Determine Best Fit Information Sheet

Ethiopian TVET Collage
Training, Teaching and Learning Material
Ethiopian TVET-System
HARDWARE AND NETWORK

SERVICING
Level III
INFORMATION SHEET # 1
Unit of Competence: Determine Best Fit Topology
LO 1: Identify key information source
LO 1: Identify key information

Introduction to Computer Network

This lesson introduces some basic principles of computer-based networking, discusses advantages of
networking, and presents the idea of connecting computers together to form a local area network (such as a
corporate intranet) and a wide area network (such as the Internet).
At its most elementary level, a computer network consists of two computers connected to each other by a
cable that allows them to share data. All computer networking, no matter how sophisticated stems from that
simple system. While the idea of connecting two computers by a cable may not seem extraordinary,
in retrospect it has proven to be a major achievement in communications.
Computer networking arose as an answer to the need to share data in a timely fashion. Personal computers
are powerful tools that can process and manipulate large amounts of data quickly, but they do not allow users
to share that data efficiently. Before networks, users needed either to print out documents or copy document
files to a disk for others to edit or use them. If others made changes to the document, there was no easy way
to merge the changes. This was, and still is, known as "working in a stand-alone environment."
Copying files onto floppy disks and giving them to others to copy onto their computers was sometimes
referred to as the "sneakernet." This early form of computer networking is one that many of us have used
and perhaps still use today.
Definition of computer network
A network is a group of connected computers that allows people to share resources.
Advantage of a computer network
 File sharing

The major advantage of a computer network is that is allows file sharing and remote file access.
A person sitting at one workstation of a network can easily see the files present on the other
workstation, provided he is authorized to do so. It saves the time which is wasted in copying a file
from one system to another, by using a storage device. In addition to that, many people can access
or update the information stored in a database, making it up-to-date and accurate. Resource
 sharing[Hardware and software sharing]
Hardware like Printer, hard disk, CD-ROM and different software can be shared
 Increased Storage Capacity: A standalone computer might fall short of storage memory, but
when many computers are on a network, memory of different computers can be used in such case.
One can also design a storage server on the network in order to have a huge storage capacity.
 Centralized administration and support
From just a single location, the network administrator can perform administrative tasks on any
computer on the network, remote troubleshooting, for technical
 Increased Cost Efficiency: There are many software available in the market which are costly and
take time for installation. Computer networks resolve this issue as the software can be stored or
installed on a system or a server and can be used by the different workstations.
More specifically, computers that are part of a network can share:
 Documents (memos, spreadsheets, invoices, and so on).

 E-mail messages.
 Word-processing software.
 Illustrations, photographs, videos, and audio files.
 Live audio and video broadcasts.
 Printers.
 Fax machines.
 Modems.
 CD-ROM drives and other removable drives, such as Zip drives.
 Hard drives.
And more sharing options exist. The capabilities of networks are constantly expanding as new ways are
found to share and communicate by means of computers.
Disadvantage of a computer network

 Security Issue: One of the major drawbacks of computer networks is the security issues involved. If
a computer is a standalone, physical access becomes necessary for any kind of data theft. However, if
a computer is on a network, a computer hacker can get unauthorized access by using different tools.
In case of big organizations, various network security software are used to prevent the theft of any
confidential and classified data.
 Rapid spread of computer virus: If any computer system in a network gets affected by computer
virus, there is a possible threat of other systems getting affected too. Viruses get spread on a network
easily because of the interconnectivity of workstations. Such spread can be dangerous if the
computers have important database which can get corrupted by the virus.
 Expensive setup: The initial set up cost of a computer network can be high depending on the number
of computers to be connected. Costly devices like routers, switches, hubs, etc., can add up to the bills

of a person trying to install a computer network. He will also have to buy NICs (Network Interface
Cards) for each of the workstations, in case they are not inbuilt.
 Dependency on the main servers: In case the main File Server of a computer network breaks down,
the system becomes useless. In case of big networks, the File Server should be a powerful computer,
which often makes it expensive.
Hacker: A computer hacker is a person who finds out weaknesses in the computer and exploits it.
Hackers may be motivated by a multitude of reasons, such as profit, protest, or challenge
Workstation: PC connected to a network
Types of Computer Network

Based on the area coverage of the network, computer networks can be divides into two
A. Local Area Network (LAN)

B. Wide area Network (WAN)
C. Metropolitan area Network(MAN)
LANs
 Local area networks are used to interconnect distributed communities of computers located within
a single building or localized group of buildings.
 Since all equipment is located within a single establishment, LAN’s are normally installed and
maintained by the organization. Hence, they are also referred to as private data networks.
 Example: network in your class
MAN:
 Is a larger network that usually spans several buildings in the same city or town.
 Example: networks among Addis Ababa sub city administrations (Kifle Ketemas)
WANs
 When data communication is necessary or desired beyond the reach of a MAN, a wide area
network (WAN) over public carrier networks is established.
 Institutions transferring large amounts of data between offices often decide to lease dedicated
transmission lines from public carriers, in what is termed an enterprise-wide private network.
 Example : network among news agency offices in different region of Ethiopia.
Types of networks based on configuration (Node Relationship)

Terms to be familiar
 Servers—Computers that provide shared resources to network users.

 Clients—Computers that access shared network resources provided by a server.
 Media—The wires that make the physical connections.

 Shared data—Files provided to clients by servers across the network.

 Shared printers and other peripherals—Additional resources provided by servers.
 Resources—Any service or device, such as files, printers, or other items, made available for use by
members of the network
Based on the computers relationship on the network, computer networks can be categorized as Peer to Peer
and Server based network
Peer-to-Peer Networks
In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among the computers. All
the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers. Each computer functions as both a client and a
server, and there is no administrator responsible for the entire network. The user at each computer determines
what data on that computer is shared on the network. Peer to peer network are also called Workgroup
Where a Peer-to-Peer Network Is Appropriate
Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:
 There are 10 users or fewer.

 Users share resources, such as files and printers, but no specialized servers exist.
 Security is not an issue.
 The organization and the network will experience only limited growth within the foreseeable future.
Where these factors apply, a peer-to-peer network will probably be a better choice than a server-based
network.
Advantages of peer to peer network
 Easy to install and configure

 The cost of installation and operation is less
 A full time network administrator is not required
Disadvantages of peer to peer network
 Shared resources can be accessed by everyone

 Backup has to be performed on each computer separately
 No centralized security
Server Based network (client/server network)
In an environment with more than 10 users, a peer-to-peer network—with computers acting as both servers
and clients—will probably not be adequate. Therefore, most networks have dedicated servers. A dedicated

server is one that functions only as a server and is not used as a client or workstation. Servers are described
as "dedicated" because they are not themselves clients, and because they are optimized to service requests
from network clients quickly and to ensure the security of files and directories. Server based network is also
known as Domain.
Advantages of server based network
 Centralized resources
o Easier to backup files
o Easier to find files
 Efficient
 Security
o One machine can secure entrire network
o One central login
 Scalability
Disadvantage of client server
 If the server goes down, it takes part or the whole network with it
 It is more expensive to install
 Needs to be maintained by staff with high IT skills
Specialized servers
Servers must perform varied and complex tasks. Servers for large networks have become specialized to
accommodate the expanding needs of users. Following are examples of different types of servers
included on many large networks
File and Print Servers
File and print servers manage user access and use of file and printer resources.
Application Servers
Application servers make the server side of client/server applications, as well as the data, available to clients.
Mail Servers

Mail servers operate like application servers in that there are separate server and client applications, with data
selectively downloaded from the server to the client.
Fax Servers
Fax servers manage fax traffic into and out of the network by sharing one or more fax modem boards.
Communications Servers
Communications servers handle data flow and e-mail messages between the servers' own networks and other
networks, mainframe computers, or remote users who dial in to the servers over modems and telephone lines.
Directory Services Servers
Directory services servers enable users to locate, store, and secure information on the network
Network Topology
The term topology, or more specifically, network topology, refers to the arrangement or physical layout of
computers, cables, and other components on the network. "Topology" is the standard term that most network
professionals use when they refer to the network's basic design. In addition to the term "topology," you will
find several other terms that are used to define a network's design:
 Physical layout
 Design
 Diagram
 Map
A network's topology affects its capabilities. The choice of one topology over another will have an impact on
the:
 Type of equipment the network needs.

 Capabilities of the equipment.
 Growth of the network.
 Way the network is managed.
Developing a sense of how to use the different topologies is a key to understanding the capabilities of the
different types of networks.
Before computers can share resources or perform other communication tasks they must be connected. Most
networks use cable to connect one computer to another.
Category of Topology
1. Logical: describes the way network data flows through the physical components.

2. Physical: Physical topology describes how the physical components on a network are connected.
Standard Topologies
All network designs stem from four basic topologies:
 Bus
 Star
 Ring
 Mesh
Bus Topology
The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus" because the computers are connected in a straight line.
This is the simplest and most common method of networking computers.
Communication on the Bus
Computers on a bus topology network communicate by addressing data to a particular computer and sending
out that data on the cable as electronic signals. To understand how computers communicate on a bus, you
need to be familiar with three concepts:
 Sending the signal

 Signal bounce
 Terminator
Sending the Signal Network data in the form of electronic signals is sent to all the computers on the
network. Only the computer whose address matches the address encoded in the original signal accepts the
information. All other computers reject the data. Only one computer at a time can send messages.
Because only one computer at a time can send data on a bus network, the number of computers attached to
the bus will affect network performance. The more computers there are on a bus, the more computers will be
waiting to put data on the bus and, consequently, the slower the network will be.

The following is a list of factors that—in addition to the number of networked computers—will affect the
performance of a network:
 Hardware capabilities of computers on the network

 Total number of queued commands waiting to be executed
 Types of applications (client-server or file system sharing, for example) being run on the network
 Types of cable used on the network
 Distances between computers on the network
Computers on a bus either transmit data to other computers on the network or listen for data from other
computers on the network. They are not responsible for moving data from one computer to the next.
Consequently, if one computer fails, it does not affect the rest of the network.
Signal Bounce Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire network, it travels from one end of
the cable to the other. If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted, it will keep bouncing back and forth
along the cable and prevent other computers from sending signals. Therefore, the signal must be stopped
after it has had a chance to reach the proper destination address.
Terminator To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a terminator is placed at each end of the
cable to absorb free signals. Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that other computers can send data.
Both ends of each cable segment on the network must be plugged into something. For example, a cable end
can be plugged into a computer or a connector to extend the cable length. Any open cable ends not plugged
into something must be terminated to prevent signal bounce.
Disrupting Network Communication
A break in the cable will occur if the cable is physically separated into two pieces or if at least one end of the
cable becomes disconnected. In either case, one or both ends of the cable will not have a terminator, the
signal will bounce, and all network activity will stop. This is one of several possible reasons why a network
will go "down." This network will not work because it now has unterminated cables.
The computers on the network will still be able to function as stand-alone computers; however, as long as the
segment is broken, they will not be able to communicate with each other or otherwise access shared
resources. The computers on the down segment will attempt to establish a connection; while they do so,
workstation performance will be slower.
Disadvantages of Bus topology
 If there is a break anywhere in the cable or if an end is not terminated, the signal will travel back
and forth across the network and all communication will stop.
 The more computers there are on the bus, the greater the backup of computers waiting to put data
on the bus, and consequently, the slower the network.
 In addition, because of the way computers communicate in a bus topology, there may be a lot of
noise. Noise is the traffic generated on the network when computers attempt to communicate with
each other simultaneously.

Star Topology
In the star topology, cable segments from each computer are connected to a centralized component called a
hub or switch. Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all computers on the
network
Advantage of Star topology
 An advantage of the star topology is that if one computer on the star topology fails, only the failed
computer is unable to send or receive data. The remainder of the network functions normally.
Disadvantage of star topology
 The disadvantage of using this topology is that because each computer is connected to a hub, if
the hub fails, the entire network fails. In addition, noise is created on the network in a star
topology.
Ring Topology
The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable. Unlike the bus topology, there are no
terminated ends. The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each computer, which
can act as a repeater to boost the signal and send it on to the next computer
One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. (A token is a special series of bits that
travels around a token-ring network. Each network has only one token.) The token is passed from computer
to computer until it gets to a computer that has data to send. The sending computer modifies the token, puts

an electronic address on the data, and sends it around the ring. The data passes by each computer until it finds
the one with an address that matches the address on the data.
The receiving computer returns a message to the sending computer indicating that the data has been received.
After verification, the sending computer creates a new token and releases it on the network. The token
circulates within the ring until a workstation needs it to send data.
Advantage of Ring topology

 The advantage of a ring topology is that each computer acts as a repeater, regenerating the signal
and sending it on to the next computer, thereby preserving signal strength.
Disadvantage of Ring topology
 The disadvantage of a ring topology is that only one computer at a time can send data on a single
token ring. Also, ring topologies are usually more expensive than bus technologies.
 If one computer fails, the network will fail
Mesh Topology
A mesh topology network offers superior redundancy and reliability. In a mesh topology, each computer is
connected to every other computer by separate cabling. This configuration provides redundant paths
throughout the network so that if one cable fails, another will take over the traffic. While ease of
troubleshooting and increased reliability are definite pluses, these networks are expensive to install because
they use a lot of cabling. Often, a mesh topology will be used in conjunction with other topologies to form a
hybrid topology.

Advantage of Mesh topology
 An advantage of a mesh topology is its back-up capabilities by providing multiple paths through
the network.
Disadvantage of Mesh topology
 Because redundant paths require more cable than is needed in other topologies, a mesh topology
can be expensive.
Hybrid Topology
It is a combination of two or more standard topologies
Star Bus
The star bus is a combination of the bus and star topologies. In a star-bus topology, several star topology
networks are linked together with linear bus trunks.
If one computer goes down, it will not affect the rest of the network. The other computers can continue to
communicate. If a hub goes down, all computers on that hub are unable to communicate. If a hub is linked to
other hubs, those connections will be broken as well.

Star Ring
The star ring (sometimes called a star-wired ring) appears similar to the star bus. Both the star ring and the
star bus are centered in a hub that contains the actual ring or bus. Linear-bus trunks connect the hubs in a star
bus, while the hubs in a star ring are connected in a star pattern by the main hub.
Selecting a topology

There are many factors to consider when deciding which topology best suits the needs of an
organization. The following table provides some guidelines for selecting a topology.
Topology Advantages Disadvantages

Bus Use of cable is economical. Network can slow down in heavy traffic.
Problems are difficult to isolate.

Media is inexpensive and easy to work with.
System is simple and reliable. Cable break can affect many users.
Bus is easy to extend.

Ring System provides equal access for all computers. Failure of one computer can impact the
rest of the network.
Performance is even despite many users.
Problems are hard to isolate.
Network reconfiguration disrupts

operation.
Star Modifying system and adding new computers is easy. If the centralized point fails, the network
fails.
Centralized monitoring and management are possible.
Failure of one computer does not affect the rest of the

network.
Mesh System provides increased redundancy and reliability as System is expensive to install because it
well as ease of troubleshooting. uses a lot of cabling.
Network Transmition media

Transmission Media
Transmission Medium is the physical path between transmitter and receiver in a data communication
system. The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined both by the characteristics
of the medium and characteristics of the signal.
Media of data transmission:
1. Guided Transmission media- Data transmission is through solid medium (wired system).
2. Unguided Transmission media– Data transmission through air /space (i.e. wireless system)

Guided transmission media (Cable)

Transmission capacity of guided media is described with respect to:
 Data rate or bandwidth
 Distance the media can run
Commonly Types of Cables
 Twisted pair
 Coaxial cable
 Optical fiber
Coaxial Cable
In its simplest form, coaxial cable consists of a core of copper wire surrounded by insulation, a braided metal
shielding, and an outer cover. The term shielding refers to the woven or stranded metal mesh (or other
material) that surrounds some types of cabling. Shielding protects transmitted data by absorbing stray
electronic signals, called noise, so that they do not get onto the cable and distort the data. Cable that contains
one layer of foil insulation and one layer of braided metal shielding is referred to as dual shielded. For
environments that are subject to higher interference, quad shielding is available. Quad shielding consists of
two layers of foil insulation and two layers of braided metal shielding.
The core of a coaxial cable carries the electronic signals that make up the data. This wire core can be either
solid or stranded. If the core is solid, it is usually copper.
Surrounding the core is a dielectric insulating layer that separates it from the wire mesh. The braided wire
mesh acts as a ground and protects the core from electrical noise and crosstalk.
A no conducting outer shield—usually made of rubber, Teflon, or plastic—surrounds the entire cable.
Coaxial cable is more resistant to interference and attenuation than twisted-pair cabling
Types of Coaxial Cable

There are two types of coaxial cable:
 Thin (thinnet) cable

 Thick (thicknet) cable
Which type of coaxial cable you select depends on the needs of your particular network.
Thinnet Cable Thinnet cable is a flexible coaxial cable about 0.64 centimeters (0.25 inches) thick. Because
this type of coaxial cable is flexible and easy to work with, it can be used in almost any type of network
installation.
Thinnet coaxial cable can carry a signal for a distance of up to approximately 185 meters (about 607 feet)
before the signal starts to suffer from attenuation
Thicket Cable Thicknet cable is a relatively rigid coaxial cable about 1.27 centimeters (0.5 inches) in
diameter. Thicknet cable is sometimes referred to as Standard Ethernet because it was the first type of cable
used with the popular network architecture Ethernet. Thicknet cable's copper core is thicker than a thinnet
cable core. The thicker the copper core, the farther the cable can carry signals. This means that thicknet can
carry signals farther than thinnet cable. Thicknet cable can carry a signal for 500 meters (about 1640 feet).
Therefore, because of thicknet's ability to support data transfer over longer distances, it is sometimes used as
a backbone to connect several smaller thinnet-based networks.
Coaxial-Cable Connection Hardware
Both thinnet and thicknet cable use a connection component, known as a BNC connector, to make the
connections between the cable and the computers
Twisted-Pair Cable
In its simplest form, twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated strands of copper wire twisted around each
other

A number of twisted-pair wires are often grouped together and enclosed in a protective sheath to form a
cable. The total number of pairs in a cable varies. The twisting cancels out electrical noise from adjacent
pairs and from other sources such as motors, relays, and transformers.
Two types of twisted pair cable
 Unshielded twisted pair cable(UTP)

 Shielded twisted pair cable (STP)
Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable
UTP, using the 10BaseT specification, is the most popular type of twisted-pair cable and is fast becoming the
most popular LAN cabling. The maximum cable length segment is 100 meters, about 328 feet
There are five categories of UTP
 Category 1 This refers to traditional UTP telephone cable that can carry voice but not data
transmissions. Most telephone cable prior to 1983 was Category 1 cable.
 Category 2 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 4 megabits per second
(Mbps). It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
 Category 3 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up to 16 Mbps. It consists of
four twisted pairs of copper wire with three twists per foot.
four twisted pairs of copper wire.
four twisted pairs of copper wire.
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable
STP cable uses a woven copper-braid jacket that is more protective and of a higher quality than the jacket
used by UTP. STP also uses a foil wrap around each of the wire pairs. This gives STP excellent shielding to
protect the transmitted data from outside interference, which in turn allows it to support higher transmission
rates over longer distances than UTP.

