Water Technology

Characteristics of hard water - hardness, DO, TDS in

water and their determination – numerical problems
in hardness determination by EDTA; Modern
techniques of water analysis for industrial use -
Disadvantages of hard water in industries.
 Module 1
• Types of impurities in water - Physical,
chemical and biological including hardness
causing impurities
• pH, DO, TDS, COD and BOD in water
• Estimation of hardness by EDTA method -
numerical problems
Sources of Water
 Impurities
Deep Ground No pathogens, rich in dissolved solids
Water carbonates & sulphates Ca and Mg or Fe
Variable bacteriological quality, soluble
Shallow
materials including toxic metals of Zn &
Ground water
Cu
Bacteria levels usually low, rich in
Upland Lakes
organic & inorganic matters, pH
& Reservoirs
adjustment required
Rivers, Canals
Significant Bacterial levels, suspended
& Low land
solids & dissolved constituents
Reservoirs
Effect of impurities on water

• Bad taste, colour & odour

• Hardness, corrosiveness, staining
• Decrease in DO level
• Increase in BOD/COD
• Causes various diseases
 Impurities in water

Physical Biological
Dust Microorganisms
Clay Bacteria
Sand Chemical
Fungi
Other suspended Acid rain Algae
particles Dissolved CO2
Minerals Pathogens
Dissolved salts
Synthetic organic compounds
Radioactive substances
Oxygen demanding wastes
Plant nutrients
 Impurities in Water
Suspended Impurities:
- Particles in water give rise to turbidity
Debris
Colloids

Dissolved Impurities:
- Total Dissolved solids (TDS)
Inorganic salts
Organic Matter
- Dissolved Gases

Biological Impurities:
- Microorganism
Pathogens
 Characteristics of Water
• Physical Impurities:
»Colour: Fe, Mn and Chromium
»Turbidity: Clay
»Taste: Dissolved minerals: Al, Mn (Bitter)
Soapy Taste (Na2CO3)
• Chemical Impurities:
»Acidity: Acid Rain
»Gases: CO2, CO
»Minerals
Water Quality Assessment:
Characteristic of water – depending on the
presence of Acidic/Alkaline substances

- Alkalinity

- pH
Hardness of Water
 Disadvantages of Hard water
Domestic Use
Washing - do not lather with Industrial Use
soap, silky precipitates of Mg  Textile industry
and Ca (wastage of soap, precipitates of Ca
C17H35COONa + H2O C17H35COOH + NaOH & Mg adhered to the fabric- which
don’t produce the exact shades)
C17H35COOH + C17H35COONa Lather
Sugar Industry
Bathing - Cleansing quality of (water containing sulphates, nitrates,
soap is poor alkali carbonates etc. causes
difficulties in sugar crystallization)
Cooking - elevated boiling point;
Concrete making
more fuel for cooking (hydration of cement as well as
concrete strength)
Drinking - bad effect in
digestive system; possibility of Pharmaceutical Industry
(May produce undesirable substance)
forming calcium oxalate crystals
in urinary tracks
 Hardness of Water
Water Hardness- Characteristic that prevents the
lathering of soap (Caused by dissolved salts of Ca and
Mg)
2C17H35COONa + CaCl2 (C17H35COO)2Ca + 2NaCl

2C17H35COONa + MgSO4 (C17H35COO)2Mg + 2NaSO4

 Types of Hardness

Permanent Hardness (or)

Temporary Hardness (or) noncarbonate hardness
carbonate hardness - presence of chlorides and
-Dissolved bicarbonate salts of sulphates of Ca, Mg and other
Ca and Mg and other heavy heavy metals)
metals such as iron - Can’t be removed by simple
-Can be removed easily by boiling boiling
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

Mg(HCO3)2 Mg(OH)2 + 2CO2

HOW TO EXPRESS HARDNESS OF
WATER ?
Equivalents of Calcium Carbonate
Hardness as well as non-hardness constituting ions
are generally expressed in terms of equivalent
amount of CaCO3
Why CaCO3 - Most insoluble salt in water treatment
Molecular weight = 100; Equivalent Weight = 50

Mass of Hardness X Chemical Equivalent of CaCo3

Producing Substance
The Equivalents of CaCo3 =
Chemical Equivalent of hardness-producing substance

