The Hydrogen Economy - A Non-Technical Review-2006632

Hydrogen holds out the promise of a truly
sustainable global energy future. As a clean

energy carrier that can be produced from
any primary energy source, hydrogen used
in highly efficient fuel cells could prove to
be the answer to our growing concerns
about energy security, urban pollution and
climate change. This prize surely warrants
the attention and resources currently being
For more information, contact:
UNEP DTIE
THE HYDROGEN ECONOMY
directed at hydrogen – even if the Energy Branch
prospects for widespread
39-43 Quai André Citroën A non-technical review
commercialisation of hydrogen in the
75739 Paris Cedex 15, France
foreseeable future are uncertain.
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www.unep.fr/energy/
U N I T E D N AT I O N S E N V I R O N M E N T P R O G R A M M E
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ISBN: 92-807-2657-9
Cover photo © Shmuel M Bowles/iStockphoto.com

A non-technical review
The Hydrogen Economy
Contents
Acknowledgements 3
Introduction 4
The Hydrogen Economy and Sustainable Development 6

What is Hydrogen? 6
The Environmental Implications of Hydrogen 7
A Global Hydrogen Energy System 9
Technical and Cost Challenges 11

Hydrogen Production, Distribution and Storage 11
Fuel Cells for Mobile and Stationary Uses 14
Carbon Capture and Storage 17
The Transition to the Hydrogen Economy 20

Investment in Hydrogen Infrastructure 20
Government Support 23
Long-Term Projections of Hydrogen Use 25
Hydrogen and the Developing World 27

Relevance of Hydrogen to Developing Economies 27
Implications for National Energy Policy-making 28
Role of International and Non-Governmental Organisations 30
Key Messages 31
Annex A: Key Players in Hydrogen Research

and Development 33
National and Regional Programmes 33
Private Industry 37
International Cooperation 38
Annex B: References & Information Sources 39
2
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
This report was commissioned by the Division of Technology, Industry and

Economics of the United Nations Environment Programme. Mark Radka and
Daniel Puig managed the project, with scientific support from Jorge Rogat.
Trevor Morgan of Menecon Consulting was the principal author.
The report benefited from comments and suggestions from Gert Jan Kramer of
Shell Hydrogen, Hans Larsen of Risø National Laboratory (Denmark), Jianxin Ma of
Tongji University (China), Stefan Metz of Linde AG, Wolfgang Scheunemann of
Dokeo GmbH (Germany), Hanns-Joachim Neef of Germany and Thorsteinn I.
Sigfusson of Iceland (co-chairs of the Implementation and Liaison Committee of
the International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy) and Giorgio Simbolotti
of the International Energy Agency. Their help is gratefully acknowledged.
3
Introduction
There is a growing belief among policy-makers, environmental organisations,

energy analysts and industry leaders that hydrogen is the fuel of the future that
will revolutionise the way we produce and use energy. In the long term, our
reliance on finite fossil energy is clearly unsustainable, both environmentally and
economically. Soaring prices of oil in recent years have drawn attention to the
energy-security risks of relying on oil and gas, and have led to a growing
perception that the world is starting to run out of cheap fuel, hastening the need
to move to more secure and cleaner energy technologies. Hydrogen is widely
held to be the most promising of a number of such technologies that could be
deployed on a large scale in the foreseeable future. Replacing fossil fuels with
hydrogen in final energy uses could bring major environmental benefits – as long
as technical, environmental and cost challenges in the way hydrogen is
produced, transported, stored and used are overcome.
UNEP is following developments in hydrogen-energy technology with great

interest, as it holds out the prospect of providing the basis of a sustainable
energy future – one in which the environmental effects of energy production and
use are greatly reduced or eliminated. Indeed, the hydrogen economy will most
likely never become a reality unless it brings major environmental benefits. But
there are widespread misunderstandings about the role hydrogen could play in
the global energy system, how quickly it could be introduced commercially on a
large scale and its impact on the environment. UNEP believes that it is important
to keep countries, especially those in the developing world, informed about the
true potential, costs and benefits of hydrogen, and to counter popular
misconceptions.
In keeping with its mission to encourage and facilitate the adoption of

