The aspect ratio constant is as shown in Table 2-1.

It is based on the
ratio between the short and long dimensions of the element or aperture.
Table 2-1 Aspect ratio constant

Ratio short/long k
1.0 1.37 (square element)
0.9 1.25
0.8 1.15
0.7 1.09
0.6 1.04
0.5 1.01
0.4 1.00
0.3 and below 0.99

In the case of circular elements, k is not used and the diameter of the
element (D) is used instead of the length term:

N = kL2f or N = kL2f
4c 4



Because of the sound pressure variations within the near field, it can be
difficult to accurately evaluate flaws using amplitude based techniques
(although thickness gaging within the near field is not a problem).
Additionally, N represents the greatest distance at which a transducer
beam can be focused by means of either an acoustic lens or phasing
techniques. Focusing is discussed further in section 2.7, on page 31.

2.2 Fundamental Properties of Sound

Waves
Wavefront formation. While a single element transducer can be thought of as
a piston source, a single disk, or plate pushing forward on the test
medium, the wave it generates can be mathematically modeled as the sum
of the waves from a very large number of point sources. This derives from
Huygens' principle, first proposed by seventeenth-century Dutch physicist
Christiaan Huygens, which states that each point on an advancing
wavefront may be thought of as a point source that launches a new
spherical wave, and that the resulting unified
wavefront is the sum of all of these individual spherical waves.

Beam spreading. In principle, the sound wave generated by a transducer

travels in a straight line until it encounters a material

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 18 of 186

boundary. What happens then is discussed below. But if the sound path
length is longer than the near-field distance, the beam also increases in
diameter, diverging like the beam of a spotlight (see Figure 2-5).

D  BEAMAXIS
N

0 N 2N 3N 4N

Figure 2-5 Beam spread

The beam spread angle of an unfocused circular transducer can be

calculated as follows:
2 2
Near field length = D f = D
---- ----
4c 4

D = element diameter or aperture

f = frequency
c = sound velocity in test medium

 = wavelength = c
f

-6 dB half-beam spread angle ()ofanunfocusedtransducer:

=sin-1 0.514c

fD

From this equation it is seen that beam spreading increases with lower
frequencies and smaller diameters. A large beam spread angle can cause
sound energy per unit area to quickly drop with distance. This effectively
decreases sensitivity to small reflectors in some applications involving
long sound paths. In such cases, echo response can be improved by using
higher frequency and/or larger diameter transducers.

In the case of rectangular elements, the beam spreading is asymmetrical,

with a larger beam spread angle across the smaller dimension of the beam.
The angle for each axis can be calculated using the formula given below,
using the appropriate length or width for term L:

=sin-1 0.44c or =sin -1 0.44

fL L 

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 19 of 186

 The following graphics show some generalized changes in beam
spreading with changes in transducer diameter and frequency. If the
frequency is constant, then beam spreading decreases as transducer
diameter increases (see Figure 2-6 and Figure 2-7).

Velocity: 5850 m/s (0.230 in./µs) Diameter: 3 mm (0.125 in.)

Frequency: 5.0 MHz

Figure 2-6 Beam spreading with a 3 mm element

Velocity: 5850 m/s (0.230 in./µs) Diameter: 13 mm (0.5 in.)

Frequency: 5.0 MHz

Figure 2-7 Beam spreading with a 13 mm element

If the transducer diameter is constant, then beam spreading decreases as

frequency increases (see Figure 2-8 and Figure 2-9).

Velocity: 5850 m/s (0.230 in./µs) Diameter: 13 mm (0.5 in.)

Frequency: 2.25 MHz

Figure 2-8 Beam spreading with a 2.25 MHz element

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 20 of 186

 Velocity: 5850 m/s (0.230 in./µs) Diameter: 13 mm (0.5 in.)
Frequency: 10.0 MHz

Figure 2-9 Beam spreading with a 10 MHz element

Attenuation. As it travels through a medium, the organized wavefront

generated by an ultrasonic transducer begins to break down due to an
imperfect transmission of energy through the microstructure of any
material. Organized mechanical vibrations (sound waves) turn into
random mechanical vibrations (heat) until the wavefront is no longer
detectable. This process is known as sound attenuation.

