismographs but not
generally felt

3–4+ Often felt, no damage

Widely felt, slight damage near

5+
epicenter

Damage to poorly constructed

buildings and other structures
6+
within tens of miles or
kilometers from epicenter

“Major” earthquake causing

7+ serious damage within up to
100 km (60 mi) of epicenter

“Great” earthquake causing

great destruction and loss of
8+
life in areas more than 100 km
(60 mi) from epicenter

“Rare great” earthquake causing

major damage over a large
9+
▲ A seismologist monitors the strength region more than 1,000 km
(600 mi) from epicenter
of an earthquake.

302
EXPLAIN
 ◀ An earthquake
measured at
intensity VI on the
Mercalli scale can
cause damage
inside a building.

Summary of the Mercalli Scale

Intensity Descripton

Felt by persons at rest or

II in places more favorable to
sensing tremors

Felt indoors and outdoors;

Measuring Intensity IV
like vibrations of passing
heavy trucks; windows,
The strength of an earthquake doors, and dishes rattle

is also measured by its intensity. Felt by almost everyone,

walking is unsteady, pictures
Intensity is the strength of an VI
fall off walls, furniture may
move or fall over
earthquake that can be felt at the
surface. Prior to the Richter scale, VIII
Walls may collapse,
monuments may fall
the Mercalli (mer•KAH•lee) scale
Most buildings are destroyed,
was used to measure the intensity of X large landslides occur, train
tracks are bent slightly
earthquakes. The Mercalli scale tells
what people feel and observe when XII
Damage nearly total, objects
thrown into the air, some
an earthquake occurs. It includes 12 landforms moved
levels of increasing intensity numbered
with Roman numerals. It is based on
observed effects, not on mathematics.
Because earthquake waves become
weaker the farther they radiate from Quick Check
the epicenter, people who live at
Summarize Why do scientists rely
different distances from the epicenter
more on the Richter scale than on
will observe different effects. That
the Mercalli scale?
makes this scale much less scientific
and therefore much less reliable than Critical Thinking Define intensity
the Richter scale. in your own words.
303
EXPLAIN
How can we prepare for earthquakes?
The largest earthquake in recorded of the wave motion of an earthquake
California history was the Fort Tejon so that the building sways instead
earthquake of 1857. The earthquake of collapsing. Newer, more flexible
was named for Fort Tejon, the midway materials also have a better chance
point along a giant crack in the ground of bending without breaking during
and the only place near the fault where an earthquake. Highways are made
people lived at the time. If the Fort seismically safe by special supporting
Tejon earthquake were to hit the same structures.
area today, property damage and loss Earthquakes cannot be prevented
of life would be much greater. or predicted, but there are steps people
Many California cities and towns can take to minimize the effects of an
have taken action to limit the damage earthquake.
caused by earthquakes. They now
require that buildings and highways Quick Check
be designed to keep from collapsing—
Summarize How are buildings made
to be seismically safe.
more resistant to earthquakes?
Many new buildings have huge
shock absorbers built into their Critical Thinking Why is it
foundations. These absorb much important for buildings to be
seismically safe?

Earthquake Safety

After an Earthquake

During an Earthquake • Check yourself for

Before an Earthquake injuries.
• If you are outside,
• Make an emergency move into the open, • Remind your parents
escape plan with away from buildings, to turn off sources of
your family. streetlights, and utility natural gas, electricity,
wires. and water.
• Put together an
earthquake kit that • If you are in your house, • Know how and when
includes drinking go to the corner of to dial 9-1-1 or your
water, a flashlight, the room, away from local emergency
extra batteries, windows, shelves, or number and which
a portable radio, mirrors. radio station to tune
and a first-aid kit. to for emergency
• If you are in school, information.
• Take a course in first get under your desk,
aid and CPR. and follow the school • Stay away from
emergency plan. damaged buildings.

304
EXPLAIN
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Main Idea What causes earthquakes?
Faults are breaks in
the lithosphere where Vocabulary The point below the
movements take place surface of Earth where an earthquake
and earthquakes occur. begins is called the .
(pp. 298–299)
Summarize What is the difference
between the focus and the epicenter
Scientists use of an earthquake?
seismographs to
determine the focus
and the epicenter of
an earthquake.
(pp. 300–301) Ac[[O`g

Magnitude is the
measure of energy Critical Thinking What are some
released during an things you and your family could do
earthquake. to prepare for an earthquake?
(pp. 302–303)
Test Practice What is the point on
Earth’s surface above the focus
of an earthquake?
Make a A fault
Study Guide B epicenter
Make a half-book C seismograph
(see pp. 487–490). D magnitude
Use the titles shown. Test Practice What is the measure
On the inside of the of the energy released during an
tab, write a summary earthquake?
paragraph about A triangulation
earthquakes. B focus
C magnitude
D intensity

Writing Link Math Link

Persuasive Writing Measure Earthquakes
Write a letter to the editor of a local Find the difference in the energy
newspaper to persuade people to take released by two earthquakes measured
appropriate actions to make the town on the Richter scale: an 8.2 earthquake
safer in the event of an earthquake. and a 7.7 earthquake. Show how you
found your answer.

-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 305

EVALUATE
 G I A N T Good explanatory
writing
▶ explains how
to complete
a specific task.
Earthquakes can create a series of low, long waves
called a tsunami (tsoo•NAH•mee). The waves race ▶ presents step-by-
across the ocean at speeds of up to 800 kilometers step instructions
in a logical way.
(500 miles) per hour. They can form a wall of water
up to 30 meters (100 feet) high. When a tsunami ▶ gives clear details
crashes onto land, it can destroy a village or town. that are easy to
Fortunately tsunami-warning systems have been follow.
established around the Pacific Ocean, including along
▶ uses time-order
the western coast of the United States. What can you
words, such as first,
do if you learn that a tsunami is coming? next, and last, to
First, gather household members. Turn on the radio make instructions
or television, and listen carefully to any instructions. clear.
Next, have an adult turn off any gas, water, and
electricity. Gather disaster supplies, such as a flashlight,
batteries, a portable radio, a first-aid kit, water, and
food. Then, quickly move to higher ground.