environmentally-friendly technologies, UNEP has decided to prepare this
informative document on the hydrogen economy. It sets out in non-technical
language the main issues surrounding the transition to a global energy system
based on hydrogen. It provides a sober assessment of the current state of
technology development, the technical and cost challenges that will need to be
overcome, and the prospects for commercial deployment. It also considers what
the emergence of hydrogen as a viable energy technology would mean for policy-
making – particularly in developing economies.
The first part of this report briefly describes how the hydrogen economy would
work and what it might mean for the environment. The following section reviews
the cost and technical challenges that will need to be overcome for hydrogen to
become commercially viable on a large scale. The next section discusses the
potential barriers to development of a hydrogen system and the need for
4
Introduction
government support, and describes long-term projections of hydrogen use. The

report then considers the relevance of hydrogen for developing economies and
what it could mean for national policy-making, and the role of international and
non-governmental organisations. A concluding section summarises the key
messages contained in this report.
Annex A describes the activities of key players in hydrogen energy research and
development. Annex B provides references to selected publications on hydrogen
and the addresses of relevant websites for readers looking to find out more about
hydrogen developments and programmes.
5
The Hydrogen Economy and Sustainable

Development
Interest in hydrogen as a way of delivering energy services has been

growing in recent years in response to heightening concerns about the
environmental impact of energy use and worries about the security of
fossil-fuel supplies. Hydrogen, as an energy carrier, can in principle
replace all forms of final energy in use today and provide energy
services to all sectors of the economy. The fundamental attraction of
hydrogen is its potential environmental advantages over fossil fuels.
At the point of use, hydrogen can be burned in such a way as to
produce no harmful emissions. If hydrogen is produced without
emitting any carbon dioxide or other climate-destabilising greenhouse
gases, it could form the basis of a truly sustainable energy system – the
hydrogen economy.
What is Hydrogen?
Hydrogen is the simplest, lightest and most abundant element in the universe,
making up 90% of all matter. It is made up of just one electron and one proton
and is, therefore, the first element in the periodic table. In its normal gaseous
state, hydrogen is odourless, tasteless, colourless and non-toxic. Hydrogen burns
readily with oxygen, releasing considerable amounts of energy as heat and
producing only water as exhaust:
2 H 2 + 02 ➛ 2 H 2 0
When hydrogen burns in air, which is made up mostly of nitrogen, some oxides
of nitrogen – contributors to smog and acid rain – are formed. Hydrogen is highly
flammable with a high flammability range, burning when it makes up 4% to 74%
of air by volume. It has a high energy content by weight – nearly three times that
of gasoline, for example. By contrast, hydrogen has a low energy density by
volume at a standard temperature and atmospheric pressure. One gramme of
hydrogen gas at room temperature occupies about 11 litres of space. Storing the
gas under pressure or at temperatures below minus 253º C, at which point it
turns into a liquid, raises its volumetric density.
Hydrogen is a carrier of energy, not a source (Box 1). It does not exist in a natural
state on earth and must be manufactured using a hydrogen-rich compound as
the raw material. Today, hydrogen is produced mainly through steam reforming
of natural gas, but it can be extracted from other hydrocarbons by reforming or
6
The Hydrogen Economy and Sustainable Development
partial oxidation. A major shortcoming of the processing of hydrocarbons is the