Mass of Hardness
Producing Substance X 50
= Chemical Equivalent of hardness-producing substance
Dissolved Salt/ion Molar Mass MF for eq. CaCO3
Ca(HCO3)2 162 100/162
Mg(HCO3)2 146 100/146
CaSO4 136 100/136
MgSO4 120 100/120
MgCl2 95 100/95
MgCO3 84 100/84
CO2 44 100/44
Ca(NO3)2 164 100/164
Mg(NO3)2 148 100/148
HCO3- 61 100/(61x2) 100/122
OH- 17 100/(17x2) 100/34
CO32- 60 100/60
NaAlO2 82 100/(82x2) 100/164
Al2(SO4)3 342 100/(342/3) 100/114
FeSO4.7H2O 278 100/278
H+ 1 100/(1x2) 100/2
HCl 36.5 100/(36.5x2) 100/73
 Units of Hardness
1. Parts per million (ppm)
Parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 106 parts of water

2. Milligrams per litre (mg/L)

No. of milligrams of CaCO3 equivalent hardness present per litre of
water
3. Clarke’s Degree (Cl)
No. of grains (1/7000 lb) of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per gallon
(10 lb) of Water (or) parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 70,000
parts of water

1 grain (64.8 milligrams) of calcium carbonate dissolved in

1 US gallon of water (3.785412 L)
4. Degree French (Fr)
Parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 105 parts of water

5. Milliequivalent per litre (meq/L)

Milli equivalents of hardness per litre
1 meq/L = 1 meq of CaCO3 per litre
1oFr = 1 part of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 105 parts
1o ppm = 1 part per 10,00,000 parts of water
1o cl = 1 part per 70,000 parts of water

100 ppm = 7o cl = 10oFr Problem:

100 100 100 If the hardness of water is
210.5 ppm Calculate its
1 ppm = 0.07 o cl = 0.1o Fr hardness in o cl
1 ppm = 0.07 o cl
1 o cl = 1.42o Fr = 14.2 ppm 210.5 ppm = 0. 07 × 210.5
= 14.735o cl
1 o Fr = 0.7 o cl = 10 ppm
Example 1. How many grams of FeSO4 dissolved per
litre gives 210.5 ppm of hardness?
(Fe = 56, S = 32, O = 16, Ca = 40, C = 12).

Solution. FeSO4 = CaCO3

(56 + 32 + 64 = 152g) =100g
100 ppm of hardness = 152 ppm of FeSO4

210.5 ppm of hardness = 152 × 210.5 = 319.9 ppm

of FeSO4 100

= 319.9 mg/L or 0.319 g/L of FeSO4

Dissolved Salt/ion Molar Mass MF for eq. CaCO3
Ca(HCO3)2 162 100/162
Mg(HCO3)2 146 100/146
CaSO4 136 100/136
MgSO4 120 100/120
MgCl2 95 100/95
MgCO3 84 100/84
CO2 44 100/44
Ca(NO3)2 164 100/164
Mg(NO3)2 148 100/148
HCO3- 61 100/(61x2) 100/122
OH- 17 100/(17x2) 100/34
CO32- 60 100/60
NaAlO2 82 100/(82x2) 100/164
Al2(SO4)3 342 100/(342/3) 100/114
FeSO4.7H2O 278 100/278
H+ 1 100/(1x2) 100/2
HCl 36.5 100/(36.5x2) 100/73
Example 2. Calculate the temporary and permanent
hardness of a sample water containing Mg(HCO3)2 = 7.3
mg/L ; Ca(HCO3)2 = 16.2 mg/L ; MgCl2 = 9.5 mg/L; CaSO4 =
13.6 mg/L (atomic weight of Mg and Ca are 24 and 40
respectively, Cl and S are 35.45 and 32 respectively)

Solution: Conversion into CaCO3 equivalent:

Multiplication
Constituent CaCO3 equivalent
factor
Mg(HCO3)2 = 7.3mg/L 100/146 7.3 × 100/146 = 5mg/L

Ca(HCO3)2 = 16.2mg/L 100/162 16.2 × 100/162 = 10mg/L

MgCl2 = 9.5mg/L 100/95 9.5 × 100/95 = 10 mg/L

CaSO4 = 13.6/L 100/136 13.6 × 100/136 = 10mg/L

Temporary hardness, due to Mg(HCO3)2 and
Ca(HCO3)2 = (5 + 10) mg/L = 15 mg/L or 15 ppm