Write About It
Explanatory Writing Do online research
using the keywords earthquake safety
tip to find information about how to stay An earthquake in the Indian
safe during an earthquake. Work with Ocean on December 26, 2004,
a small group to write and illustrate an created a tsunami disaster.
information booklet for people moving
to California. Use time-order words or
spatial words in your instructions.

-Journal Write about it online

@ www.macmillanmh.com

ELA W 6.1.4. Use organizational features of electronic text (e.g., bulletin boards,
306 databases, keyword searches, e-mail addresses) to locate information.
EXTEND
What Is the Difference
Between High and Low
Elevations?
Many mountain ranges are the result of
the movement of tectonic plates. Some lower
elevations, such as trenches and rifts, were
also created by tectonic-plate movements.
Other low elevations, such as basins and
valleys, resulted from extinct volcanoes.
Elevations are measured with positive and
negative integers. Knowing how to use
integers can help you find the differences Use integers
between high and low elevations on Earth. To add or subtract
integers, use these
Elevation Elevation algorithms:
Place (meters) (feet)
▶ Adding a negative
Mount Everest, Nepal/China 8,850 29,035
number is the same
Bentley Subglacial Trench, Antarctica –2,555 – 8,383 as subtracting a
positive number.
Mount Whitney, California 4,421 14,505
36 + (–2) = 34
Mammoth Mountain, California 3,371 11,059
▶ Subtracting a
Denver, Colorado 1,609 5,280
negative number is
Death Valley, California – 86 –282 the same as adding
a positive number.
36 – (–2) = 38
Solve It
1. What is the difference in elevation between Mount Whitney
and Death Valley in meters and feet?
2. What is the distance in meters and feet from the top of Mount
Everest to the bottom of the Bentley Subglacial Trench?
3. Make up your own integer problem about elevation. Trade
papers with a classmate, and solve each other’s problem.

MA NS 6.2.3. Solve addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division problems,

including those arising in concrete situations, that use positive and negative 307
integers and combinations of these operations. EXTEND
Lesson 4

Volcanoes

What is the most spectacular natural event

that you can think of? Many people would
say a volcano. Erupting volcanoes are some of
nature’s best “sound-and-light shows.” How
can you make a model of a volcanic eruption?

6 ES 1.a. Students know evidence of plate tectonics is derived from the fit of the
continents; the location of earthquakes, volcanoes, and mid-ocean ridges; and the
distribution of fossils, rock types, and ancient climatic zones. • 6 ES 1.d. Students
know that earthquakes are sudden motions along breaks in the crust called faults
and that volcanoes and fissures are locations where magma reaches the surface.
• 6 ES 1.e. Students know major geologic events, such as earthquakes, volcanic
308 eruptions, and mountain building, result from plate motions.
ENGAGE
How can you make a model Materials

volcano erupt?
Make a Prediction
What do you think will happen if you try to make
a volcano with baking soda and vinegar? Will it
behave like a real volcano? Write your answer as
a prediction in the form “If a model of a volcano • deep-sided plastic
is made out of baking soda and vinegar, then . . .” tray
1
• cup clear vinegar
Test Your Prediction 2

• red food coloring

Fill the plastic container with a few inches of
baking soda, and place it in the middle of the • narrow plastic
tray. Be Careful. Wear goggles. container
• sand
Build the sand up around the container, leaving
the top of the jar exposed. • baking soda

Add a few drops of food coloring to the vinegar. • safety goggles

Slowly and carefully pour the colored vinegar

Step
into the container. Observe and record what
happens.

Draw Conclusions
Analyze How would you explain what you
observed? Was it like a real volcano?
Did your observations support your prediction?
Infer What do you think would have happened
if there had been a lid on the container?

Explore More Step

What would happen if the opening of the container
were larger? If it were smaller? Make a prediction
and test it. Then analyze and present your results.

6 IE 7.d. Communicate the steps and results from an

investigation in written reports and oral presentations.

309
EXPLORE
 What are volcanoes?
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 1.a, d, e
When you think of a volcano, you may
picture a smooth-sided mountain shaped like
Volcanoes and related
features are located a cone. Some of the world’s most famous
along plate boundaries mountains are volcanic peaks. However, not all
where magma and other volcanoes are mountains.
materials reach the
Volcanoes are vents in Earth’s crust through
surface.
which magma, gases, and other materials are
▶ Vocabulary forced out. Magma is molten, or hot and melted,
rock cycle, p. 313 rock below Earth’s surface. Lava is magma
cinder cone volcano, p. 314 that flows out onto Earth’s surface. Openings
shield volcano, p. 314 through which volcanic materials erupt
composite volcano, p. 315 are called vents. Long, narrow
mountain belt, p. 318 vents are called fissures.
volcanic island arc, p. 318
Ring of Fire, p. 319
hot spot, p. 319 How Volcanoes Form
hot spring, p. 320
geyser, p. 320