resulting emissions of carbon dioxide and airborne pollutants. Most other
production processes in use or under development involve the electrolysis of
water by electricity. This method produces no emissions, but is typically more
costly compared to hydrocarbon reforming or oxidation because it requires
more energy and because electricity is, in most cases, more expensive than fossil
fuels. Today, the commercial production of hydrogen worldwide amounts to
about 40 million tonnes, corresponding to about 1% of the world’s primary
energy needs. This output is primarily used as a chemical feedstock in the
petrochemical, food, electronics and metallurgical processing industries.
Box 1: Energy Sources and Carriers
Primary sources of energy such as coal, oil and natural gas store various forms of kinetic or potential energy. They
occur in a natural state. They can be burned directly in final uses to provide an energy service, such as heating
buildings, or they can be transformed into secondary energy sources for final consumption. Energy transformation
allows energy to be transported or delivered in more convenient or useable form. Electricity is the most common
secondary source of energy. Hydrogen is also a secondary source, as it must be produced using a hydrogen-rich
source. It can be converted to energy (heat) either through combustion or through an electrochemical reaction to
generate heat and electricity. Secondary sources are also known as energy carriers.
Hydrogen holds the potential to provide energy services to all sectors of the
economy: transportation, buildings and industry. It can complement or replace
network-based electricity – the other main energy carrier – in final energy uses.
Hydrogen can provide storage options for intermittent renewables-based
electricity technologies such as solar and wind. And, used as an input to a device
known as a fuel cell, it can be converted back to electrical energy in an efficient
way in stationary or mobile applications. For this reason, hydrogen-powered fuel
cells could eventually replace conventional oil-based fuels in cars and trucks.
Hydrogen may also be an attractive technology for remote communities which
cannot economically be supplied with electricity via a grid. Because hydrogen
can be produced from a variety of energy sources – fossil, nuclear or renewable
– it can reduce dependence on imports and improve energy security.
Replacing fossil fuels

The Environmental Implications of Hydrogen with hydrogen in
The fundamental attraction of hydrogen – and the main driving force behind providing energy
current research and development – is its environmental advantages over fossil services could bring
fuels. But hydrogen is only as clean as the technologies used to produce and use major environmental
it. Replacing fossil fuels with hydrogen in providing energy services could bring benefits, on condition
major environmental benefits, on condition that hydrogen is used in non- that hydrogen is used in
polluting fuel cells and that the carbon dioxide and noxious gases emitted in the fuel cells and that the
hydrogen-production process are reduced or eliminated. At the point of use, carbon dioxide and
burning hydrogen in the presence of oxygen in a fuel cell produces no harmful noxious gases emitted in
emissions, just electrical energy and water. The production of hydrogen can be the hydrogen-
emission-free if the energy used in the production process is derived from production process are
nuclear power or renewables, or, if based on fossil fuels, if the carbon dioxide reduced.
emitted is captured at the point of production and stored permanently.
7
Road transportation is an important and growing source of both air pollutants

and climate-destabilising greenhouse gases. There is clear evidence of the
harmful impact on human health of exposure to pollutants emitted by cars and
trucks. As a result, local air quality has become a major policy issue in almost all
countries. Air pollution in many major cities and towns in the developing world
has reached unprecedented proportions. Most rich, industrialised countries
have made substantial progress in reducing pollution caused by cars and trucks
through improvements in fuel economy, fuel quality and the installation of
emission-control equipment in vehicles. But rising road traffic has offset at least
part of the improvements in emissions performance.
Because of increasing pollution from road traffic, road vehicles have been the
focus of efforts to develop fuel cells. Replacing internal combustion engines
fuelled by gasoline or diesel with hydrogen-powered fuel cells would, in
principle, eliminate pollution from road vehicles. Fuel cells can also be used to
provide electrical-energy services in industrial processes and buildings, replacing
direct use of petroleum products, natural gas and coal.
Hydrogen could also contribute to reducing or eliminating emissions of carbon

dioxide and other greenhouse gases. For this to happen, the process of
manufacturing hydrogen would have to be carbon-free or at least less carbon-
intensive than current energy systems based on fossil fuels. This could be
achieved in one of three ways: through electrolysis using electricity derived
solely from nuclear power or renewable energy sources; through steam
reforming of fossil fuels combined with new carbon capture and storage
technologies; or through thermochemical or biological techniques based on
renewable biomass.
Despite the potential local and global environmental benefits of switching to

hydrogen, there are a number of uncertainties about other environmental
consequences of a large-scale shift towards a hydrogen economy. These concern
mainly the potential effects of significant amounts of hydrogen being released
into the atmosphere. The widespread use of hydrogen would make such releases
inevitable, but the effects are very uncertain because scientists still have a limited
understanding of the hydrogen cycle. Any build-up of hydrogen concentrations
in the atmosphere could have several effects, the most serious of which would
be increased water vapour concentrations in the upper atmosphere and,
indirectly, destruction of the ozone layer. Increased hydrogen releases could also
lower the oxidising capacity of the atmosphere, and so increase the lifetime of air
pollutants and greenhouse gases such as methane, hydro-chlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs) and hydro-fluorocarbons (HFCs). More research is needed to obtain a
better understanding of hydrogen sources and sinks.
Safety is a critical issue. Contrary to popular opinion, hydrogen is actually less

