VIVEKANANDA SCHOOL OF

LAW AND LEGAL STUDIES

POLITICAL SCIENCE : PSDA

TOPIC: ‘GENDER AND POLITICS’

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Mrs Garima Singh Amulya Kaushik
Professor (POLITICAL SCIENCE) B.A. L.L.B. (Hons.)

2 Semester

vivekananda school of law and legal studies Roll No: 111

 Section:2c

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It feels great pleasure in submitting this research project to, Mrs Garima , Professor
(Political Science), without whose guidance this project would not have been
completed successfully. Secondly, I would like to sincerely thank my seniors, whose
suggestions and guidance assisted me throughout the entire tenure of making the
project.

Last but not the least, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude towards my
parents and friends who guided me and helped me at every possible step.

B. A. LLB. (Hons.)

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 5

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES........................................................................................................ 6

HYPOTHESIS ........................................................................................................................... 6

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 7

LIMITATIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 7

REVIEW OF LITERATURE .............................................................................................................. 8

1. WOMEN IN POLITICS: AN INTRODUCTION .............................................................. 9

2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: FROM INDEPENDENCE TO CONTEMPORARY

INDIA ...................................................................................................................................... 16

3. STATUS IN GLOBAL SCENARIO ................................................................................. 22

4. LEGAL PROVISIONS FOR WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION ................................................ 24

73rd Constitutional Amendment Act And Women ....................................................................25

5. OBSTACLES IN WOMEN’S POLITICAL PARTICIPATION............................................. 28

1. Illiteracy ........................................................................................................................ 28

2. Societal And Cultural Norms ........................................................................................ 28

3. Poverty .......................................................................................................................... 28

4. Discrimination............................................................................................................... 29

6. DATA ANALYSIS ......................................................................................................................30

7. CONCLUSION & SUGGESTIONS ................................................................................ 31

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................ 33

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 INTRODUCTION
Democracy implies equality for all human persons, men and women. As against this basic
notion of democracy what is normally seen is that women are excluded from different walks
of life, more visibly in Politics. For the attainment of true democratic spirit shall be ensured
better political participation. “In the struggle for gender justice”, Usha Narayanan argues,
“Political participation constitutes the first and foremost step in that direction.”1
Equal treatment to women in political life, to be meaningful and effective should start from
the grassroots level. To provide training and practice in the process of decision-making, the
rural democratic institutions are the ideal structures to begin with. One of the aims of the 73rd
Constitutional Amendment Act is to accomplish this purpose. “The question of political
empowerment of women in rural India has assumed considerable significance recently
because of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act. The amendment provides reservation of
seats and posts of chairperson for women in all grassroots level democratic institutions in the
countryside known as panchayats. This is a historic step of far reaching implications and
significant repercussions on the political process in rural India”2
"As long as women of lndia", declared Mahatma Gandhi in 1925, "do not take part in public
life, there can be no salvation for the country". He further declared, "As long as women do
not come to public life and purify. we are not likely to attain swaraj". "Ever if we did", he
added, “It would have no use for that kind of swaraj to which women have not made their full
contribution”.3 The recent constitutional amendment acts provided greater opportunities to
women in various aspects of political life.
The omission of women from positions of power seriously affects the ability to challenge the
subordination of women in all its manifestation. Women have to be in politics and power to
participate as women and to change the very nature of that power which excludes them.
Women who consist of almost half of the population need to be represented significantly in
decision making bodies. Otherwise the goal of development cannot be achieved.

1 Usha Narayanan, "Women's Political Empowerment: Imperatives and Challenges", Mainstream,

April 10, 1999, p.7.
2 Prabhat Datta, Major- Issues in the Development Debate: Lessons in Empowerment form India,
Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi, 1998, p.40.
3 Usha Narayanan, op.cit., p.7.

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 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The researcher tends to emphasize on the study of –

I. Attitude of society towards women in politics.

II. Comparison of world’s women political scenario to that of India.
III. Provisions prevailing in the constitution for their upliftment.
IV. Situation analysis of women participation in politics in past and present times.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
I. What is the condition of women politicians?
II. What is their position at different levels of government i.e., national, state and
village?
III. What are the various steps taken by the government for their betterment?
IV. What are the reasons behind their backwardness?
V. What should women do on their own for their betterment?