UTP
STP
Connection hardware Twisted-pair cabling uses RJ-45 telephone connectors to connect to a computer.
These are similar to RJ-11 telephone connectors. Although RJ-11 and RJ-45 connectors look alike at first
glance, there are crucial differences between them.
The RJ-45 connector is slightly larger and will not fit into the RJ-11 telephone jack. The RJ-45 connector
houses eight cable connections, while the RJ-11 houses only four.
Fiber-Optic Cable
In fiber-optic cable, optical fibers carry digital data signals in the form of modulated pulses of light. This is a
relatively safe way to send data because, unlike copper-based cables that carry data in the form of electronic
signals, no electrical impulses are carried over the fiber-optic cable. This means that fiberoptic cable cannot
be tapped, and its data cannot be stolen.
Fiber-optic cable is good for very high-speed, high-capacity data transmission because of the purity of the
signal and lack of signal attenuation.
Fiber-optic cable transmissions are not subject to electrical interference and are extremely fast, currently
transmitting about 100 Mbps with demonstrated rates of up to 1 gigabit per second (Gbps). They can carry a
signal—the light pulse—for many miles.

Fiber-Optic Cabling Considerations
Use fiber-optic cable if you:
 Need to transmit data at very high speeds over long distances in very secure media.
Do not use fiber-optic cable if you:
 Are under a tight budget.

 Do not have the expertise available to properly install it and connect devices to it.
Consideration for cable selection
Which cabling you select will depend on the needs of a particular site. The cabling you purchase to set up a
LAN for a small business has different requirements from those of a larger organization, such as a major
banking institution.
Installation Logistics
How easy is the cable to install and work with? In a small installation where distances are short and security
isn't a major issue, it does not make sense to choose thick, cumbersome, and expensive cable.
Shielding
The level of shielding required will affect cable cost. Almost every network uses some form of shielded
cable. The noisier the area in which the cable is run, the more shielding will be required. The same shielding
in a plenum-grade cable will be more expensive as well.
Crosstalk

Crosstalk and noise can cause serious problems in large networks where data integrity is crucial. Inexpensive
cabling has low resistance to outside electrical fields generated by power lines, motors, relays, and radio
transmitters. This makes it susceptible to both noise and crosstalk.
Transmission Rates
Transmission rates are measured in megabits per second. A standard reference point for current LAN
transmission over copper cable is 100 Mbps. Fiber-optic cable transmits at more than 1 Gbps.
Cost
Higher grades of cables can carry data securely over long distances, but they are relatively expensive; lower-
grade cables, which provide less data security over shorter distances, are relatively inexpensive.
Signal Attenuation
Summary table
Twisted-pair
Thinnet coaxial Thicknet coaxial
Characteristics (10BaseT) Fiber-optic Cable
(10Base2) Cable (10Base5) Cable
Cable1
Cable cost More than UTP More than thinnet UTP: Least More than thinnet,
expensive but less than
STP: More than thicknet
thinnet
Usable cable 185 meters (about 500 meters (about UTP and STP: 2 kilometers (6562
length2 607 feet) 1640 feet) 100 meters feet)
(about 328 feet)
Transmission 4-100 Mbps 4-100 Mbps UTP: 4-100 100 Mbps or more (
rates Mbps > 1Gbps)
STP: 16-500
Mbps
Flexibility Fairly flexible Less flexible than UTP: Most flexible Less flexible than
thinnet STP: Less flexible thicknet
than UTP
Ease of Easy to install Moderately easy to UTP: Very easy; Difficult to install
installation install often preinstalled
STP: Moderately
easy
Susceptibility to Good resistance to Good resistance to UTP: Very Not susceptible to
interference interference interference susceptible interference

STP: Good
resistance
Special features Electronic support Electronic support UTP: Same as Supports voice,
components are components are less telephone wire; data, and video
less expensive than expensive than often preinstalled
twisted-pair cable twisted-pair cable in buildings
STP: Supports
higher
transmission rates
than UTP
Preferred uses Medium to large Linking thinnet UTP: smaller Any size
sites with high networks sites on budget. installation
security needs STP: Token Ring requiring speed and
in any size high data security
and integrity
Unguided (wireless transmission) media

Wireless LANs use the following techniques for transmitting data:
1. Infrared transmission
2. Laser transmission
Infrared Transmission All infrared wireless networks operate by using an infrared light beam to carry the
data between devices. These systems need to generate very strong signals because weak transmission signals
are susceptible to interference from light sources such as windows. Many of the high-end printers sold today
are preconfigured to accept infrared signals. This method can transmit signals at high rates because of
infrared light's high bandwidth. An infrared network can normally broadcast at 10 Mbps. Infrared
transmission mostly used to remote control system/
In infrared transmission the communicating bodies should be
 In direct line of sight

 If there is any body in between the communicating bodies will be unable to communicate
 Can not be used outdoors
Terrestrial Microwave
 Typically used where laying a cable is not practical
 Parabolic dish shaped antenna for directional and bar-like antenna for omni directional
transmission

 transmits/receives electromagnetic waves in the 2-40 GHz range

 Travels in a straight line (line-of-sight propagation)
 High data rates: 100’s Mbps
 Repeaters spaced 10 - 100 km apart
 Applications : telephone and data transmission- wireless LANs
Satellite Microwave
 Uses satellite in geostationary (geosynchronous) 36,000 km)orbit(
 Source transmits signal to satellite which amplifies or repeats it, and retransmits down
to destinations
 Optimum transmission in 1 - 10 GHz range;
 Bandwidth of 100’s MHz
 270msSignificant propagation delay about
 VSAT (Very small Aperture Terminal): - High speed data transmission using satellite
Introduction to Network Operating Systems

Just as a computer cannot operate without a computer operating system, a network of computers cannot
operate without a network operating system. Without a network operating system of some kind, individual
computers cannot share resources, and other users cannot make use of those resources.
This lesson provides a general introduction to network operating systems (sometimes referred to as NOSs). It
describes the basic features and functions of NOS and contrasts these with the capabilities of a stand-alone
operating system.
Depending on a network operating system's manufacturer, a desktop computer's networking software can be
either added to the computer's own operating system or integrated with it.
Novell's NetWare is the most familiar and popular example of NOS in which the client computer's
networking software is added on to its existing computer operating system. The desktop computer needs both
operating systems in order to handle stand-alone and networking functions together.
Network operating system software is integrated into a number of popular operating systems including
Windows 2000 Server/Windows 2000 Professional, Windows NT Server/Windows NT Workstation,
Windows 98, Windows 95, windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7 and AppleTalk.
Coordinating Hardware and Software

A computer's operating system coordinates the interaction between the computer and the programs—or
applications—it is running. It controls the allocation and use of hardware resources such as:
 Memory.
 CPU time.
 Disk space.
 Peripheral devices.

In a networking environment, servers provide resources to the network clients, and client network software
makes these resources available to the client computer. The network and the client operating systems are
coordinated so that all portions of the network function properly.
Multitasking
A multitasking operating system, as the name suggests, provides the means for a computer to process more
than one task at a time. A true multitasking operating system can run as many tasks as there are processors. If
there are more tasks than processors, the computer must arrange for the available processors to devote a
certain amount of time to each task, alternating between tasks until all are completed. With this system, the
computer appears to be working on several tasks at once.
Software Components
For computer operating systems that do not include networking functions, network client software must be
installed on top of the existing operating system. Other operating systems, such as Windows NT, integrate
the network and the computer operating systems. While these integrated systems have some advantages, they
do not preclude using other NOSs. When setting up multivendor network environments, it is important to
consider the issue of interoperability. (Elements or components of computer operating systems are said to
"interoperate" when they can function in different computer environments.) A NetWare server, for instance,
can interoperate with other servers such as Windows NT, and users of Apple computers can interoperate with
(that is, access resources on) both NetWare and Windows NT servers.
A network operating system
 Ties together all computers and peripherals.

 Coordinates the functions of all computers and peripherals.
 Provides security by controlling access to data and peripherals.
A network server ties the network together
Two major components of network software are:

 Network software that is installed on clients.

 Network software that is installed on servers.
Client Software
In a stand-alone system, when the user types a command that requests the computer to perform a task, the
request goes over the computer's local bus to the computer's CPU. For example, if you want to see a
directory listing on one of the local hard disks, the CPU interprets and executes the request and then displays
the results in a directory listing in the window.
Directory listing request on a local hard disk
In a network environment, however, when a user initiates a request to use a resource that exists on a server in
another part of the network, the request has to be forwarded, or redirected, away from the local bus, out onto
the network, and from there to the server with the requested resource. This forwarding is performed by the
redirector.
Server Software
With server software, users at other machines, the client computers, can share the server's data and
peripherals including printers, plotters, and directories.
The request is forwarded by the redirector on to the network, where it is passed to the file and print server
containing the shared directory. The request is granted, and the directory listing is provided.
Directory-listing request on a remote hard drive
Resource Sharing
Sharing is the term used to describe resources made publicly available for access by anyone on the network.
Most NOSs not only allow sharing, but also determine the degree of sharing. Options for sharing include:

 Allowing different users different levels of access to the resources.

 Coordinating access to resources to make sure that two users do not use the same resource
at the same time.
For example, an office manager wants everyone on the network to be familiar with a certain document (file),
so she shares the document. However, she controls access to the document by sharing it in such a way that:
 Some users will be able only to read it.
 Some users will be able to read it and make changes in it.
Managing Users
Network operating systems also allow a network administrator to determine which people, or groups of
people, will be able to access network resources. A network administrator can use the NOS to:
 Create user privileges, tracked by the network operating system, that indicate who gets to
use the network.
 Grant or deny user privileges on the network.
 Remove users from the list of users that the network operating system tracks.
To simplify the task of managing users in a large network, NOSs allow for the creation of user groups. By
classifying individuals into groups, the administrator can assign privileges to the group. All group members
have the same privileges, which have been assigned to the group as a whole. When a new user joins the
network, the administrator can assign the new user to the appropriate group, with its accompanying rights
and privileges.
Managing the Network
Some advanced NOSs include management tools to help administrators keep track of network behavior. If a
problem develops on the network, management tools can detect signs of trouble and present these in a chart,
or other, format. With these tools, the network manager can take corrective action before the problem halts
the network.
Network Access method

In networking, to access a resource is to be able to use that resource. This lesson introduces the role of access
methods in putting data on a network cable. It focuses on three major access methods: carrier-sense multiple-
access methods, token passing, and demand priority
The Function of Access Methods
The set of rules that defines how a computer puts data onto the network cable and takes data from the cable is
called an access method. Once data is moving on the network, access methods help to regulate the flow of
network traffic.
Major Access Methods
The three methods designed to prevent simultaneous use of the network media include:

 Carrier-sense multiple access methods (with collision detection or with collision avoidance).
 Token-passing methods that allow only a single opportunity to send data.
 Demand-priority methods.
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) Access Method
Using the method known as carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD), each
computer on the network, including clients and servers, checks the cable for network traffic
Only when a computer "senses" that the cable is free and that there is no traffic on the cable can it send data.
Once the computer has transmitted data on the cable, no other computer can transmit data until the original
data has reached its destination and the cable is free again. Remember, if two or more computers happen to
send data at exactly the same time, there will be a data collision. When that happens, the two computers
involved stop transmitting for a random period of time and then attempt to retransmit. Each computer
determines its own waiting period; this reduces the chance that the computers will once again transmit
simultaneously.
Contention Method
CSMA/CD is known as a contention method because computers on the network contend, or compete, for an
opportunity to send data.
This might seem like a bulky way to put data on the cable, but current implementations of CSMA/CD are so
fast that users are not even aware they are using a contention access method
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) Access Method
Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) is the least popular of the three major
access methods. In CSMA/CA, each computer signals its intent to transmit before it actually transmits data.
In this way, computers sense when a collision might occur; this allows them to avoid transmission collisions.
Unfortunately, broadcasting the intent to transmit data increases the amount of traffic on the cable and slows
down network performance.
Token-Passing Access Method
In the access method known as token passing, a special type of packet, called a token, circulates around a
cable ring from computer to computer. When any computer on the ring needs to send data across the
network, it must wait for a free token. When a free token is detected, the computer will take control of it
if the computer has data to send.
The computer can now transmit data. Data is transmitted in frames, and additional information, such as
addressing, is attached to the frame in the form of headers and trailers, discussed later in this chapter.

Demand Priority Access Method
Demand priority is a relatively new access method designed for the 100-Mbps Ethernet standard known as
100VG-AnyLAN. It has been sanctioned and standardized by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers (IEEE) in its 802.12 specification, which is discussed later in this chapter.
This access method is based on the fact that repeaters and end nodes are the two components that make up all
100VG-AnyLAN networks. The repeaters manage network access by doing round-robin searches for
requests to send from all nodes on the network. The repeater, or hub, is responsible for noting all addresses,
links, and end nodes and verifying that they are all functioning. According to the 100VG-AnyLAN
definition, an end node can be a computer, bridge, router, or switch.
Demand-Priority Contention
As in CSMA/CD, two computers using the demand-priority access method can cause contention by
transmitting at exactly the same time. However, with demand priority, it is possible to implement a scheme in
which certain types of data will be given priority if there is contention. If the hub or repeater receives two
requests at the same time, the highest priority request is serviced first. If the two requests are of the same
priority, both requests are serviced by alternating between the two.
In a demand-priority network, computers can receive and transmit at the same time because of the cabling
scheme defined for this access method. In this method, four pairs of wires are used, which enables quartet
signaling, transmitting 25 MHz signals on each of the pairs of wire in the cable.
Demand-Priority Considerations
In a demand-priority network, there is communication only between the sending computer, the hub, and the
destination computer. This is more efficient than CSMA/CD, which broadcasts transmissions to the entire
network. In demand priority, each hub knows only about the end nodes and repeaters directly connected to it,
whereas in a CSMA/CD environment, each hub knows the address of every node in the network.
Demand priority offers several advantages over CSMA/CD including:
 The use of four pairs of wires.
By using four pairs of wires, computers can transmit and receive at the same time.
 Transmissions through the hub.
Transmissions are not broadcast to all the other computers on the network. The computers do not
contend on their own for access to the cable, but operate under the centralized control of the hub
Packet Structure
Packets can contain several types of data including:

 Information, such as messages or files.

 Certain types of computer control data and commands, such as service requests.
 Session control codes, such as error correction, that indicate the need for a retransmission.
Packet Components
All packets have certain components in common. These include:
 A source address that identifies the sending computer.

 The data that is intended for transmission.
 A destination address that identifies the recipient.
 Instructions that tell network components how to pass the data along.
 Information that tells the receiving computer how to connect the packet to other packets in order to
reassemble the complete data package.
 Error-checking information to ensure that the data arrives intact.
Header
The header includes:
 An alert signal to indicate that the packet is being transmitted.

 The source address.
 The destination address.
 Clock information to synchronize transmission.
Data
This describes the actual data being sent. This part of the packet varies in size, depending on the network.
The data section on most networks varies from 512 bytes—or 0.5 kilobytes (KB)—to 4 KB.
Because most original data strings are much longer than 4k, data must be broken into chunks small enough to
be put into packets. It takes many packets to complete the transmission of a large file.
Trailer

The exact content of the trailer varies depending on the communication method, or protocol. However, the
trailer usually contains an error-checking component called a cyclical redundancy check (CRC). The CRC is
a number produced by a mathematical calculation on the packet at its source. When the packet arrives at its
destination, the calculation is made again. If the results of both calculations are the same, this indicates that
the data in the packet has remained stable. If the calculation at the destination differs from the calculation at
the source, this means the data has changed during the transmission. In that case, the CRC routine signals the
source computer to retransmit the data.
Ethernet
This lesson introduces the Ethernet network architecture. Over the years, Ethernet has become the most
popular media access method to the desktop computer and is used in both small and large network
environments. Ethernet is a nonproprietary industry standard that has found wide acceptance by network
hardware manufacturers. Problems related to using Ethernet hardware products from different hardware
manufacturers in a single network are nearly nonexistent. This lesson presents an overview of the major
Ethernet components, features, and functions.
Ethernet Specifications
In 1978, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) released a set of specifications for
connecting dissimilar devices. This set of standards is referred to as the OSI reference model (OSI stands for
Open Systems Interconnection). The Ethernet specification performs the same functions as the OSI physical
and data-link layers of this model. As you will see later, these specifications affect how hardware links, or
passes information to and from, ISO standards. In the 1980s the IEEE published Project 802. This project
generated standards for design and compatibility for hardware components that operated within the OSI
physical and data-link layers. The standard that pertains to Ethernet is the IEEE 802.3 specification.
Ethernet Features
Ethernet is currently the most popular network architecture. Notice that the cable is terminated at both ends.
This baseband architecture uses a bus topology, usually transmits at 10 Mbps, and relies on CSMA/CD to
regulate traffic on the main cable segment.
The Ethernet media is passive, which means it requires no power source of its own and thus will not fail
unless the media is physically cut or improperly terminated.
The Ethernet Frame Format
Ethernet breaks data down into packages in a format that is different from the packets used in other networks:
Ethernet breaks data down into frames. (Remember that the terms "packet" and "frame" can be used
interchangeably; in the context of Ethernet, the term "frame" is used.) A frame is a package of information
transmitted as a single unit. An Ethernet frame can be between 64 and 1518 bytes long, but the Ethernet
frame itself uses at least 18 bytes; therefore, the data in an Ethernet frame can be between 46 and 1500 bytes
long. Every frame contains control information and follows the same basic organization.