flammable than light oil products, such as gasoline, and most other fossil fuels
(Box 2). But the need to transport and store it under high pressure or at very low
temperature brings other hazards. There is plenty of evidence that, with proper
handling and controls, hydrogen can be as safe as the fuels in use today. Indeed,
hydrogen has a long history of safe use in industry. But, for it to become widely
accepted in other applications, it will become increasingly important to develop
8
The Hydrogen Economy and Sustainable Development
and implement internationally agreed rules, regulations, codes and standards

covering the construction, maintenance and operation of hydrogen facilities and
equipment safely, along the entire fuel-supply chain. Uniformity of safety
requirements and their strict enforcement will be essential to establishing
consumer confidence.
Box 2: Hydrogen Exonerated as the Cause of the Hindenburg Disaster

Televised images of the spectacular destruction of the Hindenburg airship affect people’s perception of hydrogen
and their acceptance of the gas as a safe energy carrier. The Hindenburg burst into flame in full view of a crowd of
reporters and newsreel cameras while landing in New Jersey, in the United States, on 6 May 1937. The flammability
of the hydrogen that fuelled the airship was blamed for the disaster, which effectively ended travel by airship. But a
1997 study by a retired National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) engineer, Addison Bain, concludes
that hydrogen played no part in starting the Hindenburg fire. According to the study, the paint used on the skin of
the airship, which contained the same component found in rocket fuel, was the primary cause of the fire. As the
Hindenburg docked, an electrical discharge ignited its skin, and a fire raced over the surface of the airship. Of the
37 people who died, 35 perished from jumping or falling to the ground. Only two of the victims died of burns, and
these were caused by the burning coating and on-board diesel. The hydrogen burned quickly, upward and away
from the people on board.
A Global Hydrogen Energy System

The transition to a hydrogen-energy system would represent the ultimate step on
the path away from carbon-based fossil energy. The world’s energy system has
been becoming gradually less carbon-intensive as it has moved from coal to oil
and then natural gas. The technology exists today to produce, store, transport and
convert hydrogen to useable energy in end-use applications, such as fuel cells.
Technologies to capture carbon dioxide and other gases released during the
process of producing hydrogen from fossil fuels and store them have also been
demonstrated. Almost every big car manufacturer plans to begin commercial
production of fuel-cell cars within a few years, and small fuel cells to supply power
to remote communities are already coming onto the market. Most of the major oil
companies have active hydrogen and carbon capture and storage programmes.
We can imagine today what the hydrogen economy might look like (Box 3).
Major technological and cost breakthroughs are needed before the hydrogen
economy can become a reality. The cost of supplying hydrogen energy using
current technologies, which have been developed over many decades, is still
very high compared to conventional energy technologies. And some major
technical problems need to be resolved. The main areas in which progress is
needed are fuel cells; hydrogen production from renewables; distribution and
storage infrastructure that meets environmental and safety criteria; and carbon
capture and storage, without which hydrogen may never become a viable energy
solution. Achieving this will require a lot more research and development.
Major technological
The pace of technological progress and its impact on lowering the costs of and cost breakthroughs
hydrogen supply is inevitably extremely uncertain and hard to predict. Indeed, it are needed before the
is by no means certain that hydrogen will ever become cost-competitive. Rapid hydrogen economy can
advances in carbon capture and storage technologies might allow us to continue become a reality.
using fossil fuels to generate electricity in an environmentally acceptable manner
9
Box 3: A Vision of the Hydrogen Economy