The mathematical theory of attenuation and scattering is complex. The loss

of amplitude due to attenuation across a given sound path is the sum of
absorption effects and scattering effects. Absorption increases linearly
with frequency, while scattering varies through three zones depending on
the ratio of wavelength to grain size boundaries or other scatterers. In all
cases, scattering effects increase with frequency. For a given material at a
given temperature, tested at a given frequency, there is a specific
attenuation coefficient, commonly expressed in Nepers per centimeter
(Np/cm). Once this attenuation coefficient is known, losses across a given
sound path can be
calculated according to the equation:

p = p0e-ad

where:

p = sound pressure at end of path

p0 = sound pressure at beginning of path
e = base of natural logarithm
a = attenuation coefficient
d = sound path length

As a practical matter, in ultrasonic NDT applications, attenuation

coefficients are normally measured rather than calculated. Higher
frequencies are attenuated more rapidly than lower frequencies in any
medium, so low test frequencies are usually employed in materials with
high attenuation coefficients such as low-density plastics and rubber.

Reflection and transmission at a perpendicular plane boundary. When a sound

wave traveling through a medium encounters a boundary with a dissimilar
medium that lies perpendicular to the direction of the wave, a portion of
the wave energy is reflected straight back and a

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 21 of 186

 portion continues straight ahead. The percentage of reflection versus
transmission is related to the relative acoustic impedances of the two
materials, with acoustic impedance in turn being defined as material
density multiplied by speed of sound. The reflection coefficient at a
planar boundary (the percentage of sound energy that is reflected
back to the source) can be calculated as follows:

Z2 + Z 1
R= -----------------
Z2 + Z1
where:

R = reflection coefficient in percent

Z1 = acoustic impedance of first medium
Z2 = acoustic impedance of second medium

From this equation it can be seen that as the acoustic impedances of the
two materials become more similar, the reflection coefficient decreases,
and as the acoustic impedances become less similar, the reflection
coefficient increases. In theory the reflection from the boundary between
two materials of the same acoustic impedance is zero, while in the case
of materials with very dissimilar acoustic impedances, as in a boundary
between steel and air, the reflection coefficient approaches 100 %.

Refraction and mode conversion at non-perpendicular boundaries. When a

sound wave traveling through a material encounters a boundary with a
different material at an angle other than zero degrees, a portion of the
wave energy is reflected forward at an angle equal to the angle of
incidence. At the same time, the portion of the wave energy that is
transmitted into the second material is refracted in accordance with
Snell's Law, which was independently derived by at least two
seventeenth-century mathematicians. Snell's law relates the sines of the
incident and refracted angle to the wave velocity in each material as
diagramed below.

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 22 of 186

 (_PZ
:V\UK
HIZVYILU[
TH[LYPHS

;YHUZK\JLY
>LKNL

:V\UKWH[O
9LMYHJ[LK 3VUNP[\KPUHS^H]L
SVUNP[\KPUHS

9LMYHJ[LK
ZOLHY P
YS
YZ

Figure 2-10 Sound wave refraction and mode conversion

sini sin sinrs

------------=------------rl=---------------
ci crl crs

where:

i = incident angle of the wedge

rl = angle of the refracted longitudinal wave
rs = angle of the refracted shear wave
ci = velocity of the incident material (longitudinal)
crl = material sound velocity (longitudinal)
crs = velocity of the test material (shear)

R
L
S S

Longitudinal Shear

Surface

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Incident angle
1st Critical 2nd Critical
angle angle

Figure 2-11 Relative amplitude of wave modes

If sound velocity in the second medium is higher than that in the first,

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 23 of 186

 then above certain angles this bending is accompanied by mode
conversion, most commonly from a longitudinal wave mode to a shear
wave mode. This is the basis of widely used angle beam inspection
techniques. As the incident angle in the first (slower) medium (such as a
wedge or water) increases, the angle of the refracted longitudinal wave in
the second (faster) material such as metal increases. As the refracted
longitudinal wave angle approaches 90 degrees, a progressively greater
portion of the wave energy is converted to a lower velocity shear wave that
is refracted at the angle predicted by Snell's Law. At incident angles higher
than that which would create a 90 degree refracted longitudinal wave, the
refracted wave exists entirely in shear mode. A still higher incident angle
results in a situation where the shear wave is theoretically refracted at 90
degrees, at which point a surface wave is generated in the second material.
The diagrams in Figure 2-12, Figure 2-13, and Figure 2-14 show this effect
for a typical angle beam assembly coupled into steel.