Frame field Description

Preamble Marks the start of the frame
Destination and source The origin and destination addresses
Type Used to identify the network layer protocol, usually either IP or IPX
(Novell's Internetwork Packet Exchange)
Cyclical redundancy Error-checking field to determine if the frame arrived without being
check (CRC) corrupted
For example, the Ethernet II frame, used for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP),
which gets transmitted across the network, consists of the sections listed in Table 3.3 (TCP/IP has become
the de facto standard for data transmission over networks, including the Internet)
Ethernet networks include a variety of cabling and topology alternatives. The remaining sections of this
lesson present these alternatives based on their IEEE specification.
Ethernet specifications
The 10-Mbps IEEE Standards
This section looks at four 10 Mbps Ethernet topologies:
 10BaseT
 10Base2
 10Base5
 10BaseFL

10BaseT Standard
10BaseT (10 Mbps, baseband, over twisted-pair cable), is an Ethernet network that typically uses unshielded
twisted-pair (UTP) cable to connect computers. Usually, 10BaseT employs UTP, but shielded twisted-pair
(STP) cabling will also work without changing any of the 10BaseT parameters.
Most networks of this type are configured in a star pattern, but internally they use a bus signaling system like
other Ethernet configurations. Typically, the hub of a 10BaseT network serves as a multiport repeater and
often is located in a wiring closet of the building. Each computer is located at the endpoint of a cable that is
connected to the hub. Each computer has two pairs of wire; one pair is used to receive data, and one pair is
used to transmit data.
The maximum length of a 10BaseT segment is 100 meters (328 feet). Repeaters can be used to extend this
maximum cable length. The minimum cable length between computers is 2.5 meters (about 8 feet). A
10BaseT LAN will serve 1024 computers.
A multiport repeater (hub) can be used to extend an Ethernet LAN
The UTP cable features data transmission at 10 Mbps. It is easy to make changes by moving a modular patch
cord on the patch panel. A change at the patch panel will not affect other devices on the network; this differs
from a traditional Ethernet bus network.

A patch panel makes moving computers easy
Patch panels should be tested for rates higher than 10 Mbps. The latest hubs can provide connections for both
thick and thin Ethernet cable segments. In this implementation, it is also easy to convert thick Ethernet cable
to 10BaseT cable by attaching a mini 10BaseT transceiver to the AUI port of any network interface card.
Table 3.4 summarizes 10BaseT specifications:
Table: 10BaseT Specifications Summary
Category Notes
Cable Category 3, 4, or 5 UTP.
Connectors RJ-45 at cable ends.
Transceiver Each computer needs one; some cards have built in
transceivers.
Transceiver to hub distance 100 meters (328 feet) maximum.
Backbones for hubs Coaxial or fiber-optic cable to join a larger LAN or to
carry major traffic between smaller networks.
Total number of computers per LAN 1024 by specification.
without connectivity components

10Base2 Standard
Another topology is 10Base2, given this name in the IEEE 802.3 specification because it transmits at 10
Mbps over a baseband wire and can carry a signal about two times 100 meters (the actual distance is 185
meters, or 607 feet).
This type of network uses thin coaxial cable, or thinnet, which has a maximum segment length of 185 meters
(607 feet) and a minimum cable length of at least 0.5 meters (20 inches) between workstations. There is also
a 30-computer maximum per 185-meter segment.
Thinnet cabling components include:
 BNC barrel connectors.

 BNC T connectors.
 BNC terminators.
Thinnet networks generally use a local bus topology. IEEE standards for thinnet do not allow a transceiver
cable to be used from the bus T connector to a computer. Instead, a T connector fits directly on the NIC.
A BNC barrel connector may be used to connect thinnet cable segments together, thus extending a length of
cable. For example, if you need a length of cable that is nine meters (30 feet) long, but all you have is a 7.5-
meter (25-foot) length and a 1.5-meter ( 5-foot) length of thinnet cable, you can join the two cable segments
together using a BNC barrel connector. However, the use of barrel connectors should be kept to a minimum
because each connection in the cable reduces the signal quality and adds to the risk of cable separation and
disconnection.
A thinnet network is an economical way to support a small department or workgroup. The cable used for this
type of network is:
 Relatively inexpensive.
 Easy to install.
 Easy to configure.
A single thinnet network can support a maximum of 30 nodes (computers and repeaters) per cable segment,
as per the IEEE 802.3 specification.
10Base2 Specifications Summary
Category Notes
Maximum segment length 185 meters (607 feet).
Connection to network interface card BNC T connector.
Trunk segments and repeaters Five segments can be joined using four repeaters.
Computers per segment 30 computers per segment by specification.

Segments that can have computers Three of the five segments can be populated.
Maximum total network length 925 meters (3035 feet).
10Base5 Standard
The IEEE specification for this topology is 10 Mbps, baseband, and 500-meter (five 100-meter) segments. It
is also called standard Ethernet.
This topology makes use of thick coaxial cable , also known as thicknet. Thicknet generally uses a bus
topology and can support as many as 100 nodes (stations, repeaters, and so on) per backbone segment. The
backbone, or trunk segment, is the main cable from which transceiver cables are connected to stations and
repeaters. The distances and tolerances for thicknet are greater than those for thinnet: a thicknet segment can
be 500 meters (1640 feet) long for a total network length of 2500 meters (8200 feet).
Thicknet cable composition
The thicknet cabling components include:
 Transceivers These are devices that can both transmit and receive, provide communications between
the computer and the main LAN cable, and are located in the vampire taps attached to the cable.
 Transceiver cables The transceiver cable (drop cable) connects the transceiver to the NIC.
 DIX (or AUI) connectors These are the connectors on the transceiver cable.
 N-series connectors, including N-series barrel connectors, and N-series terminators The thicknet
components work in the same way as the thinnet components. It also shows the DIX or AUI
connector on the transceiver cable.
NOTE
"AUI," an acronym for attachment unit interface, is a 15-pin (DB-15) connector commonly used to connect a
NIC to an Ethernet cable;

Thicknet backbone with attached transceiver and cable
Table 3.6 10Base5 Specifications Summary
Category Notes
Maximum segment length 500 meters (1640 feet).
Transceivers Connected to the segment (in the tap).
Maximum computer-to-transceiver distance 50 meters (164 feet).
Minimum distance between transceivers 2.5 meters (8 feet).
Trunk segments and repeaters Five segments can be joined using four repeaters.
Segments that can have computers Three of the five segments can be populated.
Maximum total length of joined segments 2500 meters (8200 feet).
Maximum number of computers per segment 100 by specification.
Combining Thicknet and Thinnet Cable
It is common for larger networks to combine thick and thin Ethernet cable. Thicknet cable is good for
backbones, while thinnet cable is used for branch segments. What this means is that the thicknet cable is the
main cable covering the long distances. The transceiver attaches to the thicknet cable, and the transceiver
cable's AUI connector plugs into a repeater. The branching segments of thinnet plug into the repeater and
connect the computers to the network.

10BaseFL Standard
The IEEE committee published a specification for running Ethernet over fiber-optic cable. The result,
10BaseFL (10Mbps, baseband, over fiber-optic cable) is an Ethernet network that typically uses fiber-optic
cable to connect computers and repeaters.
The primary reason for using 10BaseFL is to accommodate long cable runs between repeaters, such as
between buildings. The maximum distance for a 10BaseFL segment is 2000 meters (about 6500 feet).
The 100-Mbps IEEE Standards
New Ethernet standards are pushing the traditional Ethernet limits beyond the original 10 Mbps. These new
capabilities are being developed to handle such highbandwidth applications as:
 Computer-aided design (CAD).

 Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).
 Video.
 Imaging and document storage.
Two Ethernet standards that can meet the increased demands are:
 100BaseVG-AnyLAN Ethernet.
 100BaseX Ethernet (Fast Ethernet).
Both 100BaseVG-AnyLAN and Fast Ethernet are about 5 to 10 times faster than standard Ethernet. They are
also compatible with existing 10BaseT cabling systems. This means they allow for Plug and Play upgrades
from existing 10BaseT installations.
100VG-AnyLAN Standard
The 100VG (Voice Grade) AnyLAN is an emerging networking technology that combines elements of both
Ethernet and Token Ring architectures. Originally developed by Hewlett-Packard, it is currently being
refined and ratified by the IEEE 802.12 committee. The 802.12 specification is a standard for transmitting
802.3 Ethernet frames and 802.5 Token Ring packets.
This technology goes by any of the following names, all of which refer to the same type of network:
 100VG-AnyLAN
 100BaseVG
 VG
 AnyLAN
Specifications
Some of the current 100VG-AnyLAN specifications include:

 A minimum data rate of 100 Mbps.

 The ability to support a cascaded star topology over Category 3, 4, and 5 twisted-pair and fiber-optic
cable.
 The demand-priority access method that allows for two priority levels (low and high).
 The ability to support an option for filtering individually addressed frames at the hub to enhance
privacy.
 Support for both Ethernet frames and Token Ring packets.
Topology
A 100VG-AnyLAN network is built on a star topology in which all computers are attached to a hub. Adding
child hubs to the central hub can expand the network. The child hubs act as computers to their parent hubs.
The parent hubs control transmission of computers attached to their children.
Parent hub with five attached child hubs
Considerations
This topology requires its own hubs and cards. Also, the cable distances of 100BaseVG are limited when
compared to 10BaseVG and other implementations of Ethernet. The longest cable from the 100BaseVG hub
to a computer cannot exceed 250 meters (about 820 feet). Extending this limit requires special equipment
used to expand the size of a LAN. These cable-length limits mean that 100BaseVG will require more wiring
closets than 10BaseVG.

100BaseX Ethernet Standard
This standard, sometimes called Fast Ethernet, is an extension of the existing Ethernet standard. It runs on
UTP Category 5 data-grade cable and uses CSMA/CD in a star-wired bus topology, similar to 10BaseT
where all cables are attached to a hub.
Media Specifications
100BaseX incorporates three media specifications:
 100BaseT4 (4-pair Category 3, 4, or 5 UTP)

 100BaseTX (2-pair Category 5 UTP or STP)
 100BaseFX (2-strand fiber-optic cable)
These media are described further in Table 3.7:
Table 3.7 100BaseX Media Specifications
Value Represents Actual meaning

100 Transmission speed 100 Mbps
Base Signal type Baseband
T4 Cable type Indicates twisted-pair cable using four telephone-grade pairs
TX Cable type Indicates twisted-pair cable using two data-grade pairs
FX Cable type Indicates fiber-optic link using two strands of fiber-optic cable
Performance Considerations
Ethernet architecture can use multiple communication protocols and can connect mixed computing
environments such as Netware, UNIX, Windows, and Macintosh.
Segmentation
Ethernet performance can be improved by dividing a crowded segment into two less-populated segments and
joining them with either a bridge or a router. This reduces traffic on each segment. Because fewer computers
are attempting to transmit onto the segment, access time improves.

Using a bridge to segment a network and reduce network traffic
Consider dividing segments if large numbers of new users are joining the network or if new, high-bandwidth
applications, such as database or video programs, are being added to the network.
Network Operating Systems on Ethernet
Ethernet will work with most popular network operating systems including:
 Microsoft Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows 2000.

 Microsoft Windows NT Workstation and Windows NT Server.
 Microsoft Windows 2000 Professional and Windows 2000 Server.
 Microsoft LAN Manager.
 Microsoft Windows for Workgroups.
 Novell NetWare.
 IBM LAN Server.
 AppleShare.
 UNIX.
Lesson Summary
The following points summarize the main elements of this lesson:

 Ethernet is one of the most popular network architectures.

 Ethernet is governed by the specifications found in the OSI reference model physical layer and data-
link layer, as well as IEEE 802.3.
The bellow table summarizes the specifications for Ethernet architecture discussed in this lesson. It outlines
the minimum set of standards required to conform to IEEE specifications. A particular implementation of the
network architecture may differ from the information in the table.
Ethernet Specifications (IEEE 802.3) summary table
10Base2 10Base5 10BaseT

Topology Bus Bus Star bus
Cable type RG-58 (thinnet coaxial Thicknet; one-centimeter (3/8- Category 3, 4, or 5
cable) inch) shielded transceiver unshielded twisted-pair
cable cable
Connection to BNC T connector DIX or AUI connector RJ-45
NIC
Terminator 50 50 Not applicable
resistance, Ω
(ohms)
Impedance, Ω 50 ± 2 50 ± 2 85-115 unshielded
twisted-pair; 135-165
shielded twisted-pair
Distance 0.5 meters between 2.5 meters (8 feet) between 100 meters (328 feet)
computers (23 inches) taps and maximum of 50 between the transceiver
meters (164 feet) between the (the computer) and the
tap and the computer hub
Maximum cable 185 meters (607 feet) 500 meters (1640 feet) 100 meters (328 feet)
segment length
Maximum 5 (using 4 repeaters); 5 (using 4 repeaters). Only 3 Not applicable
connected Only 3 segments can segments can have computers
segments have computers connected.
connected.
Maximum total 925 meters (3035 feet) 2460 meters (8000 feet) Not applicable
network length
Maximum 30 (There can be a 100
computers per maximum of 1024
segment computers per
network.)

Token Ring
This lesson introduces the Token Ring network architecture. The Token Ring architecture was developed in
the mid-1980s by IBM. It is the preferred method of networking by IBM and is therefore found primarily in
large IBM mini- and mainframe installations. Even though the popularity of Ethernet has decreased the
market share for Token Ring, it is still an important player in the network market. Token Ring specifications
are governed by the IEEE 802.5 standards.
The architecture of a typical Token Ring network begins with a physical ring. However, in its IBM
implementation, a star-wired ring, computers on the network are connected to a central hub. The following
figure shows a logical ring and a physical star topology. The logical ring represents the token's path between
computers. The actual physical ring of cable is in the hub.
Token Ring features
A Token Ring network includes the following features:
 Star-wired ring topology

 Token-passing access method
 Shielded and unshielded twisted-pair (IBM Types 1, 2, and 3) cabling
 Transfer rates of 4 and 16 Mbps
 Baseband transmission
 802.5 specifications
How Token Ring Networking Works
When the first Token Ring computer comes online, the network generates a token. The token is a
predetermined formation of bits (a stream of data) that permits a computer to put data on the cables. The

token travels around the ring polling each computer until one of the computers signals that it wants to
transmit data and takes control of the token. A computer cannot transmit unless it has possession of the
token; while the token is in use by a computer, no other computer can transmit data.
After the computer captures the token, it sends a data frame out on the network. The frame proceeds around
the ring until it reaches the computer with the address that matches the destination address in the frame. The
destination computer copies the frame into its receive buffer and marks the frame in the frame status field to
indicate that the information was received.
The frame continues around the ring until it arrives at the sending computer, where the transmission is
acknowledged as successful. The sending computer then removes the frame from the ring and transmits a
new token back on the ring.

Self check Questions

Choose the best answer from the given alternatives
1. The network which connects computers in Addis Ababa sub city administration office
A. LAN
B. MAN
C. WAN
2. The Internet is
A. LAN
B. MAN
C. WAN
3. The network found in Entoto TVET college
A. LAN
B. MAN
C. WAN
4. The type of computer which provide services to other computers in a network
A. Client
B. Standalone
C. Workstation
D. Server
5. Which of the following is not a convenient environment to use peer to peer network
A. In environment in which security is a big issue
B. Fewer number of computers
C. Budget constraints

D. Limited growth of network
6. We use switch in
A. Bus topology
B. Ring topology
C. Star topology
D. Mesh topology
7. Which of the following is not true
A. In star topology if the central device fail the entire network will be down
B. Mesh topology have the maximum back up capability
C. In ring topology two computers can send data at the same time
D. In bus topology only one computer’s signal will transmit in the bus
8. Transmit signal in the form of light signal
A. Coaxial cable
B. Fiber optic cable
C. UTP
D. STP
9. Interference of signal from one cable to other
A. Attenuation
B. Cross talk
C. Band width
D. EMI
A. There can be collision in CSMA/CA

B. Ethernet uses CSMA/CD
C. In token passing a computer can send data only if it has a free token
11. The amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time
A. Broadband
B. Internet
C. Bandwidth
D. Noise
12. A weakening of signal as the signal travels a long distance is called
A. Noise
B. Attenuation
C. Interference
D. Crosstalk
13. Which of the following is true
A. UTP transmits signal for 100 meter
B. STP is more resistance to interference than UTP
C. UTP is more flexible than STP
D. Both UTP and STP uses the same connector
14. A network environment in which no computer have the power to control the other computers
A. Hybrid network
B. Peer-to-peer network
C. Server based network
D. Workgroup
15. In which environment peer-to – peer network is a right choice
A. Centralized security is required
B. Where there is budget constraints
C. Where we need a security policy
D. All of the above
16. The education office of every region in Ethiopia is networked. The network type is referred as
A. WAN
B. MAN
C. LAN
D. CAN


SERVICING
Level III
LO 2: Determine user needs
LO 3: Develop best topology

Mode of transmission
The term transmission mode defines the direction of data flow between two linked devices. The manner or
way in which data is transmitted from one place to another is called Data Transmission Mode. There are
three ways for transmitting data from one location to another. These are:
 Simplex mode
 Half-Duplex mode
 Full-Duplex mode
Simplex Mode
The most basic form of data or information transmission is called simplex. This means that data is sent in one
direction only, from sender to receiver. Examples of simplex transmission are radio and television. With
simplex transmission, problems encountered during the transmission are not detected and corrected. Senders
cannot even be sure that the data is received
Half duplex mode
In Half-duplex mode, the communication can take place in both directions, but only in one direction at a
time. In this mode, data is sent and received alternatively. It is like a one-lane bridge where two-way traffic

must give way in order to cross the other.

In half-duplex mode, at a time only one end transmits data while other end receives. In addition, it is possible
to perform error detection and request the sender to re-transmit information. The Internet browsing is an
example of half duplex. When we issue a request to download a web document, then that document is
downloaded and displayed before we issue another request.
Full duplex mode

In Full-duplex mode, the communication can take place in both directions simultaneously, i.e. at the same
time on the same channel. It is the fastest directional mode of communication. Example of this mode is
conversation of the persons through telephone. This type of communication is similar to automobile traffic
on a two-lane road. The telephone communication system is an example of full duplex communication
mode.
Parallel vs serial transmission

There are two types of data transmission modes. These are:
1. Parallel Transmission
2. Serial Transmission
1. Parallel Transmission
In parallel transmission, bits of data flow concurrently through separate communication lines. The
automobile traffic on a multi-lane highway is an example of parallel transmission. Inside the computer binary
data flows from one unit to another using parallel mode. If the computer uses 32-bits internal structure, all
the 32-bits of data are transferred simultaneously on 32-lane connections. Similarly, parallel transmission is
commonly used to transfer data from computer to printer. The printer is connected to the parallel port of
computer and parallel cable that has many wires is used to connect the printer to computer. It is very fast data
transmission mode.