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 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The researcher will make use of doctrinal as well as non-doctrinal research in order to
collect qualitative and quantitative data to complete the project. The doctrinal research
includes the use of literary sources while questionnaires and observation will form
the part of non-doctrinal research.

The methods of data collection will include:

I. Primary sources – Data would be collected through questionnaires,

observation, case study, law commission reports, constitutional provisions,
statutory provisions, case laws, judgments by different courts.
II. Secondary sources – Data will be collected through library study and Internet
search (books, journals articles, etc.).

1. WOMEN IN POLITICS: AN INTRODUCTION

“It is very difficult for a woman to make up her mind to enter politics. Once she makes up her
own mind, then she has to prepare her husband, and her children, and her family. Once she
has overcome all these obstacles and applies for the ticket, then the male aspirants against

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whom she is applying makeup all sorts of stories about her. And after all this, when her name
goes to the party bosses, they do not select her name because they fear losing that seat.”

The above quote of Sushma Swaraj (Union External Affairs Minister) gives a glimpse of
reality that how women have to face so many problems and criticisms while entering the
politics. India, being the largest democratic country in the world has very low representation
of women in politics. Lesser women are seen in holding key positions and decision making
positions in the political arena. The marginalization of Indian women in politics is as old as
the Indian society. Their low representation in political sphere is one of the main reasons for
the exclusion of the interests of women in governance and development paradigms. They
have been kept aside from political discourse since their childhood.4

Men and women have always equally shared their dedication towards the development of the
nation. They have worked shoulder to shoulder with their male counterparts in pre
independent as well as post independent India. Contribution of Rani Laxmi Bai, Durga Bai
Deshmukh, Savitribai Phule, Sarojini Naidu, Annie Besant, Madam Bhikaji Cama, Begum
Hazrat Mahal, Kasturba Gandhi, Kamala Nehru, Vijaylaxmi Pandit, Raj Kumari Amrit Kaur,
Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, Sister Nivedita, etc. in the Indian freedom struggle is highly
noticeable. But their work was always kept unnoticed.5

Women’s participation in politics of any country gives a strong message globally not only in
terms of equality and freedom of liberty but also in the space provided for women in the
democratic framework of electoral politics. India has one of the strongest laws that provide
women a life with full honor and dignity. But the customs, patriarchal set ups and societal
norms have always treated them as subordinate to men. They are always taught to be
submissive. Because of unequal distribution of resources, women do not have adequate
resources, be it economic, material or human. Women are expected to work in private sphere
only and are generally barred from working outside their homes. Their financial dependence
over men also keeps them away from strong political affiliations.

The policies generally are made as gender blind because of male dominance over policy
framing. Keeping women away from public sphere brings lack of political will amongst
themselves. Because of patriarchal set up and male dominance over political parties, women
do get chances of contesting elections. The parties do not engage and encourage women in its

4 Singh, J.P., “Indian Democracy and Empowerment of Women,” The Indian Journal of Public
Administration, Oct-Dec, Vol.XLVI, No.4., 2000, p.619.
5 http://www.garph.co.uk/IJARMSS/Jan2015/9.pdf

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decision making policies while finalizing their contestants. Women coming from less
privileged background, without any political cleavage by virtue of birth, marriage or other
close relative political cleavage have to face molestation and sexual harassment like
situations. Because of the fear of harassment or violence, they do not show their full interest
in political activities6.

It is the need of the hour in a country like India to have equal participation of women in
mainstream political activity. Society needs to deconstruct the stereotype of women as limited
to household activities only. The nature of society has a crucial impact on the extent and
effectiveness of women’s political participation. Their low representation in decision making
institutions signifies deep flaws in the political structure of country. Historical, social and
cultural factors have restricted women from enjoying their rights of participation in political
processes.7

6 http://theviewspaper.net/women-and-politics/
7Imtiaz Ahmed, “Women in Politics”, in Devaki Jain (ed.), Indian Women, Publications Division,
New Delhi, 1975, p.312.