Permanent hardness, due to MgCl2 and CaSO4 = (10 +

10) mg/L= 20mg/L or 20 ppm

Total hardness = Temporary hardness + Permanent

hardness
Example 3. Calculate the temporary and total hardness of
a sample water containing Mg(HCO3)2 = 73 mg/L;
Ca(HCO3)2 = 162 mg/L; MgCl2 = 95 mg/L; CaSO4 = 136
mg/L (atomic weight of Mg and Ca are 24 and 40
respectively, Cl and S are 35.45 and 32 respectively)
Solution: Calculation of CaCO3 equivalent:

Multiplicatio
Constituent CaCO3 equivalent
n factor
Mg(HCO3)2 = 73mg/L 100/146 73 × 100/146 = 50mg/L

Ca(HCO3)2 = 162mg/L 100/162 162 × 100/162 = 100mg/L

MgCl2 = 95mg/L 100/95 95 × 100/95 = 100 mg/L

CaSO4 = 136/L 100/136 136 × 100/136 = 100mg/L

Temporary hardness, due to Mg(HCO3)2 and Ca(HCO3)2
= (50 + 100) mg/L = 150 mg/L or 150 ppm
Total hardness, = (50 + 100 + 100+100) mg/L= 350 mg/L
or 350 ppm
Permanent hardness = Total hardness - Temporary
hardness
 Estimation of Hardness
Essential for the water to be used in Industry and boilers
for steam generation

EDTA method

EDTA is employed as its disodium salt

Sodium salt of
ethylene diamine
tetraacetic acid
EDTA forms permanent complex with Ca2+ and Mg2+
present in the hard water

EDTA: Colorless
solution

Eriochrome Black T

EBT is blue in a buffered solution at pH 10, it turns red

when Ca2+ ions were added
The characteristic blue end-point is reached when
sufficient EDTA is added
and metal ions is chelated by EDTA, leaving the free
indicator molecule
 + + 2 H+
Ca2+

H2EDTA2- Ca2+ ion chelated by

EDTA
 Boiled water preparation – Removing temporary
hardness
250mL of Hard water – boiled it – reduced the volume
about 50mL
Bicarbonates are decomposed to insoluble CaCO3 and
Mg(OH)2
Filter, wash the precipitate with distilled water – collect
the filtrate –make up to 250mL
50mL of boiled water + EDTA
Calculation: Estimation of Total Hardness
50 ml of standard hard water = V1 mL of EDTA
1 mL of EDTA = 50 / V1 mg of CaCO3 eqvt.
50 ml of given hard water = V2 mL of EDTA

= V2 X 50 / V1 mg of CaCO3 eqvt.

1 mL of Given hard water = V2 X 50 / V1X 50 mg of

CaCO3 eqvt.

1000 mL of Given hard water = 1000 V2 / V1 mg of

CaCO3 eqvt.
Total Hardness of water = 1000 V2 / V1 mg/L
= 1000 V2 / V1 ppm
Calculation: Estimation of Permanent Hardness
50 ml of boiled water = V3 mL of EDTA

= V3 X 50 / V1 mg of CaCO3 eqvt.

1 mL of boiled water = V3 X 50 / V1X 50 mg of CaCO3 eq.

1000 mL of boiled water = 1000 V3 / V1 mg of CaCO3 eq.

Permanent Hardness of water = 1000 V3 / V1 mg/L

= 1000 V3 / V1 ppm

Temporary Hardness of water=[Total – Permanent]

hardness = 1000{ (V2-V3)/V1} ppm
0.5 g of CaCO3 was dissolved in HCl and the solution made
up to 500 ml with distilled water. 50 ml of the solution
required 48 ml of EDTA solution for titration. 50 ml of
hard water sample req. 15 ml EDTA and after boiling and
filtering req. 10 ml of EDTA solution calculate the
hardness.
1 ml of hard water contain 1 mg of CaCO3
50 ml of hard water contain 50 mg of CaCO3
50 ml of hard water consumes 48 ml of EDTA (V1)