What might a hydrogen economy look like? Jump forward in time – perhaps 100 years, but possibly much less.
The world has made the transition to a hydrogen economy. An efficient and competitive hydrogen production,
storage and transport system has been built. Hydrogen has become widely accepted as a clean, safe and
sustainable form of energy. Emissions are a fraction of what they once were, even though the world’s population
and economy are now much larger. Cities and towns are filled with highly efficient hydrogen-powered vehicles
conveying people and goods, emitting only water vapour and driving along with only a gentle hum. Many of these
vehicles refuel at public stations where hydrogen supplies are received by pipeline from centralised production
facilities. Others fill their hydrogen tanks from home or at their workplace from either small-scale natural gas
reformers or renewable energy powered electrolysis plants, some using photovoltaics.
In this future world, home owners have the choice of buying electricity from the grid or supplying their own energy
needs with a dedicated fuel cell that provides electricity and thermal energy for heating and cooling. That fuel cell
uses hydrogen produced by a small reformer, using natural gas supplied through the local pipeline distribution
network. Electricity is produced in centralised power plants, using gasified coal or natural gas. The carbon emitted
is captured and piped to a storage site or converted to useful and safe solid products. Some of the hydrogen
produced is burnt in highly efficient gas turbines to provide electricity, and some is piped to customers for use in
vehicles and distributed generation plants. Renewable energy sources also contribute to both power and hydrogen
production. Hydrogen is used to store the intermittent energy generated from wind turbines and photovoltaics.
Source: Adapted from Commonwealth Government of Australia (2003).
and at an acceptable cost. The Earth’s resources of oil, natural gas and coal are
certainly large enough to meet our energy needs for many decades to come.
Improved electric batteries in cars and trucks or improved emissions performance
of technologies in use today could prove to be the preferred solution to urban
pollution problems. Renewable energy sources or nuclear power may turn out to
be a more cost-effective solution to the threat of global warming.
If hydrogen does emerge as a competitive energy carrier, it will not displace

existing systems overnight because of the slow pace at which much of the capital
stock that makes up the global energy system is replaced. And the widespread
deployment of carbon capture and storage technology – most likely a key
element of the hydrogen economy for as long as fossil fuels remain the world’s
main primary source of energy – will be a mammoth undertaking. The transition
to a hydrogen economy would, therefore, be gradual, possibly taking several
decades. The construction of entirely new supply infrastructure for hydrogen
distribution would undoubtedly be costly and risky, which might be a major
barrier to switching to hydrogen. And consumers must be convinced that
hydrogen is economical, practical and safe. Strong government incentives will
surely be needed to kick-start the transition process, in addition to continuing
major investments in research, development and demonstration.
10
Technical Cost and Challenges
Technical and Cost Challenges
Formidable technical and cost challenges will need to be overcome for

hydrogen to be able to compete with, and eventually replace, existing
energy technologies. The biggest advances are needed in
transportation and storage of the fuel, as well as in fuel cells in
vehicles. And technologies that capture the carbon dioxide emitted
when hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels and store it underground
need to be adequately demonstrated on a large scale. Large cost
reductions are needed – especially in the manufacture of fuel cells –
for hydrogen to become competitive with existing fossil fuel- and
renewables-based technologies. But recent advances in technology and
a surge in public and private spending on research, development and
demonstration suggest that the requisite technical and cost
breakthroughs might be achievable within a generation.
Hydrogen Production, Distribution and Storage

A critical hurdle on the road to the hydrogen economy is the efficient and clean
production of hydrogen. As an energy carrier, hydrogen has to be manufactured Steam reforming of
from a primary energy source. There are many industrial methods currently fossil fuels – a proven,
available for the production of hydrogen, but all of them are expensive compared commercial technology
with the cost of supplying the same amount of energy with conventional forms – is by far the cheapest
of energy (several times more expensive compared with fossil fuels). The way of making
distribution and storage systems that would be needed to supply hydrogen on a hydrogen and is likely
large scale are also much more expensive because of the low volumetric energy to remain so for the
density of the fuel. Bringing production, distribution and storage costs down foreseeable future.
sufficiently to make hydrogen a viable competitor to existing fuels will require
important technological advances.
Almost all the hydrogen produced in the world today involves the steam
reforming of fossil fuels using a nickel catalyst. At present, this is a proven,
commercial technology and is by far the cheapest way of making hydrogen on a
large scale. In most cases, natural gas (methane) is the raw material. The methane
first reacts with steam to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The carbon
monoxide, passed over a hot iron oxide or cobalt oxide catalyst, then reacts with
the steam to produce carbon dioxide and additional amounts of hydrogen:
CH4 (methane) + H2O (steam) ➛ CO (carbon monoxide) + 3H2 (hydrogen)