2. Serial Transmission
In serial data transmission, bits of data flow in sequential order through single communication line. The flow
of traffic on one-lane residential street is an example of serial data transmission mode. Serial transmission is
typically slower than parallel transmission, because data is sent sequentially in a bit-by-bit fashion. Serial
mouse uses serial transmission mode in computer.
Synchronous & Asynchronous Transmissions
Synchronous Transmission
In synchronous transmission, large volumes of information can be transmitted at a time. In this type of
transmission, data is transmitted block-by-block or word-byword simultaneously. Each block may contain
several bytes of data. In synchronous transmission, a special communication device known as synchronized
clock’ is required to schedule the transmission of information. This special communication device or
equipment is expensive.
Asynchronous Transmission
In asynchronous transmission, data is transmitted one byte at a ‘time’. This type of transmission is most
commonly used by microcomputers. The data is transmitted character-by-character as the user types it on a
keyboard.
An asynchronous line that is idle (not being used) is identified with a value 1, also known as ‘Mark’ state.
This value is used by the communication devices to find whether the line is idle or disconnected. When a
character (or byte) is about to be transmitted, a start bit is sent. A start bit has a value of 0, also called a space
state. Thus, when the line switches from a value of 1 to a value of 0, the receiver is alerted that a character is
coming.
Data transfer methods
In a complex system where a number of senders, receivers and many ways to move the data between
two communicating parties where the transmission system is made of a number of nodes
interconnected with a transmission medium, two typical methods are employed to ensure data
transfer. These are:
1. Circuit switching
2. Packet switching
Circuit Switching
Circuit switching was designed in 1878 in order to send telephone calls down a dedicated channel. This
channel remained open and in use throughout the whole call and could not be used by any other data or
phone calls.
 There are three phases in circuit switching:
• Establish
• Transfer
• Disconnect
 The telephone message is sent in one go, it is not broken up. The message arrives in the same order
that it was originally sent.
 In modern circuit-switched networks, electronic signals pass through several switches before a
connection is established.
 During a call, no other network traffic can use those switches.

 The resources remain dedicated to the circuit during the entire data transfer and the entire message
follows the same path.
 Circuit switching can be analogue or digital
 With the expanded use of the Internet for voice and video, analysts predict a gradual shift away from
circuit-switched networks.
 A circuit-switched network is excellent for data that needs a constant link from end-to-end. For
example real-time video.
• Advantages
 Circuit is dedicated to the call – no interference, no sharing
 Guaranteed the full bandwidth for the duration of the call
 Guaranteed Quality of Service
 Disadvantages
» Inefficient – the equipment may be unused for a lot of the call, if no data is being sent,
the dedicated line still remains open
» Takes a relatively long time to set up the circuit
» During a crisis or disaster, the network may become unstable or unavailable.
It was primarily developed for voice traffic rather than data traffic
Packet switching
 In packet-based networks, the message gets broken into small data packets. These packets are sent
out from the computer and they travel around the network seeking out the most efficient route to
travel as circuits become available. This does not necessarily mean that they seek out the shortest
route.
 Each packet may go a different route from the others.
 Each packet is sent with a ‘header address’. This tells it where its final destination is, so it knows
where to go.
 The header address also describes the sequence for reassembly at the destination computer so that the
packets are put back into the correct order.
 One packet also contains details of how many packets should be arriving so that the recipient
computer knows if one packet has failed to turn up.
If a packet fails to arrive, the recipient computer sends a message back to the computer which
originally sent the data, asking for the missing packet to be resent
• Advantages of packet switching

» Security
» Bandwidth used to full potential
» Devices of different speeds can communicate
» Not affected by line failure (rediverts signal)
» Availability – do not have to wait for a direct connection to become available

» During a crisis or disaster, when the public telephone network might stop working, e-
mails and texts can still be sent via packet switching
• Disadvantages
» Under heavy use there can be a delay
» Data packets can get lost or become corrupted
» Protocols are needed for a reliable transfer
» Not so good for some types data streams e.g real-time video streams can lose frames
due to the way packets arrive out of sequence.
The open system Interconnection (OSI) reference model

This lesson describes the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. The OSI reference model
represents the seven layers of the process by which data is packaged and transmitted from a sending
application through the physical wires to the receiving application.
Network Communications
Network activity involves sending data from one computer to another. This complex process can be broken
into discrete, sequential tasks. The sending computer must:
1. Recognize the data.

2. Divide the data into manageable chunks.
3. Add information to each chunk of data to determine the location of the data and to identify the
receiver.
4. Add timing and error-checking information.
5. Put the data on the network and send it on its way.
Network client software operates at many different levels within the sending and receiving computers. Each
of these levels, or tasks, is governed by one or more protocols. These protocols, or rules of behavior, are
standard specifications for formatting and moving the data. When the sending and receiving computers
follow the same protocols, communication is assured. Because of this layered structure, this is often referred
to as the protocol stack.
With the rapid growth of networking hardware and software, a need arose for standard protocols that could
allow hardware and software from different vendors to communicate. In response, two primary sets of
standards were developed: the OSI reference model and a modification of that standard called Project 802

Acquiring a clear understanding of these models is an important first step in understanding the technical
aspects of how a network functions. Throughout this lesson we refer to various protocols
The OSI Reference Model
In 1978, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) released a set of specifications that
described network architecture for connecting dissimilar devices. The original document applied to systems
that were open to each other because they could all use the same protocols and standards to exchange
information.
A Layered Architecture
The OSI reference model architecture divides network communication into seven layers. Each layer covers
different network activities, equipment, or protocols. (Layering specifies different functions and services as
data moves from one computer through the network cabling to another computer.) The OSI reference model
defines how each layer communicates and works with the layers immediately above and below it. For
example, the session layer communicates and works with the presentation and transport layers.
The seven layers of the OSI reference model from highest to lowest layers are
7. Application layer
6. Presentation layer
5. Session layer
4. Transport layer
3. Network layer
2. Data link layer
1. Application layer
Each layer provides some service or action that prepares the data for delivery over the network to another
computer. The lowest layers—1 and 2—define the network's physical media and related tasks, such as
putting data bits onto the network interface cards (NICs) and cable. The highest layers define how
applications access communication services. The higher the layer, the more complex its task is.
Relationships among OSI Reference Model Layers
Each layer provides services to the next-higher layer and shields the upper layer from the details of how the
services below it is actually implemented. At the same time, each layer appears to be in direct
communication with its associated layer on the other computer. This provides a logical, or virtual,
communication between peer layers, as shown in the figure. In reality, actual communication between

adjacent layers takes place on one computer only. At each layer, software implements network functions
according to a set of protocols.
Before data is passed from one layer to another, it is broken down into packets, or units of information,
which are transmitted as a whole from one device to another on a network. The network passes a packet from
one software layer to another in the same order as that of the layers. At each layer, the software adds
additional formatting or addressing to the packet, which is needed for the packet to be successfully
transmitted across the network.
At the receiving end, the packet passes through the layers in reverse order. A software utility at each layer
reads the information on the packet, strips it away, and passes the packet up to the next layer. When the
packet is finally passed up to the application layer, the addressing information has been stripped away and
the packet is in its original form, which is readable by the receiver
With the exception of the lowest layer in the OSI networking model, no layer can pass information directly to
its counterpart on another computer. Instead, information on the sending computer must be passed down
through each successive layer until it reaches the physical layer. The information then moves across the
networking cable to the receiving computer and up that computer's networking layers until it arrives at the
corresponding layer. For example, when the network layer sends information from computer A, the
information moves down through the data-link and physical layers on the sending side, over the cable, and up
the physical and data-link layers on the receiving side to its final destination at the network layer on
computer B.
In a client/server environment, an example of the kind of information sent from the network layer on
computer A to the network layer on computer B would be a network address, with perhaps some error-
checking information added to the packet.
Interaction between adjacent layers occurs through an interface. The interface defines the services offered by
the lower networking layer to the upper one and further defines how those services will be accessed. In

addition, each layer on one computer appears to be communicating directly with the same layer on another
computer.
The following sections describe the purpose of each of the seven layers of the OSI reference model, and
identify the services that each provides to adjacent layers. Beginning at the top of the stack (layer 7, the
application layer), we work down to the bottom (layer 1, the physical layer).
Application Layer
Layer 7, the topmost layer of the OSI reference model, is the application layer. This layer relates to the
services that directly support user applications, such as software for file transfers, database access, and e-
mail. In other words, it serves as a window through which application processes can access network services.
A message to be sent across the network enters the OSI reference model at this point and exits the OSI
reference model's application layer on the receiving computer. Application-layer protocols can be programs
in themselves, such as File Transfer Protocol (FTP), or they can be used by other programs, such as Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), used by most e-mail programs, to redirect data to the network. The lower
layers support the tasks that are performed at the application layer. These tasks include general network
access, flow control, and error recovery.
Presentation Layer
Layer 6, the presentation layer, defines the format used to exchange data among networked computers.
Think of it as the network's translator. When computers from dissimilar systems—such as IBM, Apple, and
Sun—need to communicate, a certain amount of translation and byte reordering must be done. Within the
sending computer, the presentation layer translates data from the format sent down from the application layer
into a commonly recognized, intermediary format. At the receiving computer, this layer translates the
intermediary format into a format that can be useful to that computer's application layer. The presentation
layer is responsible for converting protocols, translating the data, encrypting the data, changing or converting
the character set, and expanding graphics commands. The presentation layer also manages data compression
to reduce the number of bits that need to be transmitted.
The redirector, which redirects input/output (I/O) operations to resources on a server, operates at this layer.
Session Layer
Layer 5, the session layer, allows two applications on different computers to open, use, and close a
connection called a session. (A session is a highly structured dialog between two workstations.) The session
layer is responsible for managing this dialog. It performs name-recognition and other functions, such as
security, that are needed to allow two applications to communicate over the network.
The session layer synchronizes user tasks by placing checkpoints in the data stream. The checkpoints break
the data into smaller groups for error detection. This way, if the network fails, only the data after the last
checkpoint has to be retransmitted. This layer also implements dialog control between communicating
processes, such as regulating which side transmits, when, and for how long.
Transport Layer

Layer 4, the transport layer, provides an additional connection level beneath the session layer. The transport
layer ensures that packets are delivered error free, in sequence, and without losses or duplications. At the
sending computer, this layer repackages messages, dividing long messages into several packets and
collecting small packets together in one package. This process ensures that packets are transmitted efficiently
over the network. At the receiving computer, the transport layer opens the packets, reassembles the original
messages, and, typically, sends an acknowledgment that the message was received. If a duplicate packet
arrives, this layer will recognize the duplicate and discard it.
The transport layer provides flow control and error handling, and participates in solving problems concerned
with the transmission and reception of packets. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Sequenced Packet
Exchange (SPX) are examples of transport-layer protocols.
Network Layer
Layer 3, the network layer, is responsible for addressing messages and translating logical addresses and
names into physical addresses. This layer also determines the route from the source to the destination
computer. It determines which path the data should take based on network conditions, priority of service, and
other factors. It also manages traffic problems on the network, such as switching and routing of packets and
controlling the congestion of data.
If the network adapter on the router cannot transmit a data chunk as large as the source computer sends, the
network layer on the router compensates by breaking the data into smaller units. At the destination end, the
network layer reassembles the data. Internet Protocol (IP) and Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) are
examples of network-layer protocols.
Data-Link Layer
Layer 2, the data-link layer, sends data frames from the network layer to the physical layer. It controls the
electrical impulses that enter and leave the network cable. On the receiving end, the data-link layer packages
raw bits from the physical layer into data frames. (A data frame is an organized, logical structure in which
data can be placed. The electrical representation of the data (bit patterns, encoding methods, and tokens) is
known to this layer only.
The bellow Figure shows a simple data frame. In this example, the sender ID represents the address of the
computer that is sending the information; the destination ID represents the address of the computer to which
the information is being sent. The control information is used for frame type, routing, and segmentation
information. The data is the information itself. The cyclical redundancy check (CRC) provides error
correction and verification information to ensure that the data frame is received correctly.
The data-link layer is responsible for providing error-free transfer of these frames from one computer to
another through the physical layer. This allows the network layer to anticipate virtually error-free
transmission over the network connection.
Usually, when the data-link layer sends a frame, it waits for an acknowledgment from the recipient. The
recipient data-link layer detects any problems with the frame that might have occurred during transmission.
Frames that were damaged during transmission or were not acknowledged are then re-sent.

Physical Layer
Layer 1, the bottom layer of the OSI reference model, is the physical layer. This layer transmits the
unstructured, raw bit stream over a physical medium (such as the network cable). The physical layer is totally
hardware-oriented and deals with all aspects of establishing and maintaining a physical link between
communicating computers. The physical layer also carries the signals that transmit data generated by each of
the higher layers.
This layer defines how the cable is attached to the NIC. For example, it defines how many pins the connector
has and the function of each. It also defines which transmission technique will be used to send data over the
network cable.
This layer provides data encoding and bit synchronization. The physical layer is responsible for transmitting
bits (zeros and ones) from one computer to another, ensuring that when a transmitting host sends a 1 bit, it is
received as a 1 bit, not a 0 bit. Because different types of media physically transmit bits (light or electrical
signals) differently, the physical layer also defines the duration of each impulse and how each bit is translated
into the appropriate electrical or optical impulse for the network cable.
This layer is often referred to as the "hardware layer." Although the rest of the layers can be implemented as
firmware (chip-level functions on the NIC), rather than actual software, the other layers are software in
relation to this first layer.
Data Packets and the OSI Reference Model
data packets are assembled and disassembled according to the OSI reference model. The packet-creation
process begins at the application layer of the OSI reference model, where the data is generated. Information
to be sent across the network starts at the application layer and descends through all seven layers.

At each layer, information relevant to that layer is added to the data. This information is for the use of the
corresponding layer in the receiving computer. The data-link layer in the receiving computer, for instance,
will read information added at the data-link layer in the sending computer.
At the transport layer, the original block of data is broken into the actual packets. The protocol defines the
structure of the packets used by the two computers.
When the packet reaches the transport layer, sequence information is added that guides the receiving
computer in reassembling the data from packets.
When the packets finally pass through the physical layer on their way to the cable, they contain information
from each of the other six layers.
Addressing Packets
Most packets on the network are addressed to a specific computer and, as a result, get the attention of only
one computer. Each NIC sees all packets sent on its cable segment, but it interrupts the computer only if the
packet's address matches the card's individual address. Alternatively, a broadcast-type address can also be
used. Packets sent with a broadcast-type address can receive the simultaneous attention of many computers
on the network.
In situations involving large networks that cover large regions (or even countries) and offer several possible
communication routes, the network's connectivity and switching components use the packet's addressing
information to determine the best route for addressing packets.
Directing Packets
Network components use the addressing information in packets to direct the packets to their destinations or
to keep them away from network locations where they do not belong. The following two functions play a key
role in properly directing packets:
 Packet forwarding Computers send a packet on to the next appropriate network component based on
the address in the packet's header.
 Packet filtering Computers use criteria, such as an address, to select specific packets.

Network Protocol
The Function of Protocols
Protocols are rules and procedures for communicating. The term "protocol" is used in a variety of contexts.
For example, diplomats from one country adhere to rules of protocol designed to help them interact smoothly
with diplomats from other countries. Rules of protocol apply in the same way in the computer environment.
When several computers are networked, the rules and technical procedures governing their communication
and interaction are called protocols.
Keep three points in mind when you think about protocols in a network environment:
 There are many protocols. While each protocol facilitates basic communications, each has different
purposes and accomplishes different tasks. Each protocol has its own advantages and restrictions.
 Some protocols work only at particular OSI layers. The layer at which a protocol works describes its
function. For example, a protocol that works at the physical layer ensures that the data packet passes
through the network interface card (NIC) and out onto the network cable.
 Protocols can also work together in a protocol stack, or suite. Just as a network incorporates functions
at every layer of the OSI reference model, different protocols also work together at different levels in
a single protocol stack. The levels in the protocol stack "map," or correspond, to the layers of the OSI
reference model. For instance, the TCP/IP protocol's application layer maps to the OSI reference
model's presentation layer. Taken together, the protocols describe the entire stack's functions and
capabilities.
Routable Protocols
Until the mid-1980s, most local area networks (LANs) were isolated. A LAN served a single department or
company and was rarely connected to any larger environments. As LAN technology matured, however, and
the data communication needs of businesses expanded, LANs evolved, becoming components in larger data
communication networks in which LANs talked to each other.
Data that is sent from one LAN to another along any of several available paths is said to be routed. The
protocols that support multipath LAN-to-LAN communications are known as routable protocols. Because
routable protocols can be used to tie several LANs together and create new wide-area environments, they are
becoming increasingly important.
Protocols in a Layered Architecture
In a network, several protocols have to work together. By working together, they ensure that the data is
properly prepared, transferred to the right destination, received, and acted upon.
The work of the various protocols must be coordinated so that no conflicts or incomplete operations take
place. The results of this coordination effort are known as layering.

Protocol Stacks
A protocol stack is a combination of protocols. Each layer of the stack specifies a different protocol for
handling a function or subsystem of the communication process. Each layer has its own set of rules. The
protocols define the rules for each layer in the OSI reference model.
The lower layers in the OSI reference model specify how manufacturers can make their equipment connect to
equipment from other manufacturers, for example, by using NICs from several manufacturers on the same
LAN. As long as they operate with the same protocols, they are able to send and receive data from each
other. The upper layers specify rules for conducting communications sessions (the time during which two
computers maintain a connection) and the interpretation of applications. The higher they are in the stack, the
more sophisticated the tasks and their associated protocols become.
The Binding Process
The binding process—the process by which protocols become connected to each other and the NIC—allows
a great deal of flexibility in setting up a network. Protocols and NICs can be mixed and matched on an as-
needed basis. For example, two protocol stacks, such as Internetwork Packet Exchange and Sequenced
Packet Exchange (IPX/SPX), discussed in Lesson 3: NetWare Protocols, and Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), discussed in Lesson 2: TCP/IP, can be bound to one NIC. If there is
more than one NIC in the computer, one protocol stack can be bound to either or both NICs.
The binding order determines the sequence in which the operating system runs the protocol. When multiple
protocols are bound to a single NIC, the binding order is the sequence in which the protocols will be utilized
to attempt a successful connection. Typically, the binding process is initiated when either the operating
system or the protocol is installed or initialized. For example, if TCP/IP is the first protocol to be bound, the
network operating system will attempt a network connection via TCP/IP before attempting to use another
protocol. If this network connection fails, the computer will attempt to make a connection by using the next
protocol in the binding order.