-Glossary
@ www.macmillanmh.com

▶ Reading Skill
Draw Conclusions

BSfb1ZcSa 1]\QZcaW]\a

310
EXPLAIN
Lassen Peak Volcanic Forces
Most volcanoes, like most
1914 earthquakes, occur along the boundaries
between shifting tectonic plates.
Volcanoes are created by powerful
forces within Earth. As one tectonic
plate moves under another, the rock in
the mantle melts and becomes magma.
Melting rock produces gases that
become mixed with the magma. Over
time, gas-filled magma rises because
it is less dense than the solid rock
around it. Rising magma accumulates
1994
in a weak part of the overlying rock,
forming a magma chamber. Magma
chambers are the reservoirs from
which volcanic materials erupt.
The rocks above press down on
the magma, creating great pressure.
When the pressure is released, volcanic
materials erupt and move out to the
surface through vents and fissures.
Reading Photos Lava hardens into rocks. Lava rocks
and other volcanic materials pile up
Has this volcano erupted recently? around the vent. As they continue to
Clue: What is covering the volcano accumulate, they build up landforms.
in the later picture? Forceful explosions may blow out the
tops of these landforms to form craters.
Craters are bowl-shaped depressions.
Although volcanoes are destructive,
they can create new islands and enlarge
existing islands.

Quick Check
Draw Conclusions How are
volcanoes different from mountains?
Critical Thinking What might be
some signs that tell scientists that
volcanic eruptions have occurred
under the ocean?

311
EXPLAIN
What are the three main types of rocks?
Earth has many kinds of rocks, but all rocks can be
classified as one of three main types. Each of the three
main types of rocks is described below.

Igneous Rocks
When a volcano erupts, lava flows or shoots out
of the volcano. Rocks that form from lava cool and
harden very quickly. They have a fine texture. Many
look shiny like glass. Basalt is an igneous rock that
forms from lava.
Rocks that form from magma, below Earth’s surface,
cool very slowly. These rocks have a coarse texture.
Granite is an igneous rock that forms below Earth’s
surface. granite

Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are made of bits and pieces
of other rocks. Water and wind wear away rocks,
breaking them down into smaller pieces. These pieces
are carried by wind or water or moved by gravity.
Over time these pieces are deposited, and layers of
bits and pieces build up. As the number of layers
increases, pressure builds up on the bottom layers.
Particles squeeze together and harden into rocks.
Sedimentary rocks that form in water often
contain pieces of shell or fossils of animals or plants.
Sedimentary rocks may also contain crystals of
minerals that were once dissolved in the water. When
the water dries, the minerals remain behind as crystals. sandstone

Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been
changed. Metamorphic rocks were once igneous,
sedimentary, or even other metamorphic rocks
that were exposed to high temperatures, and great
pressure. The high temperatures and pressure
changed the form of the original rocks.
Metamorphic rocks often form deep underground.
They can form when rocks come in contact with hot
magma or lava. As magma rises in the crust, the
layers of rock that it pushes through or against can
be changed into metamorphic rock. marble

312
EXPLAIN
 Rock Cycle
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aSRW[S\bO`g`]QY Reading Diagrams

How do rocks change from

one form to another?
Clue: Follow the arrows.
How Rocks Change
Over and Over
Here is a question to think about. There was no solid rock, only
Where do rocks come from? Your magma. It seems likely that the very
first thoughts might be: “Igneous first rocks to form and begin the rock
rocks come from magma or lava.” cycle were igneous rocks.
“Sedimentary rocks come from
sediment.” The simplest answer is Quick Check
that all rocks come from other rocks.
Rocks are continually changed from Draw Conclusions Would igneous
one type to another in a never-ending rocks be likely to contain fossils?
cycle called the rock cycle . Critical Thinking Granite is
Although the rock cycle has no common underneath the crust
beginning and no end, all rocks had of the continents. Basalt is more
to begin somewhere. There is evidence common as part of the ocean floor.
that Earth started out totally molten. Explain why.
313
EXPLAIN
What kinds of volcanic
landforms are there?
No two volcanoes are exactly
alike. Volcanoes differ in the kinds of
materials they eject, in the intensity
and frequency of eruptions, and in the
types of landforms that result. There
are three main kinds of landforms
created by volcanic eruptions.
One kind is a cinder cone volcano ,
composite cone
a volcano mainly made up of small
rock particles, or cinders. As erupting
lava shoots into the air, it breaks into
small fragments that cool and harden
as they fall back to the ground. These
fragments pile up around the vent,
forming a small cone with steep sides. A cinder cone volcano
forms when the ejected
Paricutín in Mexico is an example debris piles up around the
of a cinder cone volcano. It began in vent. These volcanoes are
a cornfield, and within a year it had often small and steep.
reached a height of 450 m (1,500 ft).
A second kind of volcanic landform
is a shield volcano. A shield volcano
is made up of layers of lava rocks. As
liquid lava flows out at the surface
from a vent, it spreads out in all
directions. The lava eventually cools
and hardens into rock. Successive
layers of lava rock build up to form
a volcano with broad, gently sloping
sides. Its dome shape resembles an
outward surface of a shield carried by
ancient warriors.

shield volcano

314
EXPLAIN
 Shield volcanoes are some of the
world’s largest volcanoes. The largest
A composite cone forms is Mauna Loa in Hawaii. Thousands
when volcanic rocks of overlapping lava flows have raised
alternate with magma.
this mountain to an elevation of
These volcanoes cause
the most damage.
4,170 m (13,680 ft) above sea level.
Measured from its base on the ocean
floor to its highest point, Mauna
Loa is taller than Mount Everest, the
world’s tallest land mountain.
The third kind of volcanic
landform is a composite volcano ,
a landform made up of layers of lava
flows alternating with layers of ash,
cinders, and rocks. These layers form
symmetrical cones with steep sides that
are concave, or curving inward. Many
composite volcanoes are higher than
2,740 m (9,000 ft) from their bases.
Mount Peleé, on the island of
Martinique in the Caribbean, is an
example of a composite volcano. When
it erupted in 1902, it destroyed the
town of St. Pierre. Only a few of St.
Pierre’s thousands of inhabitants
survived. Another example is Mount
cinder cone
Vesuvius. This volcano erupted in a.d.
79, causing the destruction of Pompeii
and Herculaneum in what is now Italy.