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 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: FROM
INDEPENDENCE TO CONTEMPORARY
INDIA
The struggle for freedom marked the beginning of a political awakening among women in
India. With the establishment of the Indian National Congress, membership was open to
women. The Swadeshi Movement in 1905 saw the entry of women into independence
movement. It also marked the formulation of several women’s organizations. The entry of
Annie Besant into Indian politics in 1914 accelerated the process of women’s associations

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with the freedom struggle. She was the first woman to be elected as president of the Indian
National Congress. Sarojini Naidu too became active in Indian National Movement.8

It was M. K Gandhi who drew large number of women into the freedom struggle. The
participation of women in India’s historic freedom struggle was a country wide phenomena,
their participation in a large scale was linked closely with the advent of Gandhi on the Indian
political scene from 1917 on words. In response to Gandhi’s call large number of women
plunged into the national movement.9

Through his experiments with Satyagraha (peaceful strike), he realized that women could
equally participate together with men. His overpowering voice in the freedom struggle and
his views on women influenced their position in it. His brand of politics and resistance, which
rested largely on the principles like Ahimsa (non-violence), Satyagraha and civil
disobedience allowed women to participate in the political arena. Gandhi was therefore able
to mobilize large number of women, cutting across caste and class lines, to play an active role
in the freedom struggle. For Gandhi, the freedom fight was not merely political; it was also
an economic and social reform. He said men and women are equal but not identical.
Intellectually, mentally and spiritually, women are equivalent to a male and she can
participate in every activity. The main contribution of Gandhi to the cause of women lay in
his absolute and unequivocal insistence on their personal dignity and autonomy in the family
and society. Gandhi succeeded in galvanizing the traditional house bound women as a
powerful instrument of political action. Women’s traditional capacity to sacrifice was
especially emphasized by Gandhi in an effort to mobilize women. He argued that women’s
capacity to sacrifice her own personal interest for the family was held to extend to the
community and nation and this motivated women to join the Non-Cooperation Movement.10

The national movement brought women to the centre stage. From liberal homes and
conservative families, urban centers and rural districts, women single and married, young and
old came forward and joined against colonial rule. Their involvement is extremely important,
women’s participation called into question the British right to rule, legitimized the Indian
National Movement and won for activist women, at for a time the approval of Indian men.

8 Ram Sharan Sharma, Aspects ofPolitica1 Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India, Motilal
Banarsidass, Ilelhi, 1968, pp.78-102.
9 http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/189/3/12_chapter2.pdf.

10 http://mainstreamweekly.net/article105.html.

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Large number of women participated actively in the Non-Cooperation, Civil Disobedience,
Swadeshi, And Salt Satyagraha led by Gandhi. During the Non-Cooperation Movement,
women in different parts of India joined processions and propagated the use of khadi (spun
cotton) and charakha (spinning wheel).

In the Salt Satyagraha launched by Gandhi in March 1930, many women walked to Dandi to
break the salt law. During the Civil Disobedience movement of 1940, women participated
and courted arrest in large numbers. Suchetha Krapalani was the first one to do so, who had
been in charge of the Women’s Department of the All India Congress Committee, since 1939.

In the Quit India Movement of 1942, women took part in processions holding meetings,
demonstrations and organizing strikes. Kanakalata Barua, a young girl of Assam led a
procession of 500 and was killed in the police firing. Few women who did not believe in non-
violence adopted the revolutionary path. Women were active both in the moderate and
extremist factions.11

However, the number of women who acquired positions of power or membership in the
representative bodies was less compared to men. In the 1937 election, eight women were
elected from the general constituencies and 42 from the reserved constituencies, and became
ministers when the provisional cabinet was formed. In the Constituent Assembly which met
in December 1946, there were 14 women members. But there were no proportionate increase
in women as representatives or in power positions.12

It has been noted that the women who were active in politics or politically successful
belonged to wealthy and progressive families. They were supported by husbands or family
members who were active in Congress. This is being followed even after independence. But,
there were large number of unknown women who participated in the freedom struggle. It
provided an opportunity for large number of women to enter into active politics which was
not seen earlier. They were willing to join processions, and to go to prisons. Women joined
revolutionary groups, helped in distributing newspapers and helped in the manufacturing
bombs. Innumerable number of women provided support to freedom fighters by looking after
their families.

11 Government of India, Towards Equality, Report of the Committee on the status of Women in
India, New Delhi,1985, pp. 43-44.
12 S.S. Mathur, Anju Mathur, Socio-Psychological Dimensions of Women Education, Gyan
Publishing House, New Delhi, 2001, p.25.