The binding process consists of more than just binding the protocol stack to the NIC. Protocol stacks need to
be bound or associated with the components above and below them so that data can proceed smoothly
through the stack during execution. For example, TCP/IP may be bound to the Network Basic Input/Output
System (NetBIOS) session layer above as well as to the NIC driver below it. The NIC driver is also bound to
the NIC.
Standard Stacks
The computer industry has designated several kinds of stacks as standard protocol models. Hardware and
software manufacturers can develop their products to meet any one or a combination of these protocols. The
most important models include:
 The ISO/OSI protocol suite.

 The IBM Systems Network Architecture (SNA).
 Digital DECnet.
 Novell NetWare.
 Apple's AppleTalk.
 The Internet protocol suite, TCP/IP.
Protocols exist at each layer of these stacks, performing the tasks specified by that layer. However, the
communication tasks that networks need to perform are grouped into one of three protocol types. Each type
is comprised of one or more layers of the OSI.
TCP/IP protocol
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is an industry-standard suite of protocols that
provide communications in a heterogeneous (made up of dissimilar elements) environment. In addition,
TCP/IP provides a routable, enterprise networking protocol and access to the Internet and its resources.
Because of its popularity, TCP/IP has become the de facto standard for what's known as internetworking, the
intercommunication in a network that's composed of smaller networks. This lesson examines the TCP/IP
protocol and its relationship to the OSI reference model.
Introduction to TCP/IP
TCP/IP has become the standard protocol used for interoperability among many different types of computers.
This interoperability is a primary advantage of TCP/IP. Most networks support TCP/IP as a protocol. TCP/IP
also supports routing and is commonly used as an internetworking protocol.
Other protocols written specifically for the TCP/IP suite include:
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) E-mail.

 FTP (File Transfer Protocol) For exchanging files among computers running TCP/IP.
 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) For network management.

Designed to be routable, robust, and functionally efficient, TCP/IP was developed by the United States
Department of Defense as a set of wide area network (WAN) protocols. Its purpose was to maintain
communication links between sites in the event of nuclear war. The responsibility for TCP/IP development
now resides with the Internet community as a whole. TCP/IP requires significant knowledge and experience
on the user's part to install and configure. Using TCP/IP offers several advantages; it:
 Is an industry standard As an industry standard, it is an open protocol. This means it is not

controlled by a single company, and is less subject to compatibility issues. It is the de facto protocol
of the Internet.
 Contains a set of utilities for connecting dissimilar operating systems Connectivity from one
computer to another does not depend on the network operating system used on either computer.
 Uses scalable, cross-platform client-server architecture TCP/IP can expand (or shrink) to meet
future needs and circumstances. It uses sockets to make the computer operating systems transparent
to one another.
TCP/IP and OSI
The TCP/IP protocol does not exactly match the OSI reference model. Instead of seven layers, it uses only
four. Commonly referred to as the Internet Protocol Suite, TCP/IP is broken into the following four layers:
 Network interface layer

 Internet layer
 Transport layer
 Application layer
Each of these layers corresponds to one or more layers of the OSI reference model.
Network Interface Layer
The network interface layer, corresponding to the physical and data-link layers of the OSI reference model,
communicates directly with the network. It provides the interface between the network architecture (such as
token ring, Ethernet) and the Internet layer.
Internet Layer
The Internet layer, corresponding to the network layer of the OSI reference model, uses several protocols for
routing and delivering packets. Routers "Elements of Network Connectivity," are protocol dependent. They
function at this layer of the model and are used to forward packets from one network or segment to another.
Several protocols work within the Internet layer.
Internet Protocol (IP)
Internet Protocol (IP) is a packet-switched protocol that performs addressing and route selection. As a packet
is transmitted, this protocol appends a header to the packet so that it can be routed through the network using
dynamic routing tables. IP is a connectionless protocol and sends packets without expecting the receiving
host to acknowledge receipt. In addition, IP is responsible for packet assembly and disassembly as required

by the physical and data-link layers of the OSI reference model. Each IP packet is made up of a source and a
destination address, protocol identifier, checksum (a calculated value), and a TTL (which stands for "time to
live"). The TTL tells each router on the network between the source and the destination how long the packet
has to remain on the network. It works like a countdown counter or clock. As the packet passes through the
router, the router deducts the larger of one unit (one second) or the time that the packet was queued for
delivery. For example, if a packet has a TTL of 128, it can stay on the network for 128 seconds or 128 hops
(each stop, or router, along the way), or any combination of the two. The purpose of the TTL is to prevent
lost or damaged data packets (such as missing e-mail messages) from endlessly wandering the network.
When the TTL counts down to zero, the packet is eliminated from the network.
Another method used by the IP to increase the speed of transmission is known as "ANDing." The purpose of
ANDing is to determine whether the address is a local or a remote site. If the address is local, IP will ask the
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), discussed in the next section, for the hardware address of the destination
machine. If the address is remote, the IP checks its local routing table for a route to the destination. If a route
exists, the packet is sent on its way. If no route exists, the packet is sent to the local default gateway and then
on its way.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Before an IP packet can be forwarded to another host, the hardware address of the receiving machine must be
known. The ARP determines hardware address (MAC addresses) that correspond to an IP address. If ARP
does not contain the address in its own cache, it broadcasts a request for the address. All hosts on the network
process the request and, if they contain a map to that address, pass the address back to the requestor. The
packet is then sent on its way, and the new information address is stored in the router's cache.
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
A RARP server maintains a database of machine numbers in the form of an ARP table (or cache) which is
created by the system administrator. In contrast to ARP, the RARP protocol provides an IP number to a
requesting hardware address. When the RARP server receives a request for an IP number from a node on the
network, it responds by checking its routing table for the machine number of the requesting node and sending
the appropriate IP number back to the requesting node.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
The ICMP is used by IP and higher-level protocols to send and receive status reports about information being
transmitted. Routers commonly use ICMP to control the flow, or speed, of data between themselves. If the
flow of data is too fast for a router, it requests that other routers slow down.
The two basic categories of ICMP messages are reporting errors and sending queries.
Transport Layer
The transport layer, corresponding to the transport layer of the OSI reference model, is responsible for
establishing and maintaining end-to-end communication between two hosts. The transport layer provides
acknowledgment of receipt, flow control, and sequencing of packets. It also handles retransmissions of

packets. The transport layer can use either TCP or User Datagram Protocol (UDP) protocols depending on
the requirements of the transmission.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
The TCP is responsible for the reliable transmission of data from one node to another. It is a connection-
based protocol and establishes a connection (also known as a session, virtual circuit, or link), between two
machines before any data is transferred. To establish a reliable connection, TCP uses what is known as a
"three-way handshake." This establishes the port number and beginning sequence numbers from both sides
of the transmission. The handshake contains three steps:
1. The requestor sends a packet specifying the port number it plans to use and its initial sequence
number (ISN) to the server.
2. The server acknowledges with its ISN, which consists of the requestor's ISN, plus 1.
3. The requestor acknowledges the acknowledgement with the server's ISN, plus 1.
In order to maintain a reliable connection, each packet must contain:
 A source and destination TCP port number.

 A sequence number for messages that must be broken into smaller pieces.
 A checksum to ensure that information is sent without error.
 An acknowledgement number that tells the sending machine which pieces of the message have
arrived.
 TCP Sliding Windows.
Ports, Sockets, and Sliding Windows
Protocol port numbers are used to reference the location of a particular application or process on each
machine (in the application layer). Just as an IP address identifies the address of a host on the network, the
port address identifies the application to the transport layer, thus providing a complete connection for one
application on one host to an application on another host. Applications and services (such as file and print
services or telnet) can configure up to 65,536 ports. TCP/IP applications and services typically use the first
1023 ports. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) has assigned these as standard, or default,
ports. Any client applications dynamically assign port numbers as needed. A port and a node address together
make up a socket.
Services and applications use sockets to establish connections with another host. If applications need to
guarantee the delivery of data, the socket chooses the connection-oriented service (TCP). If the applications
do not need to guarantee data delivery, the socket chooses the connectionless service (UDP).
A sliding window is used by TCP for transferring data between hosts. It regulates how much information can
be passed over a TCP connection before the receiving host must send an acknowledgement. Each computer
has both a send and a receive window that it utilizes to buffer data and make the communication process
more efficient. A sliding window allows the sending computer to transmit data in a stream without having to
wait for each packet to be acknowledged. This allows the receiving machine to receive packets out of order

and reorganize them while it waits for more packets. The sending window keeps track of data that has been
sent, and if an acknowledgement is not received within a given amount of time, the packets are re-sent.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
A connectionless protocol, the UDP, is responsible for end-to-end transmission of data. Unlike TCP,
however, UDP does not establish a connection. It attempts to send the data and to verify that the destination
host actually receives the data. UDP is best used to send small amounts of data for which guaranteed delivery
is not required. While UDP uses ports, they are different from TCP ports; therefore, they can use the same
numbers without interference.
Application Layer
Corresponding to the session, presentation, and application layers of the OSI reference model, the
application layer connects applications to the network. Two application programming interfaces (APIs)
provide access to the TCP/IP transport protocols—Windows Sockets and NetBIOS.

1. Simplex transmission
A. TV
B. Computer network
C. Telephone communication
A. In full duplex two device can communicate at the same time
B. In half duplex communication is takes place only in one direction
C. Telephone conversation is a full duplex communication
D. Radio uses a simplex communication
A. Computer network uses circuit switching
B. In packet switching, every packet follows the same route
C. Telephone communication uses circuit switching
D. All are true
4. Data formatting is takes place in ____________layer of the OSI reference model
A. Physical layer
B. Presentation layer
C. Session layer
D. Application layer
5. Internet explorer is found in ________________ layer of the OSI
A. Physical layer
B. Application layer

C. Data link layer

D. Presentation layer
6. Makes to application to open, use and close a connection
A. Application layer
B. Network layer
C. Session layer
D. Data link layer
7. The layer which is responsible for addressing computers
A. Presentation layer
B. Session layer
C. Transport layer
D. Network layer
8. The set of rule and procedures which govern communication between computers
A. OSI
B. Topology
C. Protocol
D. IP
9. The protocol which enables computer to send and receive e mail
A. FTP
B. SNMP
C. SMTP
D. HTTP
10. Which of the following is connection oriented protocol
A. TCP
B. UDP
C. SMTP
D. All


SERVICING
Level III

Network connectivity devices

Network Interface Cards (NIC)
 Also called network adapter

 Receive data and convert it into electrical signals
 Receive electrical signals and convert them into data
 Determine if the data received is for a particular computer
 Control the flow of data through the cable
Network adapters constitute the physical interface between the computer and the network cable. Network
adapters, also known as network interface cards, are installed into an expansion slot in each computer and
server on the network. After the network adapter is installed, the network cable is attached to the adapter's
port to physically connect the computer to the network.
As the data passes through the cable to the network adapter, it is formatted into packets. A packet is a logical
grouping of information that includes a header, which contains location information and user data. The
header contains address fields that include information about the data's origin and destination. The network
adapter reads the destination address to determine if the packet is to be delivered to this computer. If it is, the
network adapter then passes the packet on to the operating system for processing. If not, the network adapter
discards the packet.
Each network adapter has a unique address that is incorporated into chips on the card. This address is called
the physical, or media access control (MAC), address.
The network adapter performs the following functions:
 Receives data from the computer's operating system and converts it into electrical signals that are
transmitted onto the cable
 Receives electrical signals from the cable and translates them into data that the computer's
operating system can understand
 Determines whether data received from the cable is intended for the computer
 Controls the flow of data between the computer and the cabling system
To ensure compatibility between the computer and the network, the network adapter must meet the following
criteria:
 Fit in the computer's expansion slot

 Use the correct type of cable connector for the cabling

 Be supported by the computer's operating system
Repeaters
As signals travel along a cable, they degrade and become distorted in a process called "attenuation." If a
cable is long enough, attenuation will finally make a signal unrecognizable. Installing a repeater enables
signals to travel farther.
Repeater Considerations
Repeaters afford the least expensive way to expand a network. When the need arises to extend the physical
network beyond its distance or node limitations, consider using a repeater to link segments if neither segment
is generating much traffic or limiting costs is a major consideration.
No Isolation or Filtering Repeaters send every bit of data from one cable segment to another, even if the
data consists of malformed packets or packets not destined for use on the network. This means that a problem
with one segment can disrupt every other segment. Repeaters do not act as filters to restrict the flow of
problem traffic.
Repeaters will also pass a broadcast storm along from one segment to the next, back and forth along the
network. A broadcast storm occurs when so many broadcast messages are on the network that the number is
approaching the network bandwidth limit. If a device is responding to a packet that is continuously
circulating on the network, or a packet is continuously attempting to contact a system that never replies,
network performance will be degraded.
Implementing a repeater This section summarizes what you need to consider when deciding whether to
implement repeaters in your network.
Use a repeater to:
 Connect two segments of similar or dissimilar media.

 Regenerate the signal to increase the distance transmitted.
 Pass all traffic in both directions.
 Connect two segments in the most cost-effective manner.
Do not use a repeater when:
 There is heavy network traffic.

 Segments are using different access methods.
 Data filtering is needed.

Hubs
Hub is used as the central hardware component in a star topology. It can also be used in token-ring topology.
Hubs can also be used to expand the size of a LAN. Although using hubs won't convert a LAN into a WAN,
connecting or adding hubs to a LAN can effectively increase the number of workstations. This method of
growing a LAN is popular, but does come with many design limitations. Hubs are multiport repeater
A Hub works at the physical layer of the OSI Reference Model to regenerate the network's signals and resend
them out on other segments.
Hubs are connectivity devices that connect computers in a star topology. Hubs contain multiple ports for
connecting to network components. If you use a hub, a break in the network does not affect the entire
network; only the segment and the computer attached to that segment fail. A single data packet sent through
a hub goes to all connected computers. There are two types of hubs:
Passive Hubs: Send the incoming signal directly through their ports without any signal processing. These
hubs are usually wiring panels.
Active Hubs: Sometimes called multiport repeaters, receive incoming signals, process the signals, and
retransmit them at their original strengths and definitions to the connected computers or components.
Use a hub to:

 Easily change and expand wiring systems.
 Use different ports to accommodate a variety of cable types.
 Enable central monitoring of network activity and traffic.
Bridges
Like a repeater, a bridge can join segments or workgroup LANs. However, a bridge can also divide a
network to isolate traffic or problems. For example, if the volume of traffic from one or two computers or a
single department is flooding the network with data and slowing down the entire operation, a bridge could
isolate those computers or that department.
Bridges can be used to:
 Expand the length of a segment.

 Provide for an increased number of computers on the network.
 Reduce traffic bottlenecks resulting from an excessive number of attached computers.
 Split an overloaded network into two separate networks, reducing the amount of traffic on each
segment and making each network more efficient.
 Link unlike physical media such as twisted-pair and coaxial Ethernet.

How Bridges Work
Because bridges work at the data-link layer of the OSI reference model, all information contained in the
higher levels of the OSI reference model is unavailable to them. Rather than distinguish between one
protocol and another, bridges simply pass all protocols along the network. All protocols pass across bridges,
so it is up to the individual computers to determine which protocols they can recognize.
As discussed in previous topics the data-link layer has two sub layers: the Logical Link Control (LLC) sub
layer and the Media Access Control (MAC) sub layer. Bridges work at the MAC sub layer and are
sometimes referred to as MAC-layer bridges.
A MAC-layer bridge:
 Listens to all traffic.

 Checks the source and destination addresses of each packet.
 Builds a routing table, as information becomes available.
 Forwards packets in the following manner:
o If the destination is not listed in the routing table, the bridge forwards the packets to all
segments.
o If the destination is listed in the routing table, the bridge forwards the packets to that segment
(unless it is the same segment as the source).
A bridge works on the principle that each network node has its own address. A bridge forwards packets
based on the address of the destination node.
Bridges actually have some degree of intelligence in that they learn where to forward data. As traffic passes
through the bridge, information about the computer addresses is stored in the bridge's RAM. The bridge uses
this RAM to build a routing table based on source addresses.
Initially, the bridge's routing table is empty. As nodes transmit packets, the source address is copied to the
routing table. With this address information the bridge learns which computers are on which segment of the
network.
Creating the Routing Table Bridges build their routing tables based on the addresses of computers that
have transmitted data on the network. Specifically, bridges use source addresses—the address of the device
that initiates the transmission—to create a routing table.
When the bridge receives a packet, the source address is compared to the routing table. If the source address
is not there, it is added to the table. The bridge then compares the destination address with the routing-table
database.
 If the destination address is in the routing table and is on the same segment as the source address, the
packet is discarded. This filtering helps to reduce network traffic and isolate segments of the network.
 If the destination address is in the routing table and not in the same segment as the source address, the
bridge forwards the packet out of the appropriate port to reach the destination address.

 If the destination address is not in the routing table, the bridge forwards the packet to all its ports
except the one on which it originated.
In summary, if a bridge knows the location of the destination node, it forwards the packet to it. If it does not
know the destination, it forwards the packet to all segments.
Segmenting Network Traffic A bridge can segment traffic because of its routing table. A computer on
segment 1 (the source), sends data to another computer (the destination) also located in segment 1. If the
destination address is in the routing table, the bridge can determine that the destination computer is also on
segment 1. Because the source and destination computers are both on segment 1, the packet does not get
forwarded across the bridge to segment 2.
Therefore, bridges can use routing tables to reduce the traffic on the network by controlling which packets
get forwarded to other segments. This controlling (or restricting) of the flow of network traffic is known as
"segmenting network traffic."
A large network is not limited to one bridge. Multiple bridges can be used to combine several small networks
into one large network.
Switch
Switches are similar to bridges but offer a more direct network connection between the source and
destination computers. When a switch receives a data packet, it creates a separate internal connection, or
segment, between any two of its ports and forwards the data packet to the appropriate port of the destination
computer only, based on information in each packet's header. This insulates the connection from the other
ports and gives the source and destination computers access to the full bandwidth of a network. Unlike a hub,
switches are comparable to a telephone system with private lines.
In such a system, if one person calls someone, the operator or telephone switch connects them on a dedicated
line. This allows more conversations to take place at any one time.
Use a switch to:
 Send a packet directly from the source computer to the destination computer.
 Provide for a greater rate of data transmission.
Routers
In an environment that consists of several network segments with differing protocols and architectures, a
bridge might be inadequate for ensuring fast communication among all segments. A network this complex
needs a device that not only knows the address of each segment, but can also determine the best path for
sending data and filtering broadcast traffic to the local segment. Such a device is called a "router."
Routers work at the network layer of the OSI reference model. This means they can switch and route packets
across multiple networks. They do this by exchanging protocol-specific information between separate
networks. Routers read complex network addressing information in the packet and, because they function at
a higher layer in the OSI reference model than bridges, they have access to additional information.