CO + H2O ➛ CO2 (carbon dioxide) + H2
11
Natural gas is usually the cheapest feedstock for producing hydrogen in steam
reforming. Even so, producing hydrogen from natural gas costs about two to
three times more than producing gasoline from crude oil – not including the cost
of capturing and storing the carbon dioxide produced in the process. A number
of countries are conducting research into how to improve the efficiency of steam
reforming of gas and other fossil fuels, and how to lower production costs.
Partial oxidation of methane is also used to produce hydrogen. The process

involves reacting the methane with oxygen to produce hydrogen and carbon
monoxide, which is then reacted with water to produce more hydrogen and
carbon dioxide. Overall conversion efficiency is generally lower than for steam
reforming, which is why the latter technique dominates commercial production
today and is expected to continue to do so.
Gasification of coal is the oldest technique for making hydrogen, and is still
used in some parts of the world. It was used to produce the “town gas” supplied
to cities in Europe, Australia and elsewhere before natural gas became available.
The coal is heated until it turns into a gaseous state, and is then mixed with
steam in the presence of a catalyst to produce a mixture of hydrogen (around
60%), carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and oxides of sulphur and nitrogen. This
synthesis gas may then be steam-reformed to extract the hydrogen, or simply
burned to generate electricity. Coal gasification for electricity production can be
more thermally efficient than conventional coal-fired power stations and less
polluting. Research into coal gasification is focused on handling the emissions of
sulphur and nitrogen oxides – major pollutants – and carbon dioxide, with and
without combustion of the synthesis gas in the plant.
Hydrogen can also be produced from biomass, such as crop residues, wood and
dung, using pyrolysis and gasification (thermochemical) techniques. These
processes produce a carbon-rich synthesis gas that can be reformed into
hydrogen in the same way as natural gas or coal-based synthesis gas. The
advantage of biomass over fossil fuels is that it produces no net emissions of
carbon dioxide, since the carbon released into the atmosphere was previously
absorbed by the plants through photosynthesis. But with the exception of
remote locations where biomass supplies are ample and cheap, biomass-based
hydrogen production costs are generally much higher than for fossil fuels. Purely
biological routes to producing hydrogen from biomass involving fermentation,
anaerobic digestion and metabolic processing techniques are also being
investigated, but are currently far from competitive compared with conventional
techniques based on fossil fuels.
Large reductions in the
cost of renewables-based Hydrogen production using water electrolysis is minimal today, because it
electricity and nuclear requires large amounts of electricity, which is expensive. This technique is
power are needed to normally used only to produce hydrogen of very high purity, required in some
enable hydrogen industrial processes, or other products, such as chlor-alkali, with hydrogen as a
produced by electrolysis by-product. But electrolysis could be used to produce small quantities of
to compete with hydrogen close to the point of use; for example, at refuelling stations. To be
conventional sources of economic, the electricity would need to be cheap. The environmental benefits of
energy on a large scale. electrolysis-based hydrogen energy depend on how the electricity is produced.
If it were generated from nuclear or renewable energy sources, such as wind,
12
solar and biomass, electrolysis would produce carbon-free hydrogen. But large
reductions in the cost of renewables-based electricity and nuclear power are
needed to enable hydrogen produced by electrolysis to compete with
conventional sources of energy on a large scale.
There is some scope for reducing the cost of producing hydrogen. In 2005, the
US Department of Energy set a new production-cost target of $2–3 per gallon of
gasoline equivalent (in 2005 prices) by 2015, regardless of the way the hydrogen
is produced. Achieving the target would require a halving of the current cost.
Steam reforming of natural gas or some other fossil-fuel feedstock is likely to
remain the cheapest way of producing hydrogen for the foreseeable future,
except where electricity is available at very low cost.
However hydrogen is produced, its widespread use will require large-scale

infrastructure to transport, distribute, store and dispense it as a fuel for vehicles or
for stationary uses. Because of its low volumetric energy density, hydrogen must be
compressed and stored as a gas in a pressurised container or chilled and stored in
a cryogenic liquid hydrogen tank for convenience. Both techniques have been
demonstrated and are in commercial use today, but they use significant amounts
of energy and the tanks are expensive to build and operate. The potential for
storing hydrogen safely and efficiently in a solid state is being investigated.
Transportation and distribution are faced with similar problems. Compressed

hydrogen can be transported by pipeline, but the energy-intensive nature of this
technique means that it is only economic over short distances. There are some
small hydrogen-pipeline systems in operation today, mostly in the United States
Box 4: Centralised versus Localised Hydrogen Production