Quick Check
Draw Conclusions What three
A shield volcano is built kinds of landforms are created by
over time by lava flow. the eruptions of volcanoes?
Because the lava flows
slowly over time, there Critical Thinking Why do you think
are no major eruptions. it would take a long time for a shield
volcano such as Mauna Loa to form?

315
EXPLAIN
 ▲ devastation from the 1980 eruption
of Mount Saint Helens

How do eruptions differ?

In some cases volcanoes erupt in builds up shield volcanoes. Lava rock
violent explosions. In other cases lava may be formed as the lava cools and
simply flows out slowly and quietly. hardens.
There are also examples of volcanoes Strombolian eruptions are named
that erupt in ways that lie between for a volcanic island off the coast of
these two extremes. Some lava flows Italy. Thick magma accumulates in
move as quickly as a car speeding down the vent and builds up pressure that
a highway. Others move more slowly is released, emitting fragments that
than a person strolling through a park. pile up into cinder cones. Strombolian
Scientists who study volcanoes eruptions occur frequently and are
classify eruptions according to their fairly gentle because pressure is
violence. The different types of released gradually.
eruptions are named for the places Vulcanian eruptions take their
where they typically occur or have name from Vulcano, a volcano
typically occurred. near the island of Sicily. Vulcanian
Hawaiian eruptions, named for the eruptions typically begin with huge,
volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands, are loud explosions followed by smaller
the least violent type. Highly liquid ones. Ash, dust, and other volcanic
lava generally flows out slowly and materials are blown into the air.
316
EXPLAIN
 Tourists view the
crater of Mount
Vesuvius. Mount
The most violent Vesuvius, below,
volcanic eruptions are overlooks the ruins
called Peléean, named of Pompeii.
for Mount Pelée in the
Caribbean. Gases trapped
in sticky magma build up
tremendous pressure. As pressure
is released, tons of rock and ash are
thrown into the air as parts of the
mountain are blown away. Clouds of
hot, poisonous gases rush down from
the vent. The 1980 eruption of Mount
Saint Helens in Washington State was a
Peléean eruption.
Scientists also classify volcanoes
according to how often they erupt.
A volcano may be considered active,
intermittent, dormant, or extinct.
Active volcanoes erupt constantly.
Intermittent volcanoes erupt at fairly
frequent intervals. Dormant volcanoes
have become inactive, but people are
not certain that they will not erupt
again. Dormant is from the French
word for “sleep.” Volcanoes that have
not erupted within recorded history
are considered extinct.

Quick Check
Draw Conclusions How do the
types of volcanic eruptions differ?
Critical Thinking Do you think
that a quick lava flow is more
dangerous or less dangerous
than a slow one? Give a reason
to support your answer.

317
EXPLAIN
What are subduction zones, 9OcOW

island arcs, and hot spots?

Rocks of the lithosphere are constantly destroyed
and created by tectonic activity. The lithosphere is slowly
being recycled. Recycling takes place along convergent
boundaries between tectonic plates.
When an oceanic plate and a continental plate collide,
the oceanic plate slides beneath the continental plate.
The rocks in the overriding continental plate are folded,
faulted, and pushed up to form mountains. Some of these
mountains are volcanoes. The Cascade Range includes Hawaii is the
volcanoes such as Mount Shasta, Mount Saint Helens, and youngest island
Mount Rainier. Closely spaced mountains form mountain in the chain.
ranges. Several mountain ranges that lie parallel to one Lava is still being
poured onto the
another make up a mountain belt .
island to form new
When two oceanic plates move toward each other, one structures.
may be subducted, or forced under the other. This process
causes volcanoes to form. Heated rock in the subducted plate
melts into magma. Erupting lava and other materials pile up
on the overriding plate to form marine volcanoes. Eventually
these volcanoes rise above sea level to emerge as islands. A
long, curved chain of volcanic islands is a volcanic island arc .

Subduction

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Subduction can occur when two plates

collide. The denser plate slides under the
318 other plate and becomes part of the mantle.
EXPLAIN
 Cooling Candle Lava
=OVc Watch while your teacher holds
a lighted candle about 1 ft above
;]Z]YOW the tray so that a drop of melted
wax falls on the tray.
;OcW

6OeOWW

Observe This procedure will

be repeated several times, with
V]b your teacher holding the candle
a^]b at different heights. Observe the
cooled drops.
From which height did the molten
wax spatter the most? The least?
What shape did the cooled wax
The Ring of Fire take?
Island arcs are common in the How does this experiment explain
Pacific Ocean, where they border the cooled shapes of lava from
deep ocean trenches. Examples are a volcanic eruption?
the Aleutian Islands, Japan, and the
Philippines. Island arcs are part of
what is known as the Ring of Fire. Hot spots remain fixed in their
The Ring of Fire is a zone of frequent positions as the plates above them
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. move. In this way new volcanic islands
The Ring of Fire encircles the Pacific are formed as older ones move away.
Basin. The illustration above shows the oldest
Although most volcanoes occur and newest Hawaiian islands that
along plate boundaries, the volcanic formed as the Pacific Plate moved over
islands of Hawaii are exceptions. These the fixed Hawaiian hot spot.
islands are situated far from the nearest
plate boundaries. They were formed Quick Check
over hot spots. A hot spot is a region
Draw Conclusions How do hot
of volcanic activity in the middle of
spots form new land?
a tectonic plate. Here material from
the mantle rises, forming magma that Critical Thinking Why does
eventually erupts. subduction cause volcanoes to form?
319
EXPLAIN
What are hot springs, Old Faithful geyser

geysers, and fumaroles?