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 Women’s activities validated Indian unity and Satyagraha. It also shaped movement for
women’s rights. At the same time participation of women had some clear drawbacks. Those
demonstrating, claimed to represent all India women, but the number of groups involved,
other than upper and middle class Hindu women, was never large.13

Participation of large number of women in the freedom struggle strengthened freedom

movement. But gender equity was nowhere the agenda of Indian national movement. It was
not the main thrust of the Indian national movement. Either directly or indirectly large
number of women participated in the freedom struggle. The contribution of women in getting
freedom for India is noteworthy. They proved that women are capable of strengthening the
political movement. The participation of women in freedom struggle had its impact on the
society and family and on women themselves.14

Participation Of Women In Post Independent Period

The framers of the constitution realize that a true democracy requires not only equality but
also justice. This notion resulted in the Indian constitution, which not only grants equality to
women but also empowers the state to adopt measures of positive discrimination in favour of
women for neutralizing the cumulative socio- economic, educational and political
disadvantages faced by them.15

The foundation of political participation of women was laid down during the national
movement. The transfer of power from British to Indian hand gave women opportunity to
participate in democratic process. Large number of legal, social and economic measures has
been taken up by the Independent government to raise the status of women in India. Women
too have become politically conscious, as they have started participating in national and state
politics.16

Several articles are incorporated in the constitution in order to materialize the desired
objective of equality and justice for the women in India. Besides the preamble, the articles of
the constitution, which impinge on our subject of enquiry are Articles 14,15,16 under part
111, Articles 39, 42, 44 under part IV, Article 51-A(c) under part IV A and Article 246 under
part XI are noteworthy.17

13 Aprna Basu, Role of Women in Indian Struggle for Freedom, Allied Publishers, New Delhi, 1970,
p.39.
14 Neera Desai, Maithreyi Krishnaraj, Women and Society in India, Vohra and Company, New Delhi,
1957, p.39. 15 Raj Bala, op.cit., p.39.
16 Kala Rani, Role Conflict in Working Women, Chetna Publications, New Delhi,
1976, p.52. 17 Hari Hara Das, Political Sstem of lndia, op.cit., p.362.
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The right to vote can be said to be the starting point in the struggle of women for their
political equality and participation. An analysis of the political participation of women by
way of voting has been growing but with variations.

The following table reveals the percentage of female voting in Lok Sabha elections since the
first general elections in 1952.

Table 1
Percentage of Women Voting Participation in Lok
Sabha Elections (1952-1999)

Source: Election commission of India, report of various years.

The political participation of women in terms of voting in elections is not pathetic compared
to their participation and representation in law making and law implementing organs of the
government. It doesn't mean that women failed to play their role by being elected to various
elective bodies of the government, particularly in Parliament and Cabinet. Recognizing their
role, Raj Bala says, "As parliamentarians, they (women) have played important roles in the
growth and development of parliamentary institutions in India." The following table shall be
a true indicator of the low profile of women's representation in parliament between 1952 and
1991.18

18 Hem Lata Swarup, et.al., "Women's Political Engagement in India: Some Critical Issues", in
Barbara Neslon and Najma Chauwdhary (Eds.), Women and Politics World Wide, Oxford University
Press, Delhi, 1997, p.366.

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 2. STATUS IN GLOBAL SCENARIO
There have always been female leaders. Egyptian Queens are thought to have ruled from
around 3000 BC. Still, it wasn’t until the 20th century that women took visible leadership in
modern governments — a number of women began to hold positions in revolutionary
governments in places like Ukraine, Hungary and Ireland after WWI. In 1960, Sirivamo
Bandaranaike became the world’s first female elected Prime Minister when she was elected
in Sri Lanka while Isabel Perón of Argentina became the first woman President in 1974.20

Still, it’s not enough. With roughly 10 % of countries of the world run by women, it is mainly
male voices making policies affecting global populations across issue areas — from issues of

19 https://www.huffingtonpost.com/rachel-a-george/where-are-all-the-women-in-
world- politics_b_8292608.html

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war and peace to labor and health, women are simply underrepresented in the head positions
deciding the policies that affect them.21

Women in Parliaments22

Only 22.8 per cent of all national parliamentarians were women as of June 2016, a slow
increase from 11.3 per cent in 1995.

As of January 2017, 10 women are serving as Head of State and 9 are serving as Head of
Government.