48 ml of EDTA = 50 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness

1 ml of EDTA = 50 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
= 50 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
48
= 1.042 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
Calculation of total hardness:

50 ml of water sample consumes 15 ml of EDTA

1 ml of EDTA= 1.042 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
15 ml of EDTA = ? = 1.042 × 15 = 15.625 mg of CaCO3
equivalent hardness
50 ml of water sample (unknown) = 15.625 mg of CaCO3
equivalent hardness
500 ml of water sample = ?
= 15.625 × 500 = 15.625 mg
50
= 156.25 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
= 156.25 × 2 = 312.5 ppm (1L of water sample)
 Permanent hardness: (non – carbonate hardness)

1 ml of EDTA = 1.042 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness

10 ml of EDTA = 10.42 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness
50ml of water sample = 10.42 mg of CaCO3 equivalent
hardness
500 ml of water sample = ?

= 500 × 10.42 = 104.2 mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness

50

In one litre (ppm) = 208.4 ppm

Temp. Hardness (1L) = Total hardness – Perm. hardness
= 312.5 – 208.4 = 104.1 ppm
In an EDTA titration, 50 ml of standard hard(1mg CaCO3
in 1ml) water sample consumed 25 ml of EDTA, 50 ml of
hard water sample consumed 35 ml of EDTA and the 50ml
sample hard water (after boiling, cooling and filtering)
required 10ml EDTA. Calculate the permanent and
temporary hardness of the given water sample.

1 mL std. hardwater = 1mg CaCO3

50 mL std. hardwater = 25 mL EDTA (V1)

Therefore, 1 mL EDTA = (50/25) x 1mg CaCO3

50 ml of hard water = 35 ml of EDTA (V2)

1000 mL of hardwater contains = ( 35/25) x 1000 x 1mg
CaCO3
Total hardness = 1400 ppm
After boiling, EDTA consumed = 10 mL
50 mL of sample hardwater = 10 mL of EDTA (V3)
1000 mL of hardwater after boiling contains = (10/25) x
1000 x 1mg CaCO3

Permanent hardness = 400 ppm

Therefore, temp. hardness = 1400 - 400 = 1000 ppm

Calculate Total, Temporary and Permanent hardness of
the given hard water sample with following analysis
report:-
[i] 50 mL of standard hard water sample consume 42 mL
of EDTA solution.
[ii] 50 mL of hard water sample consume 19.9 mL of EDTA
solution before boiling.
[iii] 50 mL of hard water sample consume 8.9 mL of EDTA
solution after boiling.
Standard hard water is prepared by dissolving 1.5 gram of
CaCO3 per Litre.
Solution:
1mL of SHW contains 1.5mg of CaCO3
[i] For 1mL of EDTA
[ii] total hardness: 710.7 ppm
[iii] permanent hardness: 317.8 ppm
Temporary hardness: 392.9
 Dissolved Gases
Dissolved CO2: its solubility depends on temperature,
pressure and dissolved mineral content of water.

Polluted water acquires CO2 from the biological

oxidation of organic matter.

Dissolved O2: Concentration of dissolved oxygen

depends on temperature, pressure and salt content in
water.

It is essential to the life of aquatic organisms.

Dissolved oxygen in industrial water induces corrosion
reactions.
Dissolved ammonia: arises from the aerobic or
anaerobic decomposition of nitrogenous organic
matter.

Polluted water and sewages contain nitrogen in the

form of nitrogenous organic compounds, urea which
are partially converted into ammonia.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

The Good Gas or Not

 Dissolved Oxygen
• Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen
dissolved in a given quantity of water at a
particular temperature and atmospheric pressure
• All aerobic organisms need oxygen

DO depends on
• Aeration,
• Photosynthetic activity of the water,
• Respiration of animals and plants
• Speed of water flow
• Roughness of surface over which water flows
• Temperature of the water body
 Oxygen Demanding Wastes

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Chemicals/Organic wastes present in water
consume the DO

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Organic wastes reaching water consume oxygen
from water bodies for their decomposition by
bacteria – through biochemical oxidation

- Useful measure of water quality

 Photosynthesis: Our one-stop shop for
all of our oxygen needs!