Routers can provide the following functions of a bridge:
 Filtering and isolating traffic

 Connecting network segments
Routers have access to more of the information in packets than bridges have and use this information to
improve packet deliveries. Routers are used in complex networks because they provide better traffic
management. Routers can share status and routing information with one another and use this information to
bypass slow or malfunctioning connections.
How Routers Work
Routers maintain their own routing tables, usually consisting of network addresses; host addresses can also
be kept if the network architecture calls for it. To determine the destination address for incoming data, the
routing table includes:
 All known network addresses.

 Instructions for connection to other networks.
 The possible paths between routers.
 The costs of sending data over those paths.
NOTE
Remember that routing tables were also discussed in the context of bridges. The routing table
maintained by a bridge contains MAC-sublayer addresses for each node, whereas the routing table
maintained by a router contains network numbers. Although manufacturers of both types of
equipment have chosen to use the term "routing table," it has a different meaning for bridges than it
does for routers.
Routers require specific addresses. They understand only the network numbers that allow them to
communicate with other routers and local NIC addresses. Routers do not talk to remote computers
When routers receive packets destined for a remote network, they send them to the router that manages the
destination network. In some ways this is an advantage because it means routers can:
 Segment large networks into smaller ones.

 Act as safety barriers between segments.
 Prohibit broadcast storms, because broadcasts are not forwarded.
Because routers must perform complex functions on each packet, routers are slower than most bridges. As
packets are passed from router to router, data-link layer source and destination addresses are stripped off and
then re-created. This enables a router to route a packet from a TCP/IP Ethernet network to a server on a
TCP/IP Token Ring network.

Because routers read only addressed network packets, they do not allow corrupted data to get passed onto the
network. Because they do not pass corrupted data or broadcast data storms, routers put little stress on
networks.
Routers do not look at the destination node address; they look only at the network address. Routers will pass
information only if the network address is known. This ability to control the data passing through the router
reduces the amount of traffic between networks and allows routers to use these links more efficiently than
bridges.
Using the router-addressing scheme, administrators can break one large network into many separate
networks, and because routers do not pass or even handle every packet, they act as a safety barrier between
network segments. This can greatly reduce the amount of traffic on the network and the wait time
experienced by users.
Routable Protocols Not all protocols are routable. Protocols that are routable include:
 DECnet.
 Internet Protocol (IP).
 Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX).
 OSI.
 Xerox Network System (XNS).
 DDP (AppleTalk).
Protocols that are not routable include:
 Local Area Transport Protocol (LAT), a protocol from Digital Equipment Corporation.
 NetBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface).
Routers are available that can accommodate multiple protocols such as IP and DECnet in the same network.
Choosing Paths Unlike bridges, routers can accommodate multiple active paths between LAN segments and
choose among redundant paths. Because routers can link segments that use completely different data
packaging and media-access schemes, there are often several paths available for the router to use. This means
that if one router does not function, the data can still be passed over alternate routes.
A router can listen to a network and identify which parts are busiest. It uses this information to determine
which path to send data over. If one path is very busy, the router identifies an alternative path and sends data
over that one.
A router decides the path the data packet will follow by determining the number of hops between
internetwork segments. Like bridges, routers build routing tables and use these in routing algorithms such as
the following:
 OSPF ("open shortest path first") is a link-state routing algorithm. Link-state algorithms control the
routing process and allow routers to respond quickly to changes in the network.

 RIP (Routing Information Protocol) uses distance-vector algorithms to determine routes.

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) and IPX support RIP.
 NetWare Link Services Protocol (NLSP) is a link-state algorithm to be used with IPX.
Types of Routers
The two major types of routers are:
 Static.
Static routers require an administrator to manually set up and configure the routing table and to
specify each route.
 Dynamic.
Dynamic routers are designed to discover routes automatically and therefore require a minimal
amount of setup and configuration. More sophisticated than static routers, they examine information
from other routers and make packet-by-packet decisions about how to send data across the network.
Four key pieces of information can help you distinguish between a bridge and a router and determine which
would be appropriate in a given situation:
 The bridge recognizes only local MAC-sublayer addresses (the addresses of NICs in its own
segment). Routers recognize network addresses.
 The bridge broadcasts (forwards) everything it does not recognize and forwards all addresses it
knows, but only from the appropriate port.
 The router works only with routable protocols.
 The router filters addresses. It forwards particular protocols to particular addresses (other routers).
Brouters
A brouter, as the name implies, combines the qualities of both a bridge and a router. A brouter can act as a
router for one protocol and as a bridge for all the others.
Brouters can:
 Route selected routable protocols.

 Bridge nonroutable protocols.
 Deliver more cost-effective and more manageable internetworking than separate bridges and routers.
Gateways
Gateways enable communication between different architectures and environments. They repackage and
convert data going from one environment to another so that each environment can understand the other
environment's data. A gateway repackages information to match the requirements of the destination system.
Gateways can change the format of a message so that it conforms to the application program at the receiving

end of the transfer. For example, electronic-mail gateways, such as the X.400 gateway, receive messages in
one format, translate it, and forward it in X.400 format used by the receiver, and vice versa.
A gateway links two systems that do not use the same:
 Communication protocols.
 Data-formatting structures.
 Languages.
 Architecture.
Gateways interconnect heterogeneous networks; for example, they can connect Microsoft Windows NT
Server to IBM's Systems Network Architecture (SNA). Gateways change the format of the data to make it
conform to the application program at the receiving end.
How Gateways Work
Gateways are task-specific, which means that they are dedicated to a particular type of transfer. They are
often referred to by their task name (Windows NT Server to SNA gateway).
A gateway takes the data from one environment, strips off its old protocol stack, and repackages it in the
protocol stack from the destination network.
To process the data, the gateway:
 Disassembles incoming data through the network's complete protocol stack.

 Encapsulates the outgoing data in the complete protocol stack of the other network to allow
transmission.
network addressing
Addressing on a network can take one of three forms:
 Computer names: on a typical network, most users prefer to use computer names to
communicate; computer names are far easier to remember than IP addresses. A computer
name is the logical equivalent of an IP or MAC address
 IP(Internet protocol): Although users can use IP addresses, customarily IP addresses are
used primirly by applications to communicate with locations on or outside the network
 MAC(Media Access Control) address:MAC addresses are the physical addresses of
network devices and if users use computer names and application use IP addresses, then
computers and other networked devices use MAC addresses to access other devices on the
network
With three ways to address elements on a network, there must be ways to resolve each type of address to its
equivalents.

MAC addressing
A host’s MAC address is based on a 12-digit hexadecimal address. Usually, but not always, the MAC
address is burned in the NIC through the use of a programmable Read only memory (PROM) module, or the
address can be burned into a special chip called an electronic PROM (EPROM). The MAC address is
identified in the second layer of the seven layer OSI model, the Data link layer
Although the MAC address is always used in networking. It cannot be routed. The MAC address is not
routable because of
 It does not pass through routers (because of its position in the OSI model)
 It has no network address.

Working on peer-to-peer Network (Workgroup)
IP Addressing
An IP address consists of two parts a network address that identifies the network and a host address that
identifies the particular host, or node.
Types of IP address
1. Internet protocol version 4/IPV4
2. Internet protocol Version 6/IPV6
Every computer on a network must have a unique address. If two computers have the same address an
address conflict occurs.
IPV4
The IP address identifies and differentiates a given machine from all others on the network. It consists of a
32-bit binary number that is usually displayed as four octets expressed in decimal and separated by periods.
You must have a unique IP address for each machine on the network. In addition, if your machine serves as a
router to another network (it contains two or more network adapters and belongs to two or more networks),
you must assign each adapter a unique IP address on the appropriate network.
8 bit 8 bit 8 bit 8 bit

Network classes
Internet addresses are allocated by the InterNIC (http://www.internic.net ), the organization that administers
the Internet. These IP addresses are divided into classes. The most common of these are classes A, B, and C.
Classes D and E exist, but are not generally used by end users. Each of the address classes has a different
default subnet mask.

Network classes used to provide an addressing scheme that can accommodate large and small networks. All
networks in practical use have different sizes. For example, a company that will have 50 computers, will not
need a network of 5000 computers, And on the contrary, a company that needs 5000 computers does not
need a network that can only hold 50 computers.
This is the main reason that engineers decided that IP address space should be divided in different classes in
order to meet different requirements.
There are five different classes of networks: A, B, C, D and E. classes D and E are reserved. Class D is
reserved for multicasting purpose and class E for experimental purpose.
Class A networks
 designed to meet the needs of large networks

 This class will only support 126 networks; but each network can support 16,777,214 hosts.
 The first octet of the IP address is network portion and the rest the node portion
Class B networks
 was designed for medium-sized networks

 This class will support 16,384 networks; and limited to 65,534 hosts per network.
 The first two octet are the nw portion
 Octet 3 and 4 are for nodes
 Used for nw that have b/n 256 and 65,534 nodes
Class C networks
 Was designed for small networks; thus the number of hosts per network will be small, however it will
support many more networks total.
 The first three octet are the network portion and the remaining one for node
 A maximum of 2,097,152 (221 ) networks can be defined with up to 254 (28-2) hosts per network
Identifying network classes
Given an IP address, its class can be determined from the three high order bits.
Class A
 The first bit is 0
Network ID

0 24 bits (node ID)
The possible class A IP ranges
1.0.0.0-127.255.255.255
Class B
 The first two bits are 1 and 0
1 0 (14 bits) 16 bits node id

network id
The possible IP range for class B is
128.0.0.0-191.255.255.255
Class C
 The first three bits are 1,1 and 0
1 1 0 (21 bits) network id 8 bits node id
The possible IP range for class C is
192.0.0.0- 223.255.255.255
Class Prefix Max. num. Suffix Available Hosts Valid Address Ranges
bits(ntk) of network bits(host) per Network

A 7 27=128 24 224-2=16777214 1.0.0.1 through 126.255.255.254

14 16
B 14 2 =16384 16 2 -2 =65534 128.0.0.1 through 191.255.255.254
C 21 221=2097152 8 28-2=254 192.0.0.1 through 222.255.255.254
D&E 224.0.0.0 through 255.255.255.254
Reserved
- If you are connecting your machine to a pre-existing network, the network address (for Class A, the first
octet; for Class B, the first two octets; and for Class C, the first three octets) is the same as those of other
machines on the network. In this case, you only need to create a unique host address.
If you are creating an entirely new network and you want to connect to the Internet, you need to contact the
internet service provider or Network Information Center to have a network address. When you determine the
IP address, remember:
 Each logical network must have its own network address.

 All hosts in a network must have the same network address.
 All hosts in a network must have unique host addresses.
IP address type
1. Private IP addresses
Private IP addresses are typically used on local networks including home, school and business LANs. Private
networks are non routable. Devices with private IP addresses cannot connect directly to the Internet.
Likewise, computers outside the local network cannot connect directly to a device with a private IP. Instead,
access to such devices must be brokered by a router.
Class A 10.0.0.1 through 10.255.255.254
Class B 172.16.0.1 through 172. 31.255.254
Class C 192.168.0.1 through 192.168.255.254
2. Public IP address
An IP address can be public - for use on the Internet or other wide area network (WAN).
Static verses Dynamic IP address
IP addresses can be determined statically (assigned to a computer by a system administrator) or dynamically

(assigned by another device on the network on demand).
Reserved IP address

Certain host addresses are reserved and can’t be assigned to devices on a network
These are
1. Network address used to identify the network itself with all host bits zero.
Example: 192.168.1.0
2. broadcast address used for broadcasting packets to all devices on the network with all host bits one
Example: 192.168.1.255
So usable host with in a network calculated by 2n-2 (two is subtracted because these are reserved for the network and
broadcast. where n is the number of bits used for the host portion of the address.
Class D and class E are also reserved addresses used for different purposes such as research.
Subnet mask (network mask)
- A subnet mask or sub network mask is a 32 bit number which is used to identify which portion of the
IP address identifies the network portion and which part indicates the host part or portion.
- In subnet mask, all bits of the network ID portion are set to 1 and all bits of the host address portion
are set to 0.
- Any address bits that have corresponding mask bits set to 1 represent the network ID, and any address
bits that have corresponding mask bits set to 0 represent the node ID
For class full networks there are default mask
Class C 255.255.255.0
Class B 255.255.0.0
Class A 255.0.0.0
Subnneting
Subnetting is the process of breaking down an IP network into smaller sub-networks called “subnets.”
Each subnet is a non-physical description (or ID) for a physical sub-network (usually a switched network
of host containing a single router in a multi-router network).

Sub netting a technique that allows a network administrator to divide one physical network into smaller
logical network
There are many reasons in favor of sub netting, including the following benefits
 Reduced network traffic: we all appreciate less traffic of any kind. Networks are no different. Without
trusty routers, packet traffic could grind the entire network down to a near standstill. With routers,
most traffic will stay on the local network: only packets destined for other networks will pass through
the router. Routers create broadcast domains. The more broadcast domains you create, the samller the
broadcast domains and the less network traffic on each network segment.
 Organized network performance: this is a result of reduced network traffic
 Simplified management: it is easier to identify and isolate network problems in a group of smaller
connected networks than with one gigantic network
 Facilitated spanning of large geographical distances: because WAN links are considerably slower and
more expensive than LAN links, a single large network that spans long distances can create problems
in every area previously listed, connecting multiple smaller networks makes the system more
efficient.
Subnet Mask Notation

There are two forms of subnet notation, standard notation and CIDR (Classless Internet Domain Routing )
notation. Both versions of notation use a base address (or network address) to define the network’s starting
point, such as 192.168.1.0. This means that the network begins at 192.168.1.0 and the first possible host IP
address on this subnet would be 192.168.1.1.
In standard subnet masks notation, a four octet numeric value is used as with the base address, for example
255.255.255.0. The standard mask can be calculated by creating four binary values for each octet, assigning
the binary digit of .1. to the network potion, and assigning the binary digit of .0. to the network potion. In the
example above this value would be 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000. In combination with the base
address is a subnet definition. In this case the subnet in standard notation would be 192.168.1.0
255.255.255.0.
In CIDR notation, the number of 1.s in the mask’s binary version is counted from the left and that number is
appended to the end of the base address following a slash (/). In the example here, the subnet would be listed
in CIDR notation as 192.168.1.0/24.
Subnneting steps
When you’ve chosen a possible subnet mask for your network and need to determine the number of subnets,
valid hosts, and broadcast addresses of a subnet that the mask provides, all you need to do is answer five
simple questions:

_ How many subnets does the chosen subnet mask produce?
_ How many valid hosts per subnet are available?
_ What are the valid subnets?
_ What’s the broadcast address of each subnet?
_ What are the valid hosts in each subnet?


At this point it’s important that you both understand and have memorized your powers of 2.

Answers to those five big questions:
1_ How many subnets? 2x = number of subnets. x is the number of masked bits, or the 1s. For example, in
11000000, the number of ones gives us 22 subnets. In this example, there are 4 subnets.

2_ How many hosts per subnet? 2y– 2 = number of hosts per subnet. y is the number of unmasked bits, or the
0s. For example, in 11000000, the number of zeros gives us 26 – 2 hosts. In this example, there are 62 hosts
per subnet. You need to subtract two for the subnet address and the broadcast address, which are not valid
hosts.

3_ What are the valid subnets? 256 – subnet mask = block size, or increment number. An example would be
256 – 192 = 64. The block size of a 192 mask is always 64. Start counting at zero in blocks of 64 until you
reach the subnet mask value and these are your subnets.
0, 64, 128, 192. Easy, huh? Yes—that is, if you can count in the needed block size!

4_ What’s the broadcast address for each subnet? Now here’s the really easy part… Since we counted our
subnets in the last section as 0, 64, 128, and 192, the broadcast address is always the number right before the
next subnet. For example, the 0 subnet has a broadcast address of 63 because the next subnet is 64. The 64
subnet has a broadcast address of 127 because the next subnet is 128, etc. And remember, the broadcast of
the last subnet (the subnet with the same interesting octets as the mask) is always 255 for Class C.

5_ What are the valid hosts? Valid hosts are the numbers between the subnets, omitting all the 0s and all 1s.
For example, if 64 is the subnet number and 127 is the broadcast address, then 65–126 is the valid host range
—it’s always the numbers between the subnet address and the broadcast address.
I know this can truly seem confusing. But it really isn’t as hard as it seems to be at first—just hang in there!
Why not try a few and see for yourself?
Practice Example #1C: 255.255.255.192 (/26)
Let’s use the Class C subnet mask from the preceding example, 255.255.255.192, to see how much simpler
this method is than writing out the binary numbers. We’re going to subnet the network address 192.168.10.0
and subnet mask 255.255.255.192.

192.168.10.0 = Network address
255.255.255.192 = Subnet mask

Now, let’s answer the big five:

1_ How many subnets? Since 192 is 2 bits on (11000000), the answer would be 22.

2_ How many hosts per subnet? We have 6 host bits off (11000000), so the equation would be 26 – 2 = 62
hosts.

3_ What are the valid subnets? 256 – 192 = 64. Remember, we start at zero and count in our block size, so
our subnets are 0, 64, 128, and 192.


4_ What’s the broadcast address for each subnet? The number right before the value of the next subnet is all
host bits turned on and equals the broadcast address.