Geysers and hot springs are places
of new volcanic activity. They occur in
many parts of the world. Many of them
can be found in Yellowstone National
Park. This area sits above a hot spot in
the crust. Magma lies below Yellowstone,
producing heat for geysers and hot
springs. A hot spring is a stream of
hot, bubbling water that flows out of
the ground continuously. It occurs when
magma heats water in the ground. The
hot water is less dense and rises back to
the surface through cracks and fissures.
A geyser is a fountain of hot water
and steam that shoots into the air at
regular or irregular intervals. Steam
trapped underground builds up pressure. Quick Check
When the pressure is high enough, water
Draw Conclusions How are
and steam are forced out of the ground.
a fumarole and a geyser related?
A fumarole occurs when only steam
reaches the surface. The temperatures Critical Thinking What is a
of the water and steam are very hot and property of water vapor that
dangerous. causes a geyser to erupt?

hot spring, Yellowstone

National Park

320
EXPLAIN
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Main Idea Where are volcanoes usually
Lava is molten rock
located?
that flows out from
a volcano onto the Vocabulary Molten rock that flows out
surface of Earth. onto the surface is called .
(pp. 310–311)
Draw Conclusions What is the
difference between magma and lava?
6OeOWW The Ring of Fire is
a zone of frequent BSfb1ZcSa 1]\QZcaW]\a
earthquakes and active
volcanoes encircling
V]b the Pacific Basin.
a^]b (pp. 318–319)
Critical Thinking Do you think that an
Geysers and hot extinct volcano will ever erupt? Why or
springs are features why not?
associated with Test Practice A is a
volcanic activity. landform made up of layers of lava
(p. 320) flows alternating with layers of ash,
cinders, and rocks.
A cinder cone volcano
Make a B fumarole
Study Guide C composite volcano
D geyser
Make a three-tab book
(see pp. 487–490). Use Test Practice A is a stream
the titles shown. On the of hot, bubbling water that flows out
inside of each tab, draw of the ground continuously.
conclusions about each A geyser
topic. B hot spot
C hot spring
D mountain belt

Writing Link Math Link

Volcanoes and Weather Calculate Volcanoes
Research the effects volcanoes have Alaska has about 40 active volcanoes,
had on weather conditions, using print or about 8 percent of all the active
and online sources. Write a one-page volcanoes on Earth. Calculate
report on your findings. approximately how many active
volcanoes there are on Earth.

-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com 321

EVALUATE
 Inquiry Structured
Materials
What are some characteristics
of volcanic rock?
Purpose
The cooling of lava from volcanoes is one way igneous rocks
are formed. The cooling rate determines the crystalline
hand lens structure and the appearance of the rocks. When lava cools
immediately, there are no visible crystals, and the rocks look
glassy. However, when lava takes a
Step
few days to cool, the crystals appear
very small and look like grains of
sand. When the lava cools over the
span of a few years, the crystals
igneous rock
become very large and create large
samples
rocks. What are some characteristics
of volcanic rocks? Write your answer
as a prediction in the form “If the rock
is igneous, then . . .”
Step

small cup Procedure

Observe Use a hand lens to look
at each rock sample.
Sketch the crystals, or grains,
in your journal.
Define Based on Observations
Feel each rock. Describe the Step
texture in your journal.
Classify Record the color and
coarseness of the grains for each
sample.
Experiment Place each rock
in a cup of water. Record your
observations.
Step

6 IE 7.e. Recognize whether evidence is

322
consistent with a proposed explanation.
EXTEND
Draw Conclusions
Analyze Are any of the characteristics the same in all of your
samples? Why do you think the similarities or differences
occurred?
Explain What factors influenced the color of the rocks that
you observed?

Inquiry Guided

What happens when the pressure

changes inside a volcano?
Form a Hypothesis
Can changes in the amount of pressure in a volcano change the
force of the eruption? Write your answer as a hypothesis in the
form “If the pressure in a volcano increases, then . . .”

Test Your Hypothesis

Design an experiment to investigate what happens inside a
volcano when there is an increase in magma or gas pressure.
Write out the materials you will need and the steps you will follow.
Record your results and observations.

Draw Conclusions
What changes did you make to your volcano to increase the
internal pressure? Did your experiment support your hypothesis?
Why or why not? Present your results to your classmates.

Inquiry Open

What else would you like to learn about volcanoes? Remember to follow the
Would you like to know about the different types steps of the scientific process.
of volcanoes? Design an experiment to answer your
question. Your experiment must be organized to Ask a Question
test only one variable, or one item being changed.
Record the research materials you used for your Form a Hypothesis
experiment.
Test Your Hypothesis

Draw Conclusions

323
EXTEND
Lesson 5

How Plate
Tectonics
Affects California
Death Valley, California

What forces in Earth caused California to take

the shape it has today? What caused Mount
Shasta to soar 4,317 m (14,162 ft) above sea
level? Why is Death Valley so far below sea level?

6 ES 1.f. Students know how to explain major features of California geology

324 (including mountains, faults, volcanoes) in terms of plate tectonics.
ENGAGE
How do plate movements Materials

affect California?
Make a Prediction
Can you make a model of the forces that have
shaped California? Write your answer as a
prediction in the form “If two plates slide past
each other, then . . .” • two pieces of
cardboard
Test Your Prediction • sand or flour

Place the pieces of cardboard on a flat surface, Step

and cover each with a layer of sand or flour.
Without disturbing the sand or flour, push the
two pieces of cardboard together so that the
edges line up.
Slowly slide one piece of cardboard along the
edge of the other.
Observe What happens as one piece of
cardboard slides past the other? Record your
observations.