Figure 2-12 Incident angle: 10°. Strong longitudinal wave and weak shear wave.

Figure 2-13 Incident angle: 30°. Beyond the first critical angle, the longitudinal wave
no longer exists, and all refracted energy is contained in the shear wave.

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 24 of 186

Figure 2-14 Incident angle: 65°. Beyond the second critical angle, the shear wave no
longer exists, and all refracted energy is contained in a surface wave.

2..3 Phased Array Probe Characteristics

Figure 2-15 Phased array probes

An array is an organized arrangement of large quantities of an object. The

simplest form of an ultrasonic array for NDT would be a series of several
single element transducers arranged in such a way as to increase
inspection coverage and/or the speed of a particular
inspection. Examples of this include:

• Tube inspection, where multiple probes are often used for both
crack detection, finding laminar flaws, and overall thickness
measurement.
• Forged metal parts, which often require multiple probes focused at
different depths to enable the detection of small defects in a zonal
manner.
• A linear arrangement of probes along a surface to increase
detection of laminar flaws in composites or corrosion in metals.

These inspections require high-speed, multichannel ultrasonic equipment

with proper pulsers, receivers, and gate logic to process each channel as
well as careful fixturing of each transducer to properly set up the
inspection zones.

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 25 of 186

 In its simplest form, one can think of a phased array probe as a series
of individual elements in one package (see Figure 2-16). While the
elements in reality are much smaller than conventional transducers, these
elements can be pulsed as a group so as to generate directionally
controllable wavefronts. This "electronic beam forming" allows multiple
inspection zones to be programmed and analyzed at very high speeds
without probe movement. This is discussed in greater detail in later
pages.

Figure 2-16 Phased array probe

While phased array probes come in a wide range of sizes, shapes,

frequencies, and number of elements, what they all have in common is a
piezoelectric element that has been divided into a number of segments.

Contemporary phased array probes for industrial NDT applications are

typically constructed around piezocomposite materials, which are made
up of many tiny, thin rods of piezoelectric ceramic embedded in a
polymer matrix. While they can be more challenging to manufacture,
composite probes typically offer a 10 dB to 30 dB sensitivity advantage
over piezoceramic probes of otherwise similar design. Segmented metal
plating is used to divide the composite strip into a number of electrically
separate elements that can be pulsed individually. This segmented
element is then incorporated into a probe assembly that includes a
protective matching layer, a backing, cable connections, and a housing
(see Figure 2-17).

Multiconductor
coaxial cable

Backing

External
housing Inner
sleeve

Metallic
plating

Piezocomposite
Matching element
layer

Figure 2-17 Phased array probe cross-section

Phased array probes are functionally categorized according to the

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 26 of 186

following basic parameters:

Type. Most phased array probes are of the angle beam type, designed for
use with either a plastic wedge or a straight plastic shoe (zero- degree
wedge), or delay line. Direct contact and immersion probes are also
available.

Frequency. Most ultrasonic flaw detection is done between 2 MHz and 10

MHz, so most phased array probes fall within that range. Lower and
higher frequency probes are also available. As with conventional
transducers, penetration increases with lower frequency, while
resolution and focal sharpness increase with higher frequency.

Number of elements. Phased array probes most commonly have 16 to 128

elements, with some having as many as 256. A larger number of elements
increases focusing and steering capability, which also increases area
coverage, but both probe and instrumentation costs increase as well. Each
of these elements is individually pulsed to create the wavefront of interest.
Hence the dimension across these
elements is often referred to as the active or steering direction.