5_ What are the valid hosts? These are the numbers between the subnet and broadcast address. The easiest
way to find the hosts is to write out the subnet address and the broadcast address. This way, the valid hosts
are obvious. The following table shows the 0, 64, 128, and 192 subnets, the valid host ranges of each, and the
broadcast address of each subnet:

See? We really did come up with the same answers as when we did it the binary way, and this way is so
much easier because you never have to do any binary-to-decimal conversions! About now, you might be
thinking that it’s not easier than the first method I showed you. And I’ll admit, for the first subnet with only 2
subnet bits—you’re right, it isn’t that much easier. But remember, we’re going after the gold: being able to
subnet in your head. And to do that, you need one thing: practice!
Reserved IPv4 addresses
Number of
CIDR IP Range Unique Locality Purpose
Addresses
0.0.0.0–
0.0.0.0/8 16777216 Subnet Used for broadcast messages to the current ("this") network
0.255.255.255
10.0.0.0–
10.0.0.0/8 16777216 Subnet Used for local communications within a private network
10.255.255.255
127.0.0.0–
127.0.0.0/8 16777216 Local Used for loopback addresses to the local host.
127.255.255.255
Used for autoconfiguration between two hosts on a single link

169.254.0.0–
169.254.0.0/16 65536 Subnet when no IP address is otherwise specified, such as would have
169.254.255.255
normally been retrieved from a DHCP server.
172.16.0.0–
172.31.255.255
192.0.2.0– Assigned as "TEST-NET" for use solely in documentation and

192.0.2.0/24 256 Subnet
192.0.2.255 example source code and should not be used publicly.

192.88.99.0–
192.88.99.0/24 256 Global Used by 6to4 any cast relays
192.88.99.255
192.168.0.0–
192.168.255.255
198.18.0.0– Private Used for testing of inter-network communications between two

198.18.0.0/15 131072
198.19.255.255 network separate subnets.
Assigned as "TEST-NET-2" for use solely

198.51.100.0/2 198.51.100.0–
256 Subnet in documentation and example source code and should not be
4 198.51.100.255
used publicly.
Assigned as "TEST-NET-3" for use solely

203.0.113.0–
203.0.113.0/24 256 Subnet in documentation and example source code and should not be
203.0.113.255
used publicly.
224.0.0.0–
224.0.0.0/4 268435456 Global Reserved for multicast assignments
239.255.255.255
255.255.255.255 is reserved for the "limited broadcast"

240.0.0.0–
240.0.0.0/4 268435456 Global destination address. All others in this block are reserved for
255.255.255.255
future allocation by the IANA.
Collision Domains vs. Broadcast Domains

These different types of domains mean different things and when designing a LAN both of these domains can
harm the performance of your network. If you are not aware of the difference between these two, this tutorial
should help you out.
If you have a small network at your home there is usually the router/modem that is connected via phone line or
cable to the ISP that router/modem is then connected to a switch or they even have a switch built into the device.
You connect a few cables turn on some devices and you now have an internet connection ready to go. In larger
networks you have more choices that need to be taken like when to use a hub, a switch, or a router? How much
money do you want to spend usually the more money spent you get more ports, performance increases and more
features are added. These are all types of components that need to be thought of when designing a LAN.
This tutorial is going to be focusing on two major things collision domains and broadcast domains. The definition
of a collision domain is a set of LAN devices whose frames could collide with one another. This happens with
hubs, bridges, repeaters and wireless access points as only one device can send and receive at a time. If more than
one device tries sending or receiving, the information is lost and irrecoverable it will need to be resent. This can
slow down network performance along with making it a security threat.

A hub is considered a layer one device of the OSI model; all it does is send packets out on all ports including the
port in which the packet was received on. This causes a collision domain because only one device can transmit at
time. This also shares the bandwidth of all devices connected to that collision domain. These devices can
inefficiently use that bandwidth because of the CSMA/CD and jamming signals that occur when a collision
happens.
A switch uses layer two of the OSI model, so the switch uses MAC addresses to send the packet to the correct
device. Rather than sending it to all ports a switch only sends the packet out one port, if it has the MAC address in
its MAC address table. If not the switch will send the packet on all ports except for the port in which the packet
was received on. Switches provide separate collision domains on each port. This provides dedicated bandwidth to
that device. This also allows simultaneous conversations between devices on different ports. Each port can be
operated at full-duplex so the device can send and receive information at the same
time.
A broadcast domain is like a collision domain, the definition of a broadcast domain is a set of devices that if one
device sends a broadcast frame all other devices will receive that frame in the same broadcast domain. So if
devices are in the same IP network they will be able to receive a broadcast message. Having a smaller broadcast
domain can improve network performance and improve against security attacks. The more PCs and network
devices connected to a single broadcast domain, the more broadcast messages you will have. Remember a
broadcast message goes to every PC and network device. An example is when the router gets a packet that is
destined to a host (192.168.1.124) on its Ethernet interface (192.168.1.0/24 network) the router will send an ARP
request saying who is 192.168.1.124? That packet will go to every PC on the network, each PC has to look at the
packet and then discard it if it is not 192.168.1.124. But only be processed by the PC that is 192.168.1.124. So a

broadcast message can be just like a collision domain and affect network performance. The only devices that can
block or not send broadcast messages are routers because they separate networks. Each interface on a router is a
different network.
Introduction to IPV6
The current version of IP (known as Version 4 or IPv4) has not been substantially changed since RFC 791
was published in 1981. IPv4 has proven to be robust, easily implemented and interoperable, and has stood
the test of scaling an internetwork to a global utility the size of today’s Internet. This is a tribute to its initial
design.
However, the initial design did not anticipate the following:
 The recent exponential growth of the Internet and the impending exhaustion of the IPv4 address space.
IPv4 addresses have become relatively scarce, forcing some organizations to use a Network Address
Translator (NAT) to map multiple private addresses to a single public IP address. While NATs promote
reuse of the private address space, they do not support standards-based network layer security or the
correct mapping of all higher layer protocols and can create problems when connecting two organizations
that use the private address space.
Additionally, the rising prominence of Internet-connected devices and appliances ensures that the public
IPv4 address space will eventually be depleted.
 The growth of the Internet and the ability of Internet backbone routers to maintain large routing tables.
Because of the way that IPv4 address prefixes have been and are currently allocated, there are routinely
over 85,000 routes in the routing tables of Internet backbone routers. The current IPv4 Internet routing
infrastructure is a combination of both flat and hierarchical routing.
 The need for simpler configuration.
Most current IPv4 implementations must be either manually configured or use a stateful address
configuration protocol such as Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). With more computers and
devices using IP, there is a need for a simpler and more automatic configuration of addresses and other
configuration settings that do not rely on the administration of a DHCP infrastructure.
 The requirement for security at the IP level.
Private communication over a public medium like the Internet requires encryption services that protect
the data being sent from being viewed or modified in transit. Although a standard now exists for
providing security for IPv4 packets (known as Internet Protocol security or IPsec), this standard is
optional and proprietary solutions are prevalent.
 The need for better support for real-time delivery of data—also called quality of service (QoS).

While standards for QoS exist for IPv4, real-time traffic support relies on the IPv4 Type of Service
(TOS) field and the identification of the payload, typically using a UDP or TCP port. Unfortunately, the
IPv4 TOS field has limited functionality and over time there were various local interpretations. In
addition, payload identification using a TCP and UDP port is not possible when the IPv4 packet payload
is encrypted.
To address these and other concerns, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) has developed a suite of
protocols and standards known as IP version 6 (IPv6). This new version, previously called IP-The Next
Generation (IPng), incorporates the concepts of many proposed methods for updating the IPv4 protocol. The
design of IPv6 is intentionally targeted for minimal impact on upper and lower layer protocols by avoiding
the random addition of new features.
IPv6 Features
The following are the features of the IPv6 protocol:
 New header format
 Large address space
 Efficient and hierarchical addressing and routing infrastructure
 Stateless and stateful address configuration
 Built-in security
 Better support for prioritized delivery
 New protocol for neighboring node interaction
 Extensibility
The following sections discuss each of these new features in detail.
New Header Format

The IPv6 header has a new format that is designed to keep header overhead to a minimum. This is achieved
by moving both non-essential fields and optional fields to extension headers that are placed after the IPv6
header. The streamlined IPv6 header is more efficiently processed at intermediate routers.
IPv4 headers and IPv6 headers are not interoperable. IPv6 is not a superset of functionality that is backward
compatible with IPv4. A host or router must use an implementation of both IPv4 and IPv6 in order to
recognize and process both header formats. The new IPv6 header is only twice as large as the IPv4 header,
even though IPv6 addresses are four times as large as IPv4 addresses.
Large Address Space

IPv6 has 128-bit (16-byte) source and destination IP addresses. Although 128 bits can express over 3.41038
possible combinations, the large address space of IPv6 has been designed to allow for multiple levels of
subnetting and address allocation from the Internet backbone to the individual subnets within an
organization.
Even though only a small number of the possible addresses are currently allocated for use by hosts, there are
plenty of addresses available for future use. With a much larger number of available addresses, address-
conservation techniques, such as the deployment of NATs, are no longer necessary.

Efficient and Hierarchical Addressing and Routing Infrastructure

IPv6 global addresses used on the IPv6 portion of the Internet are designed to create an efficient,
hierarchical, and summarizable routing infrastructure that is based on the common occurrence of multiple
levels of Internet service providers.
Stateless and Stateful Address Configuration

To simplify host configuration, IPv6 supports both stateful address configuration, such as address
configuration in the presence of a DHCP server, and stateless address configuration (address configuration in
the absence of a DHCP server). With stateless address configuration, hosts on a link automatically configure
themselves with IPv6 addresses for the link (called link-local addresses) and with addresses derived from
prefixes advertised by local routers. Even in the absence of a router, hosts on the same link can automatically
configure themselves with link-local addresses and communicate without manual configuration.
Built-in Security
Support for IPsec is an IPv6 protocol suite requirement. This requirement provides a standards-based
solution for network security needs and promotes interoperability between different IPv6 implementations.
Better Support for Prioritized Delivery

New fields in the IPv6 header define how traffic is handled and identified. Traffic identification using a Flow
Label field in the IPv6 header allows routers to identify and provide special handling for packets belonging
to a flow, a series of packets between a source and destination. Because the traffic is identified in the IPv6
header, support for prioritized delivery can be achieved even when the packet payload is encrypted with
IPsec.
New Protocol for Neighboring Node Interaction

The Neighbor Discovery protocol for IPv6 is a series of Internet Control Message Protocol for IPv6
(ICMPv6) messages that manage the interaction of neighboring nodes (nodes on the same link). Neighbor
Discovery replaces the broadcast-based Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), ICMPv4 Router Discovery, and
ICMPv4 Redirect messages with efficient multicast and unicast Neighbor Discovery messages.
Extensibility
IPv6 can easily be extended for new features by adding extension headers after the IPv6 header. Unlike
options in the IPv4 header, which can only support 40 bytes of options, the size of IPv6 extension headers is
only constrained by the size of the IPv6 packet.
Differences Between IPv4 and IPv6

Table 1 highlights some of the key differences between IPv4 and IPv6.
Table 1 Differences between IPv4 and IPv6
IPv4 IPv6
Source and destination addresses are 32 bits (4 bytes) Source and destination addresses are 128 bits (16
in length. bytes) in length. For more information, see “IPv6
Addressing.”
IPsec support is optional. IPsec support is required. For more information, see
“IPv6 Header.”

No identification of packet flow for QoS handling by Packet flow identification for QoS handling by
routers is present within the IPv4 header. routers is included in the IPv6 header using the Flow
Label field. For more information, see “IPv6
Header.”
Fragmentation is done by both routers and the Fragmentation is not done by routers, only by the
sending host. sending host. For more information, see “IPv6
Header.”
Header includes a checksum. Header does not include a checksum. For more
information, see “IPv6 Header.”
Header includes options. All optional data is moved to IPv6 extension headers.
For more information, see “IPv6 Header.”
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) uses broadcast ARP Request frames are replaced with multicast
ARP Request frames to resolve an IPv4 address to a Neighbor Solicitation messages. For more
link layer address. information, see “Neighbor Discovery.”
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is used IGMP is replaced with Multicast Listener Discovery
to manage local subnet group membership. (MLD) messages. For more information, see
“Multicast Listener Discovery.”
ICMP Router Discovery is used to determine the ICMP Router Discovery is replaced with ICMPv6
IPv4 address of the best default gateway and is Router Solicitation and Router Advertisement
optional. messages and is required. For more information, see
“Neighbor Discovery.”
Broadcast addresses are used to send traffic to all There are no IPv6 broadcast addresses. Instead, a
nodes on a subnet. link-local scope all-nodes multicast address is used.
For more information, see “Multicast IPv6
Addresses.”
Must be configured either manually or through Does not require manual configuration or DHCP. For
DHCP. more information, see “Address Autoconfiguration.”
Uses host address (A) resource records in the Uses host address (AAAA) resource records in the
Domain Name System (DNS) to map host names to Domain Name System (DNS) to map host names to
IPv4 addresses. IPv6 addresses. For more information, see “IPv6 and
DNS.”
Uses pointer (PTR) resource records in the IN- Uses pointer (PTR) resource records in the
ADDR.ARPA DNS domain to map IPv4 addresses IP6.ARPA DNS domain to map IPv6 addresses to
to host names. host names. For more information, see “IPv6 and
DNS.”
Must support a 576-byte packet size (possibly Must support a 1280-byte packet size (without
fragmented). fragmentation). For more information, see “IPv6
MTU.”

The IPv6 Address Space

The most obvious distinguishing feature of IPv6 is its use of much larger addresses. The size of an address in
IPv6 is 128 bits, which is four times the larger than an IPv4 address. A 32-bit address space allows for 232 or
4,294,967,296 possible addresses. A 128-bit address space allows for 2128 or
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456 (or 3.41038 or 340 undecillion) possible addresses.
In the late 1970s when the IPv4 address space was designed, it was unimaginable that it could be exhausted.
However, due to changes in technology and an allocation practice that did not anticipate the recent explosion
of hosts on the Internet, the IPv4 address space was consumed to the point that by 1992 it was clear a
replacement would be necessary.
With IPv6, it is even harder to conceive that the IPv6 address space will be consumed. To help put this
number in perspective, a 128-bit address space provides 655,570,793,348,866,943,898,599 (6.51023)
addresses for every square meter of the Earth’s surface.
It is important to remember that the decision to make the IPv6 address 128 bits in length was not so that
every square meter of the Earth could have 6.51023 addresses. Rather, the relatively large size of the IPv6
address is designed to be subdivided into hierarchical routing domains that reflect the topology of the
modern-day Internet. The use of 128 bits allows for multiple levels of hierarchy and flexibility in designing
hierarchical addressing and routing that is currently lacking on the IPv4-based Internet.
The IPv6 addressing architecture is described in RFC 4291.
IPv6 Address Syntax

IPv4 addresses are represented in dotted-decimal format. This 32-bit address is divided along 8-bit
boundaries. Each set of 8 bits is converted to its decimal equivalent and separated by periods. For IPv6, the
128-bit address is divided along 16-bit boundaries, and each 16-bit block is converted to a 4-digit
hexadecimal number and separated by colons. The resulting representation is called colon-hexadecimal.
The following is an IPv6 address in binary form:
0010000000000001000011011011100000000000000000000010111100111011 0000001010101010000000001111111111111110001010001001110001011010
The 128-bit address is divided along 16-bit boundaries:
0010000000000001 0000110110111000 0000000000000000 0010111100111011 0000001010101010 0000000011111111 1111111000101000
1001110001011010
Each 16-bit block is converted to hexadecimal and delimited with colons. The result is:
2001:0DB8:0000:2F3B:02AA:00FF:FE28:9C5A
IPv6 representation can be further simplified by removing the leading zeros within each 16-bit block.
However, each block must have at least a single digit. With leading zero suppression, the address
representation becomes:
2001:DB8:0:2F3B:2AA:FF:FE28:9C5A
Compressing Zeros
Some types of addresses contain long sequences of zeros. To further simplify the representation of IPv6
addresses, a contiguous sequence of 16-bit blocks set to 0 in the colon hexadecimal format can be
compressed to “::”, known as double-colon.
For example, the link-local address of FE80:0:0:0:2AA:FF:FE9A:4CA2 can be compressed to

FE80::2AA:FF:FE9A:4CA2. The multicast address FF02:0:0:0:0:0:0:2 can be compressed to FF02::2.
Zero compression can only be used to compress a single contiguous series of 16-bit blocks expressed in
colon hexadecimal notation. You cannot use zero compression to include part of a 16-bit block. For example,
you cannot express FF02:30:0:0:0:0:0:5 as FF02:3::5. The correct representation is FF02:30::5.

To determine how many 0 bits are represented by the “::”, you can count the number of blocks in the
compressed address, subtract this number from 8, and then multiply the result by 16. For example, in the
address FF02::2, there are two blocks (the “FF02” block and the “2” block.) The number of bits expressed by
the “::” is 96 (96 = (8 – 2)16).
Zero compression can only be used once in a given address. Otherwise, you could not determine the number
of 0 bits represented by each instance of “::”.
Network design
Peer-to-Peer or Server-Based?
A company that manufactures custom-made bicycles has asked you to install an economical computer
network that will bring it up-to-date in communication technology and be flexible enough to allow for future
expansion.
The company's network goals are to:
 Network the existing computers so that they can share information and printers.
 Add two additional computers to the network: one for the Product Design Group and one for the
Manufacturing Department.
 Allow for the possible addition of three computers at a later date.
 Provide an Internet connection for the Product Design Group.
The first decision we need to make for this new network is whether it should be a peer-to-peer or a server-
based network. The factors we need to examine include the:
 Size of the network.

 Level of security.
 Type of business.
 Level of administrative support available.
 Amount of network traffic.
 Needs of the network users.
 Network budget.
In a peer-to-peer network, all users on the network are equal. Each will have equal access to all other
computers on the network, provided the owner of the computer has shared that resource with the network. In
a small network or business, this "one for all and all for one" system often works well.
Often, in a small business, no individual is able to devote full-time attention to administering the network.
This brings another advantage of peer-to-peer networks to light. Here, responsibility for running the network
is distributed to everyone, and users determine which information or resources on their computers will be
shared.