Draw Conclusions
How does this model show what happens when
two plates move against each other? Place
two markers, such as lumps of clay or sugar
cubes, on either side of the fault. Describe their
relationship to each other after movement along
the fault. Draw a line through the sand across
the fault to represent a river. How is the river
affected by movement along the fault?

Explore More
How do the effects of movement compare when the two sides
slide past each other slowly and quickly? Design an experiment
that would compare the effects of two plates sliding past each
other at different rates.
6 IE 7.b. Select and use appropriate tools and technology (including
calculators, computers, balances, spring scales, microscopes, and
binoculars) to perform tests, collect data, and display data.

325
EXPLORE
 What parts of California lie
▶ Main Idea 6 ES 1.f on different plates?
The major features of California lies on two lithospheric plates. Most
California’s landscape of the state rests on the North American Plate ,
are the result of plate which includes all of North America and part
tectonics.
of the Atlantic Ocean. A small part of California
▶ Vocabulary rests on the Pacific Plate . The Pacific Plate
North American Plate, p. 326 consists of the Pacific Ocean and a narrow
Pacific Plate, p. 326 piece of California west of the North American
San Andreas Fault, p. 326 Plate. In California the North American Plate
Central Valley, p. 328 and the Pacific Plate slide past each other
Los Angeles Basin, p. 328 along a deep crack in Earth’s crust called the
Ventura Basin, p. 328 San Andreas Fault .

-Glossary
@ www.macmillanmh.com

▶ Reading Skill
Draw Conclusions

BSfb1ZcSa 1]\QZcaW]\a

San Andreas fault line is where

the Pacific Plate and the
North American Plate meet.

326
EXPLAIN
The San Andreas Fault
The San Andreas Fault begins sides of the fault move as much as
at a point on the coast north of several meters (several yards) apart.
San Francisco and runs about The land west of the San Andreas
1,300 km (800 mi) south into Fault was once a part of Mexico. Over
Mexico and the Gulf of California. millions of years, it has moved about
Its location is marked at the surface 320 km (200 mi) to where it is now.
by ridges, troughs, offset streams, and
mismatched rocks across the fault line. Quick Check
The Pacific Plate is slowly but steadily
Draw Conclusions How does the
moving northwest along the fault. It
Pacific Plate move?
moves at an average of about 5 cm
(2 in.) per year. Sometimes the Pacific Critical Thinking Where do you
Plate does not move at all for years. think the Pacific Plate will be
Then, suddenly, the rocks on both located in 2 million years?

San Andreas Fault Zone

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327
EXPLAIN
What features of Coastal Construction

California are the result

of plate tectonics?
California has not always looked
the way it does today. Many of the
different landforms now visible in
California were created by the Pacific
Plate pushing into the North American
Plate. Millions of years ago, much
of Central and Southern California Land, long ago pushed upward
was underwater. The western coast of and northward, helped form
Big Sur’s rugged coastline.
North America ran south from Idaho
through Eastern California.

Valleys and Mountains

The Central Valley is an area It is the largest valley in California,
of low land bordered by the Sierra covering about one-sixth of the state.
Nevada to the east and the Coast The Los Angeles Basin is
Ranges to the west. Deep layers of a depression lying between the
rock that have washed down from Transverse and the Peninsular ranges.
the surrounding mountains make up The basin is filled with rock material
the valley floor. The Central Valley that has washed down from these
extends for a distance of about 800 mountains. The Ventura Basin is a
km (500 mi) from north to south, and depression in the Transverse Ranges
its average width is 64 km (40 mi). where thick layers of rock material

◀ Produce from
the rich soil
of the Central
Valley, such as
these tomatoes,
is enjoyed
year-round.

328
EXPLAIN
 Folded Mountains
Make a model by stacking three
layers of clay on top of one
another, placing a piece of plastic
wrap between layers.
Place the clay stack on a tabletop
between two bricks.