Size of elements. As the element width gets smaller, beam steering capability
increases, but large area coverage requires more elements at a higher cost.

The dimensional parameters of a phased array probe are customarily

defined as follows:

(
L

W N

Figure 2-18 Dimensional parameters of a phased array probe

A = total aperture in steering of active direction

H = element height or elevation. Since this dimension is fixed,
it is often referred to as the passive plane.
p = pitch, or center-to-center distance between two successive
elements
e = width of an individual element
g = spacing between active elements

This information is used by instrument software to generate the desired

beam shape. If it is not entered automatically by probe recognition
software, then it must be entered by the user during setup.

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 27of 186

2.4 Piezocomposite Materials

One of the main technical issues for large-scale applications of phased array
technology in the late 1970s and mid-1980s was the manufacturing process and
acoustic insulation between array elements. The high cross-talk amplitude
between elements and the challenge to cut curved-shaped piezoelectric
materials led to a setback in industrial development. The common piezoelectric
materials are listed in Table 2-2.

Table 2-2 Main properties of commonly used piezoelectric materials.1,7

Symbol / Quartz BaTiO3 PbNb2O6 PZT-4 PZT-5A PVF2
Unit
d33 (pC/N) 2.3 190 85 289 400 20
g33 10-3 Vm/N 57 12.6 42.5 26.1 26.5 190

d33 g33 10-15 N/m 133 2394 3612 7542 10,600 3,800
kt 0.095 0.38 0.32 0.51 0.49 0.1
k 5 1700 225 1300 1700 11
Z (106 Rayl) 15.2 25.9 20 30 29 4
Mechanical Q 2,500 24 500 80 3-10

The amount of acoustic energy transferred to the load (test piece) reaches a
maximum when the acoustic impedance is matched between the probe and the
test piece. Some applications require an immersion technique and some use
direct contact with aluminum and/or steel. Most shear-wave and longitudinal-
wave applications for weld inspections require phased array probes mounted on
a wedge. Impedance matching between the probe/wedge and the test piece may
be achieved by mechanical (matching layer) or

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 28 of 186

 electrical (fine tuning with the KLM model) methods. The main properties of
matching layers are listed in section 2.4.1, "Matching Layer and Cable
Requirements."

2.4.1 Matching Layer and Cable Requirements

The key points of matching layer and cable requirements are:

• Optimization of the mechanical energy transfer

• Influence on the pulse duration
• Contact protection for piezocomposite elements (wear resistance)
• Layer thickness of/4
The maximum electrical efficiency is obtained when the probe is matched to
the electrical impedance of both the transmitter and the receiver. The KLM
model6 takes into account all the steps along the transmission line of electrical
signals.

A good cable should have the following properties:

• Minimum gain drop due to cable length

• Low impedance—the ideal is 50
• Elimination/reduction of the cable reflections (cable speed: 2/3 vlight)
• Mechanical endurance for bending, mechanical pressure, accidental
drops
• Water resistance for all wires
• Avoidance of internal wire twists

A high value of d33 g33 represents a good transmitting-receiving energy. A

low mechanical Q means that the transducer has a higher bandwidth and better
axial resolution. The damping material placed behind the crystal can increase the
bandwidth value. The main properties of the backing material
are listed in section 2.4.2, "Backing Material."

2.4.2 Backing Material

The key features of backing material are:

• Attenuation of high-amplitude echoes reflected back from the crystal face

(high acoustic attenuation)
• Influence on pulse duration (damping)

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 29 of 186

2.5 Piezocomposite Manufacture

Piezocomposite materials were developed in the mid-1980s, primarily in the

United States, in order to improve the ultrasonic imaging resolution in
biomedical applications.

Piezocomposites used for transducers are fabricated using a 1-3 structure. A

piezocomposite is made of uniformly oriented piezoelectric rods embedded in an
epoxy matrix, as depicted in Figure 3-1. The piezo-ceramic embedded in a
polymer resin has a 1-D connectivity (that is, it is oscillating in one dimension
towards the test piece), while the polymer has a 3-D connectivity.

For example, PZT (lead zirconate titanate ceramic), in combination with

different polymer resins, has a higher d33 g33 value than its original parent
material (see Table 2.3).