While the peer-to-peer network option looks like a good choice for our bicycle company, it has some
drawbacks that must be considered. For example, imagine a user on the network who has the laser printer
attached to her computer. If she turns off her computer and leaves the office, no one else will be able to use
the printer. If Computer A freezes or is rebooted while Computer B is trying to use a resource, Computer B
will be disconnected. To summarize, usually, in a peer-to-peer scenario, no system administrator is
designated, security precautions are few, and each user is responsible for his or her own data.
Another down side of the peer-to-peer network is its limited performance. If another user is accessing the
resources on your computer, that user will also be using processor time on your computer. Therefore,
regardless of how fast your computer's processor is or how much memory you have, the performance
of your computer will slow down when someone else is drawing on its resources.
Even with these drawbacks, a peer-to-peer network might still appear to be a good choice for our network.
However, we should also consider the advantages of using a server-based network before we make our
decision. On a server-based network, resources are usually centralized. For example, one server manages all
the printers, and another server manages all the files. Because servers are rarely turned off, resources will
always be available. Server-based networks are also scalable. This means that their size can be easily
adjusted to respond to changes in the load on the network.
Server-based networks are also more secure than peer-to-peer networks. With a peer-to-peer network, all
resources are shared equally across the network. If the Accounting Department shares the directory that
contains the salary files so that the Managing Director can access them, everyone else on the network can
also access these files. On the other hand, server-based networks allow for the creation of accounts and
permissions that provide for further security. For example, a server-based network can share individual files
within a directory without making the directory itself available to everyone on the network.
As it grows, a server-based network can be segregated according to organizational needs. For example, one
server might be designated for the Accounting Department and another server designated for the Sales
Department. Should our bicycle company's network requirements reach this level, we will need to consider
using a network that supports file-level sharing and user groups with shared rights to network resources.
At present, the better choice for our company is to use a peer-to-peer network. But in order to provide more
flexibility and to prepare it for further expansion, another option exists: create a hybrid network. Thus, while
our basic network will be peer-to-peer, we will install one computer as a file server. With this approach,
access to the file server requires an account and permissions, while access to other computers on the network
is shared equally.
So, after weighing these factors, we arrive at our network-design selection for this bicycle company: a hybrid
peer-to-peer network, with one new computer to be installed and configured as a file server and used to
centralize company information.
Taking Inventory
After deciding on the overall network design, our next step in creating a network is to take inventory to
determine what hardware and software is already available and what needs to be acquired. As an illustration,
we turn again to our bicycle company. It has a mixture of computers, ranging from a legacy 286 to a new

Pentium III, as well as some older printers. Thus, some obvious updating will be required to get this network
up and running. Taking inventory is an important step, because it sets the stage for future network expansion.
For example, if all your computers run Microsoft Windows 95 or Windows 98, you will be limited to using a
peer-to-peer network. To upgrade to a server-based network in the future, you will have to upgrade one of the
computers to run NetWare or Windows NT or add a new server with one of those network operating systems
installed.
To take inventory, you'll need to survey four categories:
 Hardware
 Software
 Telecommunications equipment
 Network requirements
Hardware Survey
This is actually a simple process, but one that should not be taken lightly. Begin by recording the
specifications of each computer; the details you gather at this stage can save time in the long run. As we will
see later, in order to function effectively, networks often require that hardware and software meet certain
minimum standards. If you know the specification details of the available equipment in advance, you can
prevent many problems later on.
For each computer, you will need to gather information, including:
 Make and model.

 Processor manufacturer and speed.
 Amount of memory (RAM) installed.
 The size and manufacturer of each hard drive.
 Details of any other installed drives, such as compact-disc and removable disk drives.
 Monitor—make, model, and size.
 Video card—make, model, and amount of memory.
 Any installed peripherals.
 Type of bus—EISA, Micro Channel, ISA, or PCI—the computer uses and whether there are any free
slots; you will need free slots to install network interface cards. (For more information on bus
architecture, refer to
Make a list of the manufacturer and model number for any peripheral devices, such as printers,
plotters, and scanners, whether they are installed or simply sitting on a shelf. For each of these, note
whether you have the original disk with drivers.
Software Survey
Be aware of all the software currently in use throughout the potential network. For example, if you were to
convert all the computers to Windows NT while you were installing the new network, you might find that
some of the old standby programs, once used on a daily basis, now no longer run. Be especially careful when
evaluating custom-designed and proprietary programs, such as accounting databases, that have been written

especially for the company. You might need to contact the manufacturer for information about running
proprietary programs on the network. Not all of these will run in a network environment; the product-
licensing arrangement might not allow network operations.
For each software program, gather the following information:
 Program name
 Program version number
 Availability of the original installation floppy disks or compact discs
 Any licensing information
As you carry out your survey of our bicycle company, also note any potential software incompatibilities
within and among company departments. For example, the Accounting Department might be using
WordPerfect, whereas the Sales Department is using Microsoft Office. If you are planning to upgrade some
day, now is the time to make any changes needed to ensure that the same system is used company wide.
Telecommunications Equipment Survey
It might seem strange to review the existing telecommunications equipment when you are installing a LAN,
but this is actually a very important element of your survey, especially if you intend to use Internet
connections or some form of remote access server. Overlooking something as simple as the number of phone
lines wired into each office can have a major impact later if you need modem and telephone connections at
the same time. For example, if the company has an automated telephone system, while telephone outlets
might be located in every office, they might not be capable of a modem connection. In that case, a separate
telephone outlet might be required for voice and data communication. Also, if the company is using a high-
speed digital telephone service, you might not be able to connect with standard modems. Don't assume
a standard RJ-11 telephone jack is going to be sufficient for you to connect a modem and start surfing the
Web.
Requirements of the Network
After you have examined the existing facility and equipment, you need to define the requirements of your
network. You'll then match these requirements to the existing hardware, software, and telecommunications
features available and determine what steps need to be taken to develop the network. At a minimum, you
should consider the following:
 The size of the facility (located on a single floor vs. multiple floors)
 The number of users
 Whether the LAN will be extended to several buildings
 The environment (office, manufacturing, out-of-doors)
 The current network media, if any
 The technical competence of users
 The amount of network traffic (initially, and anticipated for the future)
 The level of security

Building a Map
Now it's time to lay out the network. But before you begin to recommend a network plan for our bicycle
company, you will first need to make a map of all the elements involved. During this step, you should
consider two aspects of the network: the physical layout, including the location of each piece of hardware
and how it relates to the others, and the physical and logical topology of the proposed network.
The second step is to create a layout of the network topology. Don't forget to include printers and other
peripherals, such as scanners and modems.
Choosing Network Media
The choice of which media to select should not be taken lightly. The cost of installation can be quite high,
especially if you have to do it twice. The media you choose will usually be related to the geographic
requirements of the site. For example, if several of the workstations are located in a manufacturing
environment in which a large amount of electrical noise is generated, fiber-optic cable might be required
because it is unaffected by electrical signals. On the other hand, in a small office, simple twisted-pair cable
will usually be appropriate. The most important thing to keep in mind is not the cost today, but the cost in the
future. Being overly cost-conscious now can limit the scalability, and thus the life span, of the network.
At our bicycle company, we might decide to install our network using CAT 3 UTP cable. This would give us
a functional network with our seven workstations, but limit our network speed to 10 Mbps. Five years from
now, when we might have as many as 30 to 50 workstations, a 10 Mbps network would be slow. However,
by installing CAT 5 UTP now, we can upgrade our network to 100 Mbps at any time in the future without
needing to rewire the building. And CAT 5 UTP cable costs only a few cents more per foot than CAT 3 UTP
cable.
Installing Network Media
Installing network media requires special skills and is best left to a professional cable installer if the topology
is complex. With a simple topology, however, the necessary skills are well within our reach. Still using our
bicycle company as an example, we will next tackle the basics of installing a CAT 5 Ethernet cabling system.
(Bear in mind that at this point we are focusing on the cables and are not yet ready to connect any of the
devices.)
The simplest way to lay out a network in our small-office environment is to use a physical star. The focal
point of the star will be a patch panel. (A patch panel is an array of RJ-45 female connectors that have
terminals for connecting the wires.)
Notice that the front of the panel has 12 RJ-45 connectors. On the back is a terminal for each of the 12
cables. Looking closely, you will notice that each terminal has eight connection points, one for each of the
eight wires. The wires are color-coded for easy installation. By mounting the patch panel near the hub
(usually next to the server), you can easily make connections to the network.
On the other end of the cable, you will need to install a CAT 5 outlet. This is similar to a standard telephone
outlet but uses an RJ-45 connection, just as the patch panel does. Notice that this connector also has color-

Factors That Affect a Network Design

Designing a network is more than merely planning to use the latest device in the market. A good network
design takes into consideration many factors:
2.4.1 Size Matters
Designing a LAN for a small office with a few users is different from building one for a large company with
two thousand users. In building a small LAN, a flat design is usually used, where all connecting devices may
be connected to each other. For a large company, a hierarchical approach should be used.
2.4.2 Geographies
The geographical locations of the sites that need to be connected are important in a network design. The
decision making process for selecting the right technology and equipment for remote connections, especially
those of cross-country nature, is different from that for a LAN. The tariffs, local expertise, quality of service
from service providers, are some of the important criteria.
2.4.3 Politics
Politics in the office ultimately decides how a network should be partitioned. Department A may not want to
share data with department B, while department C allows only department D to access its data. At the
network level, requirements
such as these are usually done through filtering at the router so as to direct traffic flow in the correct manner.
Business and security needs determine how information flows in a network and the right tool has to be
chosen to carry this
out.
2.4.4 Types of Application
The types of application deployed determines the bandwidth required. While a text-based transaction may
require a few kbps of bandwidth, a multimedia help file with video explanations may require 1.5 Mbps of
bandwidth. The performance requirement mainly depends on application need and the challenge of a good
network is to be able to satisfy different application needs.
2.4.5 Need For Fault Tolerance
In a mission-critical network, performance may not be a key criteria but fault tolerance is. The network is
expected to be up every minute and the redundancy required is both at the hardware level and at the services
level. In this aspect,
many features have to be deployed, such as hardware redundancy, re-route capabilities, etc.
2.4.6 To Switch or Not to Switch
One of the factors that influences the network design is whether to deploy switching technology. Although
switching seems to be enjoying popularity, it may not be suitable in terms of cost for a small office of four
users. In a large network design, switching to the desktop may not be suitable because it would drive up the
entire project cost. On the other hand, a small company that designs multimedia applications for its client
may need a switching network to share all the video and voice files. The decision a network manager has to
make is when to switch and where to switch.
2.4.7 Strategy
One important factor is of course a networking strategy. Without a networking blueprint, one may end up
with a multi vendors, multiprotocol network that is both difficult to manage and expand. It has been
estimated that 70% of the cost of owning a network is in maintaining it. Having a network strategy ensures
that technology is deployed at the correct place and products chosen carefully. A network that is built upon a
strategy ensures manageability and scalability.
2.4.8 Cost Constraints

The one major decision that makes or breaks a design is cost. Many a times, network managers have to
forego a technically elegant solution for a less sophisticated design.
2.4.9 Standards
Choosing equipment that conforms to standards is an important rule to follow. Standards means having the
ability to deploy an industry-recognized technology that is supported by the majority of vendors. This
provides flexibility in choice of equipment, and allows network managers to choose the most cost effective
solution. As more business and transactions are conducted through the network, the network infrastructure
has become more important than ever. Network managers need to choose the right technologies, from the
backbone to the desktops, and tie everything together to support the needs of their businesses. By now, it is
obvious that designing a network is not just about raw speed. Adopting a balanced approach, weighing
features against cost, and choosing the right technology that
is based on open standards to meet the business requirement is a right way to begin.
Network documentation
The Results Of A Undocumented Network
Before I tell you the basic items that need to be documented with regards to computer networks, I first want
to give you examples of what I have "not" seen documented, and what problems this has caused.
During one of my past projects, which was primarily to implement a new firewall and to secure many of the
internal systems , I ran into some really incredible issues. None of the primary server systems were
documented. No one knew what server did what, how much memory, disk space, what type of processor(s),
and in some cases, did not know what Operating System was installed. And worse than that, during my initial
review, we located three servers in a closet, on a different floor, that no one even knew existed!
Because of the lack of network documentation, no one knew what was suppose to be done to maintain their
enterprise Anti-Virus system. When I finally determined what the admin password was to login to the Anti-
Virus services, I found that virus signatures had not been updated in over six months. Then we found that the
system was not even functioning and nearly 90% of systems on the network were infected with virus and
worms (and not the annoying kind either, the destructive kind)
We also found there were four different tape backup servers, and again, because of the lack of network
documentation, none of them had been maintained. The customer just kept changing tapes. And do you know
what, none of the backup jobs had been running for months. Talk about a false sense of security!
The very last thing I want to talk about is how lack of network documentation and procedures can affect
network security. In one case, a customer had a rather expensive Check Point Firewall in place. No
documentation was available and the customer had been told that nothing needed to be done to maintain the
Firewall. The customer told me that recently, their Internet access had become very sluggish. It took two
days to locate the Check Point console password. When I logged in I found that the C: drive had absolutely
no free disk space because the Firewall log had consumed it all. This could have been avoided if the Firewall
was setup properly in the first place. The Firewall was also about 4 Service Packs behind, and the rules in
place were quite inadequate. Not to mention that none of the rules themselves had been documented. And
one more thing to think about. If this network had been attacked and compromised, how quickly would we
have been able to respond to the attack if so much of the network was undocumented? It would have been a
disaster.

Basic Network Documentation
Here is a basic set of items that should be contained in network documentation:
All server hardware and operating systems should be documented, including the physical locations and what
primary, secondary, etc.. purpose they serve. All key service accounts an login account user-id and
password's should be documented and stored in a safe location, maybe a company lockbox or vault, or use
something like KeyPass to store them. A visual diagram of the network layout, even from a high level,
should exist no matter how small or large the network is. Products like WhatsUpGold can assist with this or
you can create a Visio diagram of the network. Procedures on how to maintain the network technology,
including Operating Systems, security related services, backup and disaster recovery (business continuity),
and firewall technologies should exist. Additionally, you should document and secure all Operating System
and application licensing. This is something that is very often overlooked and is imperative if you have to
recover from a disaster situation in which the rebuild of systems is necessary. Other information to have
documented is key contact information. For instance, who do you call if your Internet connection goes
down? Who do you contact if your offsite web services are not functioning? Do you have a third party that
maintains your Domain Name Services (DNS)? If you have custom applications, do you know exactly who
you must call if there is a problem?
The above is just the basic items that need to be documented within a computer network. There are many
more aspects to network documentation.
Who Needs To Document Their Network
In a nutshell, anyone who has a computer network, home office, small office, or large office, should have an
adequate level of network documentation and procedures to follow in order to maintain the network. If you
have invested in network technology, don't you want to keep your investment safe, sound, and performing at
it's peak?
Conclusion
If you are a customer, and have a systems integrator or consultant working on a new network implementation
or upgrading an existing one, demand that they provide you with complete network documentation. Even if it
costs you extra you should request it. It will save you a lot of time and money in the future. And, it may
actually keep your business from experiencing long periods of down time.

1. Which of the following connectivity device is mandatory in network
A. Repeater
B. Switch
C. NIC
D. Router

2. Which of the following is not the purpose of NIC

A. Receive data and convert to appropriate format that can be transfer in a cable
B. Determine and accept data sent to a computer
C. It filters layer 3 packet
D. All are true
3. One of the following doesn’t work in layer 2 of the OSI reference model
A. NIC
B. Repeater
C. Switch
D. Hub
4. One of the following is not true
A. Active Hub works in data link layer of the OSI ref model
B. Passive hub retransmit signal without regenerating
C. Hub can have different ports to different cables
D. Hubs can be used in star topology
A. Switches are multiport bridge
B. Switches work in layer 2 of the OSI reference model
C. Switches do not regenerate signal
D. Switches uses routing table to transmit signal
6. Which of the following work on network layer of the OSI reference mode
A. Switch
B. Hub
C. Router
D. Bridge
A. MAC address of a computer can be changed
B. IP address is used in TCP/IP network
C. Every computer should have a unique MAC address to communicate
D. Once we assign an IP address to a computer it is very difficult to change
8. Which of the following is a class B IP address
A. 192.168.1.1
B. 113.10.10.1
C. 130.1.12.1
D. 240.2.1.5
9. Which of the following is a different IP address than the other
A. 192.168.0.1
B. 192.168.0.168
C. 192.168.1.0
D. 192.168.0.2
10. Which of the following is a correct private class C IP address
A. 192.160.7.8
B. 10.10.1.2
C. 192.10.1.1
D. 192.168.100.200
11. The default gate way of class 100.10.2.1 IP

A. 255.0.0.0
B. 255.255.0.0
C. 255.255.255.0
12. What are some of the advantages of using a router to segment the network? (Choose two)
A. Filtering can occur based on Layer 3 information.
B. Broadcasts are eliminated.

C. Routers generally cost less than switches.
D. Broadcasts are not forwarded across the router.
E. Adding a router to the network decreases latency.
13. Which of the following statements describe the network shown in the graphic? (Choose two)
A. There are two broadcast domains in the network.

B. There are four broadcast domains in the network.
C. There are six broadcast domains in the network.
D. There are four collision domains in the network.
E. There are five collision domains in the network.
F. There are seven collision domains in the network.
14. Refer to the exhibit. A network engineer is troubleshooting an internet connectivity problem
on the computer. What causing the problem?

A. wrong DNS server

B. wrong default gateway
C. incorrect IP address
D. incorrect subnet mask

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Training, Teaching and Learning Material

HARDWARE AND NETWORK

LO 1: Identify key information

Introduction to Computer Network

Definition of computer network

A network is a group of connected computers that allows people to share resources.

Advantage of a computer network

LO 1: Identify key information

More specifically, computers that are part of a network can share:

 Documents (memos, spreadsheets, invoices, and so on).

Disadvantage of a computer network

LO 1: Identify key information

Types of Computer Network

A. Local Area Network (LAN)

C. Metropolitan area Network(MAN)

Types of networks based on configuration (Node Relationship)

 Servers—Computers that provide shared resources to network users.

LO 1: Identify key information

 Shared data—Files provided to clients by servers across the network.

Where a Peer-to-Peer Network Is Appropriate

Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:

 There are 10 users or fewer.

Advantages of peer to peer network

 Easy to install and configure

 A full time network administrator is not required

Disadvantages of peer to peer network

 Shared resources can be accessed by everyone

Server Based network (client/server network)

LO 1: Identify key information

Advantages of server based network

o Easier to find files

o One machine can secure entrire network

o One central login

Disadvantage of client server

 Needs to be maintained by staff with high IT skills

File and Print Servers

LO 1: Identify key information

Directory Services Servers

 Type of equipment the network needs.

LO 1: Identify key information

All network designs stem from four basic topologies:

Communication on the Bus

 Sending the signal

LO 1: Identify key information

 Hardware capabilities of computers on the network

Disrupting Network Communication

Disadvantages of Bus topology

LO 1: Identify key information

Advantage of Star topology

Disadvantage of star topology

LO 1: Identify key information

Advantage of Ring topology

LO 1: Identify key information

Advantage of Mesh topology

Disadvantage of Mesh topology

LO 1: Identify key information

LO 1: Identify key information

Topology Advantages Disadvantages