Reading Photos

A highway was built on the edge of the

Coast Ranges. What special difficulties
faced the builders of this road?
Clue: Look at the bridge and its
location.
Slowly push the bricks toward
each other until the clay bends,
have accumulated. Both the Los or folds.
Angeles Basin and the Ventura Basin Observe What happened? Did
are unstable areas where tectonic you create a fold?
activity causes frequent earthquakes.
The Coast Ranges are a series of
narrow, low ridges that rise abruptly
from the sea. The ridges are made up about 640 km (400 mi) from north to
of layers of rock that have been lifted south in Eastern California. The Sierra
up, folded, and deformed. The ridges Nevada was formed when a large
are separated by valleys. block of rock was lifted up and tilted.
The Klamath Mountains and the The east face drops sharply in contrast
Cascade Range lie along California’s to the gentle western slope.
northern border. Long ago the
Klamath Mountains were an island. Quick Check
The high peaks of the Cascade Range Draw Conclusions What
are volcanic mountains. has created California’s major
The highest of California’s landforms?
mountain ranges is the Sierra Nevada. Critical Thinking How is the
Its name comes from the Spanish Central Valley similar to the
words meaning “jagged, or sawlike,” Los Angeles Basin?
and “snowy.” This range extends for
329
EXPLAIN
What are some of California’s
notable features?
California’s great variety of landforms
makes up some of our country’s most
remarkable scenery. Perhaps the most
famous feature of California is the
Sierra Nevada range, one of the largest
mountain ranges of its kind in the world.
Its natural beauty—jagged, snowcapped
peaks; glacial valleys; high waterfalls;
deep canyons; and forests of giant sequoia
trees—has been preserved in three
national parks: Yosemite, Kings Canyon,
and Sequoia.
Mount Whitney, at an elevation of
4,419 m (14,495 ft), is the highest point
in the state. Death Valley National Park,
just east of the southern part of the Sierra
Nevada, presents a very different picture.
Much of Death Valley lies below sea level,
and parts of it are barren desert. Its lowest
point, 86 m (282 ft) below sea level, is the
lowest point in North America.
Two famous snowcapped volcanic
peaks are part of Lassen Volcanic
National Park in the Cascade Range.
Mount Shasta last erupted in 1786.
Bridal Veil Falls, Yosemite
Lassen Peak last erupted continuously National Park, California
between 1914 and 1921.
California has three other national
parks, many national monuments, and Quick Check
many state parks where some of its most
interesting and unusual features can be Draw Conclusions What
seen. In other parts of California, you factors contribute to California’s
will find lava tubes, hot springs, geysers, remarkable scenery?
and evidence of folding and faulting. In
Critical Thinking What might
many ways California is the result of
account for the difference in
tectonic forces and these forces continue
elevation between the peak of
to reshape the state and influence people’s
Mount Whitney and the lowest
lives.
point of Death Valley?
330
EXPLAIN
Summarize the Main Idea Think, Talk, and Write
Most of California lies
Main Idea What events formed
the major features of California’s
on the North American
landscape?
Plate. A small part
rests on the Pacific Vocabulary A deep crack in Earth’s
Plate. crust in California is the .
(pp. 326–327)
Draw Conclusions What is the San
The Central Valley and Andreas Fault, and where is it located?
the Los Angeles Basin
were formed by plate BSfb1ZcSa 1]\QZcaW]\a

tectonics.
(pp. 328–329)

California’s great Critical Thinking Do you think that

variety of landforms the part of California west of the San
makes up some of Andreas Fault will always be a part of
this country’s most California? Explain.
remarkable scenery. Test Practice The is an
(p. 330) area of low land bordered by the Sierra
Nevada and the Coast Ranges.
Make a A Central Valley
Study Guide B Los Angeles Basin
C Ventura Basin
Make a three-tab book (see pp. 487–490). D Coast Ranges
Use the titles shown. On the inside of each
tab, draw conclusions about each topic. Test Practice On what does most
of California lie?
A the Pacific Plate
B the San Andreas Fault
C the North American Plate
D the Los Angeles Basin

Writing Link Social Studies Link

Persuasive Writing Research Plate Tectonics
Write a letter to a friend in another Use library and online sources to learn
state, urging the friend to visit about advances in technology that help
California. Use information about plate scientists map the ocean floor. Present
tectonics as well as descriptive language your findings to the class.
and scientific terms.

331
-Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com EVALUATE
Q u a k e P r e d i c to r s
Scientists have a good idea of understanding and predicting quakes.
where earthquakes will happen, but Today anyone can freely access
it’s much more difficult to predict real-time seismic data through the
when an earthquake will occur. By Internet, which gives scientists and the
developing more advanced tools, public a continuous, global view of
scientists have become better at earthquake activity.

1870s 1961
1870s Tracking Earthquakes from the Ground 1961 Organizing Earthquake Information
Geophysicist John Milne experiences earthquakes The World-Wide Standardized Seismic
firsthand in Japan. He knows that there must be Network (WWSSN) is established.
a way to measure the vibrations of Earth’s crust Scientists all over the globe can now share
during an earthquake. He works with a team of information to monitor both earthquakes
scientists to create a new tool that can detect and nuclear testing. Today the WWSSN
different types of earthquake waves and estimate continues as the Global Seismic Network
their speeds. It’s the first seismometer. By 1913, (GSN), consisting of 128 permanent
seismometers are placed in 40 earthquake seismic recording stations spread out
observatories around the world. evenly over Earth’s surface.

ELA R 6.2.7. Make reasonable assertions

332 about a text through accurate, supporting
citations.
EXTEND
 History of Science

2001 Tracking Earthquakes and Plate Motions from Space 2003 Computer Modeling
The Southern California Integrated GPS Network (SCIGN) Scientists at NASA’s Jet
uses Global Positioning System (GPS) technology to track Propulsion Laboratory
the movement of the North American and Pacific plates. develop computer models
This enables scientists to get accurate information about the of the San Andreas fault
shifting of plates during an earthquake. GPS includes a group system. Data from SCIGN is
of satellites that send entered into these models to
signals used to calculate help scientists understand
the precise position of earthquakes that occur.
receivers on the ground. Within a decade these models
The same system is used may be able to forecast some
to give driving directions types of earthquakes with
in some cars. better accuracy.

2001 2003
Draw Conclusions
Write About It ▶ Review the facts
Draw Conclusions and details.
1. Before the invention of the
seismometer, how do you think ▶ Think about what
people measured earthquakes? they suggest about
2. Why are satellites a useful the topic.
source of information about
movement on Earth’s surface?