Table 2-3 Values of d33 g33 for different combinations between PZT and polymer resins.1

1-3 PZT-polymer matrix d33 g33 (10-15 N/m)

combination

PZT + silicone rubber 190,400

PZT rods + Spurs epoxy 46,950

PZT rods + polyurethane 73,100

PZT rods + REN epoxy 23,500

The properties of 1-3 piezocomposite materials can be derived from Smith's

effective medium theory model3 and Finite Element Model (FEM)2 [see
Figure 2-19].

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 30 of 186

 Z(3)

Poling direction

Y(2)

Polymer matrix Ceramic post

X(1)

Figure 2-19 The 1-3 composite coordinates according to Smith's theory.3,5

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 31 of 186

2.6 Types of Phased Array Probes for Industrial Applications

The phased array probes used for industrial applications and their types of
focusing/beam deflections are listed in Table 2-4 and presented in Figure 2-20 to
Figure 2-24.

Table 2-4 Typical phased array probes widely available.

Type Deflection Beam shape Figure

Annular Depth - z Spherical Figure 2-20

1-D Linear planar Depth, angle Elliptical Figure 2-21

2-D matrix Depth, solid Elliptical Figure 2-22

angle

2-D segmented Depth, solid Spherical/ Figure 2-23

annular angle elliptical

1.5-D matrix Depth, small Elliptical Figure 2-24

solid angle

Figure 2-20 Annular phased array probes of equal Fresnel surfaces.

Figure 2-21 1-D linear phased array probe.

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 32 of 186

 Figure 2-22 2-D matrix phased array probe.

Figure 2-23 1.5-D matrix phased array probe.

Figure 2-24 Rho-theta (segmented annular) phased array probe.

Other types of phased array probes are presented in Figure 2-25 to Figure 2-29.

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 33 of 186

 Figure 2-25 1-D circular phased array probes ("daisy probes").

Pulse-echo
or
transmit-receive mode

Planar
or
curved interface
oc

oc i

Figure 2-26 Cluster phased array probe for small diameter pipe/tube inspection showing
typical beam angles (R/D Tech U.S. patent 2004/0016299AL).

Courtesy of Lockheed Martin AS and USAF, USA

Figure 2-27 2-D matrix conical phased array probe (R/D Tech U.S. patent 10-209,298).

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 34 of 186

 a b

c d

Figure 2-28 Mechanically focused phased array probes: (a) toroidal convex prefocused;
(b) annular concave; (c) linear concave; (d) linear convex.

Examples of focusing patterns for the commonly used probes are presented in
Figure 3-14 to Figure 3-16.

Figure 2-29 Spherical focusing (1-D depth) pattern and simulation of the beam profile for an
annular phased array probe.

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 35 of 186

 x

x-z plane x-y plane

x

1

2

Figure 2-30 Cylindrical focusing pattern (2-D; depth and angle) of linear phased array probe
for detecting a SCC at the inner surface and a fatigue crack at mid-wall; simulation of beam
profile for both depths.

Figure 2-31 Spherical/elliptical focusing pattern (3-D solid angle) of segmented annular
phased array probe and beam simulation at two depths and two angles. Note the noise
increase due to the grating lobes.

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 36 of 186

 x

y 1

Figure 2-32 Elliptical focusing pattern (3-D solid angle) of 2-D matrix phased array probe and
beam simulation for two depths and two angles.

2.7 Linear Arrays

Linear arrays are the most commonly used phased array probes for industrial
applications. Their main advantages are:

• Easy design
• Easy manufacturing
• Easy programming and simulation
• Easy applications with wedges, direct contact, and immersion
• Relatively low cost
• Versatile
The characteristic features of linear arrays are detailed in sections 2.7.1,

2.7.1 Active Aperture

The active aperture (A) is the total probe active length. Aperture length is given
by formula (below) [see also Figure 2-33]:

A = n• e + g•n - 1

where:

A = active aperture
g = gap between two adjacent elements. A practical value is e⁄ 2 .

Rev 0 Oct 2011 Page 37 of 186