Solar energy + 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Carbon Oxygen (to air)

Dioxide
(from air) Carbohydrate
(plant material)

Water (from ground)

Aquatic plants and phytoplankton
(single cell floating plants) release
oxygen into the water as a product of
photosynthesis

CO2 O2
 Habitat Classification Based on DO
Concentration

> 2 mg/L Normoxic

2.5
DO Concentration (mg/L)

1.5

1 0.2 – 2 mg/L Hypoxic

0 – 0.2 mg/L
0.5

0
Anoxic
Most fish need oxygen levels > 2.0 mg/L
Biological Production and Consumption of Oxygen
Heat
Energy

Solar Energy Chemical

Energy (ATP)
CO2

Photosynthesis Respiration

C6H12O6
O2

Biomass
Industry: Absorption of oxygen
Dissolved oxygen in industrial water induces corrosion
reactions
Rusting of iron in neutral aqueous solution of
electrolytes in the presence of oxygen
At anodic area:
Fe → Fe2+ +2e-
At cathodic area:
½O2 + H2O + 2e- → 2OH-
Fe2+ + 2OH- → Fe(OH)2↓
Enough Oxygen:
4 Fe(OH)2 +O2+ 2H2O → 4 Fe(OH)3
 Theory of Winkler’s Method for DO
Determination
• Oxygen in the water sample oxidizes iodide ion (I-) to
iodine (I2) quantitatively.
• The amount of iodine generated is then determined by
titration with a standard thiosulfate (S2O3-2) solution.
• The endpoint is determined by using starch as a visual
indicator.
• The amount of oxygen can then be computed from the
titer values
 BOD
• It is defined as the amount of oxygen required by the
aerobic bacteria to biochemically oxidize the organic
matter present in the waste and is expressed in mg/L
• The Quantity of Oxygen Used in the Biochemical
Oxidation of Organic Material – under specified
time, temperature and conditions
To determine BOD,
• A measured volume of wastewater is taken and its DO
is measured.
• It is then incubated for 5 days at 20 degrees and its
DO is determined again.
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Same principle as BOD but different execution.

Rather than biologically decompose/oxidize organic
waste, we chemically decompose/oxidize organic
waste.
Chemical oxygen demand determines the amount of
organic pollutants found in surface water – a useful
measure of water quality – mg / L or ppm
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of a sample indicates
the measurement of the oxygen equivalent of organic
matters in a sample that is susceptible to oxidation
by strong chemical oxidants

The value of COD is important and quickly measured

parameter for stream and industrial waste water
analysis and waste treatment plants. Its
determination takes about 3 hours compared to 5
days for BOD determination.
 Effects of COD
In such industries where effluents are cellulose or other
non-degradable organic matter, COD value reveals the
real pollution potential.

It is not affected by the presence of toxins and other

unfavorable conditions for the growth of microorganisms.

It is very important parameter in designing and

management of the treatment plants.

COD test does not differentiate between bio inert and

bio degradable materials.

COD tests does not indicate the rate at which biologically

oxidisable material stabilize.
 COD errors
The most common COD errors are due to oxidation of
inorganic species.

Dichromate is a powerful oxidant – it will oxidize not

only almost all organics but many metals and non-
metal ions.

As a result, contaminated water will tend to test

higher than it should based strictly on the organic
contamination.
 Determination of Chemical Oxygen
Demand
1. The organic matter present in sample gets oxidized by
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) in the presence of
sulphuric acid (H2SO4), silver sulphate (Ag2SO4) and
mercury sulphate (HgSO4) to produce CO2 and H2O.
2. The sample is refluxed with a known amount of
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) in the sulphuric acid
medium and the excess potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
is determined by titration against ferrous ammonium
sulphate, using ferroin as an indicator.
3. The dichromate consumed by the sample is equivalent
to the amount of O2 required to oxidize the organic
matter.
 Total Dissolved Solids (T.D.S)
• The source of dissolved solids is various kinds of
minerals present in water.
• It can be determined taking a known amount (say
100 mL) of water and by evaporating the contents
carefully to dryness.
• The residue (W gm) left after evaporation of the
filtered sample shows the total dissolved solids
present in that particular water sample.
• T.D.S. must be less than 500 ppm in potable water.