-Journal Write about it online

@ www.macmillanmh.com

333
EXTEND
CHAPTER 5 Review
lly ac ybla y y yb y r y
u ar y y a y a ro y yl
Moving plates cause
composite lithosphere, p. 286
Earth’s surface to
change. volcano, p. 315
Mercalli scale, p. 303
(pp. 268–277) continental
Pangaea, p. 271
drift, p. 270
Richter scale, p. 302
convective
The outermost part San Andreas
of Earth consists of flow, p. 288
Fault, p. 326
a number of separate,
rigid plates.
(pp. 280–293) 1. The place where the North American
Plate and the Pacific Plate slide past
each other is called the .
Movements along faults 6 ES 1.f
cause earthquakes.
(pp. 296–305) 2. A landform made up of alternating
layers of lava and ash, cinders, and
rocks is a . 6 ES 1.d

3. Gathering information about an

Many volcanoes are
earthquake by interviewing people
located along plate
about what they felt involves the
boundaries.
. 6 ES 1.d
(pp. 308–321)
4. The rigid outer part of Earth is called
the . 6 ES 1.b
The major features of
California’s landscape 5. The theory that Earth once had a
are the result of plate single landmass that broke apart into
tectonics. pieces that drifted apart over time is
(pp. 324–331) called . 6 ES 1.a

6. Describing the intensity of an

a ya earthquake from the height of seismic
u yy u y waves recorded by a seismograph
involves the . 6 ES 1.d
Take a sheet of
paper and tape your 7. The landmass that existed more
lesson study guides than 200 million years ago is called
as shown. Use the . 6 ES 1.a
study guides to
answer the questions 8. The continuous circular pattern of
on these pages. fluids as they are heated and cooled
is . 6 ES 1.b

334 -Review Summaries and quizzes online @ www.macmillanmh.com

Answer each of the following
in complete sentences.
Bring Back the
9. Cause and Effect Describe three
Missing Piece
different kinds of plate collisions, Alfred Wegener put together many
and describe the geologic activity of the pieces of evidence needed to
associated with each. 6 ES 1.b, e support his theory of continental drift.
Your goal is to provide other evidence
10. Compare and Contrast Compare Wegener could have used, had he had
the three main types of volcanoes. the technology we have today.
Explain how they are alike and how
they are different. Include a diagram What to Do
if it will help you communicate the 1. Write a short story about traveling
information. 6 ES 1.d back in time to meet with Alfred
Wegener. Describe the evidence he
11. Critical Thinking If you worked at an had at the time and the problems
earthquake center and had to locate he faced.
the epicenter of an earthquake, how
2. Describe the information you would
would you proceed? 6 ES 1.d
bring back in time with you that would
12. Infer What does the presence of help explain how the continents could
marine fossils tell you about the drift apart.
history of the Mojave Desert? 6 ES 1.f
Analyze Your Results
13. Explanatory Writing Explain the ▶ How does technology help people
topography of California and how make advancements in science?
geologic activity shaped each
landform. 6 ES 1.f

What geologic forces have

shaped Earth’s landscape?

Pangaea

335
1 The large pieces of Earth’s surface, 4 Why do the tectonic plates on Earth
called plates, may include 6 ES 1.a move? 6 ES 1.b
A crust and core. A Earth’s gravity pulls them.
B earthquakes and volcanoes. B Ocean currents push them.
C continents and oceans. C Earth’s rotation pushes them.
D mantle and core. D Convection currents move them.

2 Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, 5 The table below lists Earth’s layers

and mountain building are geologic and their approximate maximum
events that take place along 6 ES 1.e temperatures.
A plate boundaries.
B state lines. Temperatures of
C national borders. Earth’s Layers
D coastal cities.
Crust 1,480°C (2,700°F)

3 The diagram below shows plate Mantle 3,980°C (7,200°F)

movement.
Core 7,480°C (13,500°F)
RWdS`US\b
P]c\RO`g Q]\dS`US\b
P]c\RO`g
Which hypothesis could you develop
from the data in the table? 6 IE 7.a
/ A The temperature of the crust is
0 1,480°C.
1 B If you go deeper into Earth, the
temperature increases.
C The temperature of the crust is
much hotter than the temperature
Q]\dSQbWdS of the core or the mantle.
TZ]e D As the pressure increases,
ZWbV]a^VS`WQ
^ZObS temperature decreases.
OabVS\]a^VS`S

6 Which of the following are sudden

What type of land feature will motions caused by breaks in Earth’s
be formed in section C on the crust along plate boundaries? 6 ES 1.d
diagram? 6 ES 1.c A plate tectonics
A a desert B earthquakes
B a valley C faults
C a mountain D volcanoes
D a shoreline

336
7 The diagram below shows 10 Which of the following best
a transform boundary. describes how volcanic landforms
are created? 6 ES 1.d
A Hot spots erupt, releasing lava and
magma which then harden into
landforms.
B Magma and lava are released into
the air, land on the surface of the
ocean, and create hot spots which
then harden into landforms.
C Hardened landforms erupt, creating
hot spots and releasing lava and
Which of the following events occurs magma which then harden into new
7
along this boundary? 6 ES 1.e landforms.
D Hot spots continuously erupt
A volcanic eruptions
and then harden into landforms,
B earthquakes
releasing lava and magma.
C mountain formations
D island formations
11 Many landforms in California were
created by 6 ES 1.f
8 Which of the following causes an
earthquake? 6 ES 1.d A the Rocky Mountains’ spreading to
the western part of the country.
A lava moving to the top of a volcano
B the Pacific Plate’s pushing into the
B water penetrating Earth’s surface
North American Plate.
C sudden motion along breaks in
C eruptions of Mount St. Helens over
Earth’s crust
the years.
D high temperatures in Earth’s core
D volcanoes that are now dormant.

9 Which of the following is the area

12 Which of the following best
where the Pacific Plate slides past
describes the formation of the
the North American Plate? 6 ES 1.f
Sierra Nevada? 6 ES 1.f
A Los Angeles Basin
A A large block of rock was lifted up
B Ventura Basin
and tilted.
C San Andreas Fault
B Several glaciers melted and flooded
D Central Valley
the plains.
C High temperatures and pressure in
Earth’s core formed them.
D Several volcanic eruptions in the
Cascade Range formed them.

Materials prepared by PASS at 337