Hydrogen can be produced in two ways: in large-scale centralised plants for bulk supply or in small, distributed
facilities using local energy inputs. The choice of production has important implications for fuel and infrastructure
needs. Centralised production would benefit from economies of scale. This would favour certain feedstocks or
technologies, including steam reforming and coal gasification. The main drawback is the need to build the
infrastructure to transport and distribute hydrogen, possibly over large distances. It may be possible to convert
existing gas pipelines to hydrogen, though compressors and valves might have to be modified or replaced.
Alternatively, mixing in small volumes of hydrogen – typically up to 15% by volume – with natural gas would avoid
the need for modifications to the gas distribution network, but separating the two gases at the point of delivery
would involve additional costs.
Distributed production – involving smaller plants sited close to centres of demand – may reduce delivery costs, but unit
production costs would most likely be higher, except perhaps where there is a local supply of cheap feedstock. One
benefit of decentralised production is that plants would require less investment and production could be scaled up to
meet demand in the earlier stages of market development. Another advantage is that, if natural gas is the preferred
feedstock, the existing natural gas distribution system could be used to supply hydrogen plants. The principal drawback
is that carbon capture would probably be much more expensive than in centralised plants. Water electrolysis may be
more suited to distributed than centralised production, depending on local availability of cheap electricity.
In practice, the choice between centralised and localised production will depend on cost and technological
developments. Centralised production may prove most cost-effective in the long term, but localised production
could still play an important role in some cases.
13
and Europe, but none exceed 200 kilometres in length. Over longer distances, it
is cheaper to transport hydrogen by road, rail or barge in cryogenic tanks. It is
then vaporised at the point of use. How successful research and development is
in bringing down the cost of transportation and storage methods will affect both
the viability of hydrogen as an energy carrier and whether centralised or localised
production prevails (Box 4).
Fuel Cells for Mobile and Stationary Uses

The fuel cell has a long history. It was invented by an Englishman, William Grove,
in 1839. The term “fuel cell” was coined later in 1889 by Ludwig Mond and Charles
Langer, who attempted to build the first practical device using air and industrial
coal gas. Fuel cells were used in the US and Soviet space programmes in the 1960s
and 1970s. Although hydrogen can be burned in conventional devices such as
boilers, turbines and internal combustion engines, fuel cells appear to be the best
technology to exploit hydrogen because of their high efficiency.
A fuel cell is a device that uses a hydrogen-rich fuel and oxygen to produce
electrical energy by means of an electrochemical reaction. The cell consists of
two electrodes – an anode (negative) and a cathode (positive) – sandwiched
around an electrolyte. Hydrogen is fed to the anode and oxygen to the cathode.
The electrolyte causes the proton and electron in each hydrogen atom to
separate and take different paths to the cathode. The electron goes through an
external circuit, creating an electrical charge. The proton migrates directly
through the electrolyte to the cathode, where it reunites with the electron and
reacts with the oxygen to produce water and heat (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Fuel Cell Configuration
hydrogen fuel excess fuel
anode
electrons
electrolyte protons
cathode
oxygen water and heat
14
Because there is no combustion, fuel cells give off no emissions other than water
vapour – for as long as the hydrogen is pure. Fuel cells are quiet and reliable as
there are no moving parts, and can be small. These attributes make fuel cells a
highly promising technology, especially for automotive vehicles. They can also be
used in stationary applications, to provide electricity or heat for buildings.
A number of prototype fuel-cell cars, buses and trucks have been or are being
demonstrated in various places around the world: the most recent models work
well and prove popular with end users. Most use the proton exchange or
polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) technology. PEM fuel cells operate at
relatively low temperatures of around 80° C, which allows a rapid start-up time
and causes less wear on system components. They have a higher power-to-
weight ratio than other types of fuel cell. However, they require a noble metal
catalyst, which adds to the cost. Other technologies under development include
the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), which uses a solid, non-porous ceramic
compound as the electrolyte, and operates at high temperatures; and the
alkaline fuel cell, which uses a potassium hydroxide solution as the electrolyte
together with non-precious metals as the catalysts at the anode and cathode,
operating at low to medium temperatures.
Several leading car manufacturers are working on demonstration fuel-cell cars,