TDS = (W/100) x 106 mg/L or ppm

 Recommended TDS for drinking water is 25-250
mg/L

 At any cost drinking water TDS should not exceed

500 mg/L

 TDS for distilled water will be 0.5-1.5 mg/L

 TDS ranges from 100-20,000 mg/L in river water

and will be generally higher in ground water

 Sea water will have 3500 mg/L of TDS

 Lakes and streams will have a TDS of 20-250 mg/L

 pH
• pH of water in the range <6.5 or >8.5 is considered
as harmful.
• The sources to impart such pH are carbonates,
bicarbonates, CO2, industrial contaminants (pH 3.6-
8.4), mineral acids (pH 3.5 or below).
• Highly acidic water (pH<6.5) causes corrosion to
pipes, highly basic water (pH >8.5) causes staining.
• Highly acidic water is treated using calcite
neutralizer and alkaline water is by dealkalyzer.
Modern techniques of water analysis for
industrial use

1) Lab-on-a-chip
2) E-tongue
3) E-nose
4) Ion selective electrodes
 Limitations of Traditional Methods of Water
Analysis
Traditional methods include
• Chemical analysis
• Colorimetry Differ in sensitivity
• Spectrometry and accuracy
• Chromatography
• Atomic absorption

Nevertheless, they require

Sampling, expensive devices and manpower; besides,
they are time-consuming and difficult to conduct
onsite
 Lab-on-a-chip (LOC)
Integrates one or several laboratory functions on a
single integrated circuit
Millimetres to a few square centimetres to achieve
automation and high-throughput screening
Small fluid volumes (pico liters)

Subset of Micro Electro Mechanical Systems

(MEMS) devices and sometimes called "micro total
analysis systems" (µTAS)

Integration of the total sequence of lab processes to

perform chemical analysis
 Analysis Techniques Used in Lab-On-A-Chip
Systems
• Chromatography
• Electrochemical analysis
• Mass spectrometry
• Fluorescence
• Laser

Lab-on-a-chip applications in water analysis

• pH testing
• Detection of various chemicals (e.g., nitrates and
nitrites, manganese, phosphates, and silicates)
 LOCs may provide advantages
Low fluid volumes consumption (less waste, lower
reagents costs, and fewer sample volumes)
Faster analysis and response time due to short
diffusion distance & high surface to volume ratio.

Better process control because of a faster response

of the system compactness of the systems due to the
integration of much functionality and small volumes
Lower fabrication costs, allowing cost-effective
disposable chips, fabricated in mass production
Safer platform for chemical, radioactive or biological
studies because of integration of functionality,
smaller fluid volumes and stored energies
 Ion Selective Electrodes (ISE)
• Respond selectively to ions in the presence of others -
include probes that measure specific ions and gases in
solution. Eg. pH probe.
• Other ions that can be measured include fluoride,
bromide, cadmium, and gases in solution such as
ammonia, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen oxide.
• Less expensive than conventional methods such as
Atomic Adsorption Spectrophotometry or Ion
Chromatography.
• No interference such as colour in the sample. This
makes them ideal for clinical use (blood gas analysis)
where they are most popular
• The measurement is based on the potential generated
across a electrode.
 Electronic tongue (e-tongue)
E-nose and E-tongue are analytical instruments that can
detect specific substances in solution - consist of sensor
array, signal transduction system and signal processing
and pattern recognition (resulting in detection).

Uses of e-nose and e-tongue

• Mixing of sewage in drinking water
supply can be detected
• Presence of specific ions and their
concentrations can be monitored
• Contamination by toxic metal ions
can be detected
• Water treatment processes can be
continuously monitored
 Disadvantages of hard water in industries
Paper Industry: The presence of calcium and magnesium has
impact on the properties and quality of paper and their
products
Textile industry: Hard water cause much of the soap to go as
waste. During dyeing process, calcium and magnesium salts
present in water make the quality of the shades very poor.
Sugar industry: If nitrates, sulphates of calcium and
magnesium are present, they cause hindrance to crystallization
of sugar
Concrete making: Water containing chlorides and sulphates, if
used for concrete making, affects the hydration of the
cement and the final strength of the hardened concrete.
In steam generation in boilers: If the hard water is fed
directly to the boilers, which led to the many problems such as
Formation of scales which corrodes the boiler, wastage of fuel
etc.