Rwanda had the highest number of women parliamentarians worldwide. Women there have
won 63.8 per cent of seats in the lower house.

Globally, there are 38 States in which women account for less than 10 per cent of
parliamentarians in single or lower houses, as of June 2016, including 4 chambers with no
women at all.

The reasons why women appear to be struggling to rise to the highest positions in global
leadership are, of course, difficult to measure, and varied across political contexts. Some
claim the particularly travel-heavy schedules of political leaders are hard to balance with
family, while others insist there are significant roadblocks based on gender bias in the field.23

Studies tend to cite a variety of roadblocks to women’s leadership, from the traits of
masculinity being tied to excellence standards in the national security field to the very real
difficulties women face in the “work-life-balance.” But, no matter the cause, the low figures
in gender representation are surprising given the nature of the industry, and merit serious
consideration.24

In many ways, the world will simply benefit from including more women in positions of
political leadership. Initiatives are beginning to make progress on promoting this cause.25 We
must look forward to the day when inclusive spaces where policy affecting women and men
alike can be proposed, debated and progressed.26

20 M.K Gandhi, Young India, 1:ebruary 20, 1918

21 http://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/leadership-and-political-participation/facts-and-figures
22 Urmila Phadnis, lndira Malani(Eds.), Women of the World: Illusion and Reality, Vikas Publishing
House, New Delhi, 1978, p.20.
24http://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2017/4/women-in-politics-2017-map.
25 J.K. Baral and Kumudini Patnaik, Gender Politics, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi,
1990, pp 6-7. 26 Hem Lata Swarup, et.al., op.cit., p.367.

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There is established and growing evidence that women's leadership in political decision-
making processes improves them. Women demonstrate political leadership by working across
party lines through parliamentary women's caucuses - even in the most politically combative
environments - and by championing issues of gender equality, such as the elimination of
gender-based violence, parental leave and childcare, pensions, gender-equality laws and
electoral reform.

3. LEGAL PROVISIONS FOR WOMEN’S

PARTICIPATION
Specific articles and amendments have been enacted to ensure that women and children enjoy
the Constitutional rights. The Constitution not only grants equality of treatment to women but
also calls upon the state to adopt measures favoring women neutralizing the socio- economic,
educational and political disadvantages that they face.27 The following are the various
provisions in the constitution which ensures equality between men and women.28

Article 14 guarantees equality before law and equal protection of law with in the territory of
India. This Article stands for absence of any discrimination by law or in their administration.

Article 15 prohibits discrimination on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth. It
is a guarantee against every form of discrimination. According to article 15(3), nothing shall
prevent the state from making special provisions for the benefit women and children.

27 Bidyut Mohanty, "Panchayati Raj, 73rd Constitutional Amendment and women", Economic and
Political Weekly, December 30, 1995, p.3346
28 Laxmi Devi, Encyclopedia of Women's Development and Family Welfare, Vo1.4, Anmol
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Publications, New Delhi, 1998, p.15.

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Article 16 guarantees equality of opportunity for all citizens in matter relating to employment
or appointment to any office under state. Secondly no citizen shall, on grounds 69 of religion,
race, cast, sex, decent, place of birth residence or any of them, be eligible for, or
discriminated against in respect of any employment or office under the state.

Article 39 (a) guarantees right to an adequate means of livelihood for all citizen. (b)
guarantees equal pay for equal work for both men and women. (c) that the health and strength
of workers, men and women, and the tender age of children are not abused and that citizen
are not forced by economic necessity to enter occupations unsuited for their age or strength.

Article 42 guarantees just and humane condition of work and maternity relief. This is in
accordance with Article 23 and 25 of Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Article 51-A
clause (e) says that it shall be the duty of every citizen of India- to promote harmony and sprit
of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India, transcending religious, linguistic
and religious or sectional diversities, to renounces practice derogatory to the dignity of
women.

73rd Constitutional Amendment Act And Women

The 73"' Constitutional Amendment Act came into force in April 1993 and accordingly all the
states have amended their laws relating to local self-government. As a result, the role and
importance of Panchayati Raj structure became highly critical as well as meaningful. The
Panchayat can emerge as model of an effective local organization representing the interests of
the people. State agencies can formulate and support policies, while Panchayats serve as
potential instruments for an effective deliver) of programmers’ and services.

The 73'" Constitutional Amendment Act shall be a landmark in the constitutional

development of India. Since it is for the first time in the political history of India that one-
third of the total seats in local self- government institutions have been statutorily reserved for
women, the legislation has several important implications for the empowerment of women. It
has made a silent revolution in the country.29

In the Indian context, a constitutional amendment became necessary in order to ensure active
participation of women because of the prevailing socioeconomic and political condition of

29 Bidyut Mohanty, "Panchayati Raj, 73rd Constitutional Amendment and women", Economic and
Political Weekly, December 30, 1995, p.3346.

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women in India. Indian culture and social ethos have, to a large extent, been influenced by a
patriarchal value system. As a result of deeply entrenched social attitudes and practices,
women by and large have not been independent decision-makers in the country. The wishes
and dictates of male family members have influenced the decisions in most cases. As a result
they are discriminated against in terms of access of food and health care. Besides, they are
discriminated in economic and political spheres too. The most alarming factor regarding
women is that visible and invisible violence and harassment against them are increasing. The
crudest form of violence, killing a girl child before she is born, exists in many parts of the
country.

Manu Bhaskar explains the: biological factors of limited participation of women in politics.
She argues. "The inferior status of women in political institutions also results from the
underlying biologism (biologism means a prejudice based on sex which determined gender
roles by biologically assigned characteristics) of male gendered politics for gender
equality.30“In ancient India women enjoyed equal status with men. Democratic
decentralization will be a success, only if all the sections of people participate in the activities
of the local self-governing bodies. So, women population must be properly represented in
different governmental agencies, which should start with village Panchayats.

It is generally accepted that the political participation of women is very much related to
certain important aspects of women's life such as marriage, family, and employment. Manu
Bhaskar says that, there is no country in the world today, where women have equal status
with men in all the major areas of life family, health, reproduction, education, work,
government, and cultural expression."31

It is in this background that one should analyze the far reaching implications of reservation of
one-third of status and offices of chairperson for women guaranteed by the 73rd
Constitutional Amendment Act. It ensures compulsory involvement of women in all
grassroots level political institutions. Bidyut Mohanty argues that, "However, the reservation
itself can only be regarded as the first step in this direction.32 A comprehensive effort will
have to be made in this direction. It is necessary to create proper social, economic and

30 Manu Bhaskar, "Women and Grassroot Politics: Theoretical Issues and Social Concerns of Kerala
Women",
South Asian Journal of Socio Political Studies, Vol.1, No.1, January-June,
2000, p.95. 31 V.K. Ramachandran, op.cit.. p.227.
32 Bidyut Mohanty, op.cit., p. 3346.
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political conditions to enable women to participate effectively in the local government
institutions without endangering the positive values of the prevailing family systems.33

It is believed that legal and constitutional support and legislative measures are necessary for
bringing about social change. Together with them, the political will and awareness of people
are crucial for bringing about democratic decentralization, a reality by all means. Thus in
order to be effective and meaningful, a three-dimensional approach represented by the
political will of the people, people's general political awareness and the constitutional and
legislative measures - has to be developed. By the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, the
local self-governing institutions received greater status and relevance. Moreover, the
Panchayati Raj has become the third tier of governance in India.

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment has added the following articles to the Constitution
providing reservation for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions.

Article 243-(D) (2) states not less than 1/3 of the seats reserved under clause (1) shall be
reserved for women belonging to S.C or as the case may be S.T.

Article 243-(D) (3) extends political reservation to women not less than 1/3 of the total
number of seats to be filled by direct election in every panchayat shall be reserved for women
and such seats shall be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in a panchayat.

Article 243-(D) (4) extends reservation to elected offices as well. The office of the
chairpersons in the panchayats or any other level shall be reserved S.C and the S.Ts and
women in such a manner as legislature of a state may, by law provide.34

The legal Constitutional framework in India would appear a combination of Communitarian

perspective on one hand and that of liberal democracy on the other hand. In spite of such
provisions in the Constitution, the decades following independence witnessed a decline in the
women’s participation in politics. These rights appeared illusionary as there was a shift from
the aims of the Constitution. Gap started widening in all political spheres. Article 325 and
326 guarantees political equality, equal right to participate in political activity and right to
vote, respectively.35 While the latter has been accessed and enjoyed by large number of
women, the right to equal participation is still a distant dream. The lack of space for

33 Raj Bala, op.cit., p.39.

34 Bidyut Mohanty, "Panchayati Raj, 73rd Constitutional Amendment and women", Economic and Political
Weekly, December 30, 1995, p.3310.
35 Manu Bhaskar, "Women and Grassroot Politics: Theoretical Issues and Social Concerns of Kerala
Women",
South Asian Journal of Socio Political Studies, Vol.1, No.1, January-June, 2000, p.115.
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participation in political bodies has resulted in their presence in meager numbers in this
decision making bodies.

Post independent women continued to play a significant role in less conventional activities
such as environmental movements, anti-alcohol agitations, peace movements and even
revolutionary activities which equally effect power relationships as they have the capacity to
influence the state. Yet politics proved to be a very inhospitable terrain for women and
continues to be the male domain where entry to women is severely restricted. Representation
of women in parliament and state assemblies remain at a very low level. Their representation
is 10.8% in parliament. No doubt a few seats have been given to women but it has not been in
proportion to women’s strength in population.

4. OBSTACLES IN WOMEN’S POLITICAL

PARTICIPATION
The various hurdles faced by women in their political participation can be divided as36–

1. Illiteracy - It is one of the main hurdles in making women as politically

empowered. Because of lack of understanding they do not know about their basic and
political rights. The parties not only discriminate in terms of seat allotments in the
elections, but also in the party ranks. Patriarchal context of India is also the reason for
non-involvement of women in the political arena. There are many reasons which are
restricting women from being politically active. These reasons include the existing
societal value system, the private-public divide in terms of domain identification and
male preponderance in political institutions. Because of their low proportion in inner
political party structure of India, they are failed to gather resources and support for
nurturing their political constituencies. Women do not get adequate financial support
from the political parties to contest the elections. Traditional roles assigned to them
are also major constraints in women’s political participation. Because of unequal

36 http://www.isaet.org/images/extraimages/ED216040.pdf

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 distribution of resources or lack of resources and lack of education, they do not avail
sufficient political training.

2. Societal And Cultural Norms – They are imposed on women to bar them from
entering politics. They have to accept the dictates imposed on them and bear the
burden of society. They also bear their deprivation and undermining status thinking as
a culture of the society. The society is full of prejudices and a victim of lack and poor
awareness. Lack of participation of women in community based activities is also one
of the major constraints. Almost all the resources are controlled by the male
counterparts. Women do not have any say in these resources. They also do not own
income generating opportunities.

3. Poverty - It is also a great challenge in realizing women’s political participation.

The girl child in a poor family is the main victim and has to face many problems. The
rate of school drop outs is also found to be comparatively higher in case of women.
Because of the social and cultural norms, women’s mindset is developed in a sense to
accept that they are of a lower class than men because this has been the point of view
of many in the society. On the one hand, women’s literacy rate is improving. But on
the other, rare women are found in higher studies because they are made to leave the
schools immediately after completing their basic studies. Caste system or class
structure prevalent in society is also a big hurdle. Women of lower caste could not
attend schools because of the low level of income of their families. These women got
themselves indulged in less paying work to take care of their families. Mostly women
in India do not own lands and properties. They even hardly get any share in their
parent’s property.
4. Discrimination - Although the Constitution of India removed gender inequalities
among caste and gender, discrimination continues to be a widespread barrier to
women's political participation. Discriminatory attitudes manifest in the limitations
presented to Indian women including low access to information and resources.
Women rely on receiving information from family or village members, typically men.
Women also lack leadership experience due to the fact they are burdened with
household duties. The burden of household duties is a significant reason why many
Indian women do not participate. Unlike men, there are fewer opportunities for
women to get involved in organizations to gain leadership skills. There is little public
space for them as men have dominated the political arena for many years in India.

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 6. CONCLUSION & SUGGESTIONS
Women around the world at every socio-political level are under-represented in parliament
and far-removed from decision making level. While political playing field in each country

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has its own particular characteristics, one feature remains common: it is uneven to women’s
participation. In Indian context, their proportion in Parliament as well as in State Legislatures
and other top political hierarchies has not been very significant. Their participation in politics
as candidates, campaigners and office holders in political parties, on an equal footing with
men, still remains a dream. They have yet to realize the value of their political role.

The leaders of both pre and post independent India paid nothing but lip service for the
upliftment of women in various walks of life including rightful representation in the
legislatures, both at the centre and in the states, with the result that even now women do not
enjoy pride of place in the power centers of legislation, administration and party leadership. It
is to be viewed with concern that NGOs which played a dominant role in social renaissance
elsewhere in the world with remarkable success, have not paid due attention in India to the
cause of women's political participation and empowerment which would have transformed
the face of its administration, political culture and sense of values considerably for the
better.37

The relevance and significance of the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts which
include provisions for women's empowerment in terms of reservation of seats and offices of
chairperson in Panchayati Raj and Nagarapalika institutions should be examined.38 Despite
the fact that the above said Acts are confined to the grassroots levels symbolised by the
Panchayati Raj and Nagarapalike institutions, their impact on national politics and women's
empowerment with unpredictable ramifications has produced a democratic revolution
wherein women are given a golden opportunity to prove their mettle and administrative skills
at par with men. The performance of women as elected representatives and chair persons has
proved beyond the shadow of doubt that they are not behind men in administrative skills,
organisational capacities and political insights which were hitherto considered the monopoly
of men. The new surge in women's empowerment and awakening bid well for the nation
which in the near future may allot more seats to women in State and Central Legislatures.
Women's clamour for one-third reservation of seats in the state and national legislatures may
meet with success before long. Anyway, all the political parties though dominated by men
folk have agreed up on the idea that women should get reservation in legislatures though
there is disagreement on the percentage of reservation. It is hoped that before long a
consensus may emerge on the issue of women's reservation among political parties of India

37 M.K Gandhi, Young India, 1:ebruary 20, 1918.

38 S.R. Bakshi(Ed.), Advanced History of Modern India, Vo1.4, Anmol Publications, New Delhi, 1995,
p.226.
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and women will get their rightful place in central and state law-making bodies. An extensive
and detailed study on women's representation in the legislatures of both developing and
developed countries has brought out the truth that India's record in providing adequate
representation to women in legislative bodies, though not satisfactory, is far better and hence
cannot be called dismal.39

A lot of work needs to be done for making women as equal partners in the political processes.
Cultural and social barriers are to be looked open with serious concern. Communication is
equally essential like food, shelter and health for people. It is the high time that women’s
achievements are highlighted with serious concern so that more women could get inspirations
to be a part of social change and democratic process. No country could be developed unless
the women are politically empowered.40 Women politicians, their voices, their contributions
in decision making should be recognized. Women’s issues should be highlighted and the
work done by women should be appreciated in order to increase their inclination towards
political system. During electoral campaigns, media houses and publications should provide
gender-sensitive coverage of elections. These information tools should also avoid negative
stereotypes of women rather highlight women’s image as effective leaders of the country.
There should not be any biasness on the grounds of sex. Electronic media should specially
broadcast such programs that can educate women about their civic and political rights.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS AND ARTICLES

39 Ram Sharan Sharma, Aspects ofPolitical Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India, Motilal
Banarsidass, Ilelhi, 1968, pp.78-102.
40 Government of India, Towards Equality, Report of the Committee on the status of Women in
India, New Delhi,1985, pp. 43-44.

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 1. Women in Indian Politics: Empowerment of women through political
participation authored by Niroj Sinha
2. Mother India: A political biography of Indira Gandhi written by Pranay Gupta
3. Crossing the sacred line: Women’s search for political power authored by
Abhilasha Kumari
4. An inspirational journey: Pratibha Devisingh Patil authored by Rasika Chaube
and Dr. Chhaya Mahajan.
5. Women’s participation in Indian politics: India ranks 98th – THE HINDU
6. Women's Political Empowerment: Imperatives and Challenges by Usha
Narayanan.
7. Political System of lndia by Hari Hara Das.
8. Role of women in Indian Struggle for Freedom by Apana Basu.
9. Gender Politics by J.K. Baral and Kumudini Patnaik.
10. Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India by Ram Sharan
Sharma.

INTERNET SOURCES
1. www.garph.co.uk
2. www.theviewspaper.net
3. shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in
4. mainstreamweekly.net
5. www.huffingtonpost.com
6. www.unwomen.org
7. www.isaet.org
8. www.indiatoday.in
9. www.theguardian.com
10. www.economictimes.com
11. www.jstor.org

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