some of which can travel up to about 500 kilometres before they need refuelling.
In June 2005, the American Honda Motor Company became the first automotive
manufacturer to lease a fuel-cell vehicle to an individual customer.
DaimlerChrysler has a fleet of around 100 small fuel-cell vehicles in operation in
several countries, and aims to begin commercial production in 2012. BMW plans
a production run of its new hydrogen-powered car in the hundreds by 2010, with
sales aimed at fleet operators and individuals in Europe and the United States.
The hydrogen fuels both an internal combustion engine for motive power and a
separate fuel cell to supply electrical power. Ford, General Motors and Toyota
also have major fuel cell development programmes. Most of the models currently
being developed are fuelled directly with hydrogen, without on-board reforming
of gasoline or methanol. The latter approach was originally the focus of fuel-cell
vehicle development as car manufacturers believed that it would be easier to
make use of the existing fuel-distribution infrastructure. Technical and
environmental problems have led most of them to abandon on-board reforming.
Stationary fuel cells, for on-site production of heat and electricity, are also
beginning to be commercialised. Their main use, at least in the near term, is
expected to be for auxiliary and distributed power generation. Later, smaller
units could be used to meet small-scale household needs for heat and electricity.
SOFC devices currently under development reform natural gas internally,
producing separate streams of hydrogen, which is supplied to the fuel cell, and
carbon dioxide, which can be captured. They have an electrical efficiency of up
to almost 56% and overall thermal efficiency of 88% (Larsen et al, 2004).
The essential drawback with fuel cells, whether used in vehicles, in building or
for power generation, is cost. After decades of research and development, a
hydrogen-powered fuel-cell vehicle still costs much more than an equivalent
gasoline or diesel model because of the cost of the fuel cell itself. The current
15
production cost of a saloon car (sedan) fitted with a fuel-cell system is thought
to be as much as $1 million, though car makers and fuel-cell manufacturers are
reluctant to reveal the true cost for commercial reasons. Fuel-cell buses cost
closer to $2 million. At present, the most competitive fuel cells cost up to fifty
times more per kW of engine power than a standard gasoline-fuelled internal
combustion engine, though fuel efficiency is twice as high.
Technical challenges also need to be addressed. There is a need to improve the

durability and dependability of fuel cells. Currently, fuel cells – particularly those
that operate at high temperatures – are prone to breaking down and have
relatively short operating lives. More important, there is a need to design a
practical system for on board storage of hydrogen. This is perhaps the biggest
challenge facing developers of fuel-cell vehicles – the consequence of hydrogen’s
very low energy density at atmospheric temperature and pressure. To carry
enough fuel to travel 400 kilometres, hydrogen would need to be compressed to
extremely high pressures to fit into a standard-size car fuel tank. At present, it is
possible to compress the gas to 700 bar. But even at that pressure, the tank has
to be 4.6 times larger than a normal gasoline tank to contain enough fuel to travel
as far as with gasoline. More research is needed to find affordable materials that
are strong enough to withstand the pressure and resist the impact in an accident,
yet light enough to carry in a normal car. Liquid storage for small vehicles faces
practical problems, because large amounts of energy are needed to liquefy the
hydrogen gas and maintain it at a temperature of minus 253° C. An alternative
storage method currently being investigated is to store the gas in solid form as
metal hydrides – alloys created through chemical processing – from which the
hydrogen could be released as needed. But such a system is heavy, reducing
vehicle fuel efficiency.
There have been major advances in fuel-cell technology over the last decade or
so, and this gives hope that fuel cells may one day be able to compete with
conventional vehicle technology on performance and cost (Box 5). This will
require yet more research and development. Bringing fuel cells into
Box 5: Competing Options in the Transport Sector

Hydrogen as a transport fuel is just one of several options for enhancing energy security and reducing emissions of
CO2 and noxious gases. In practice, hydrogen might exist alongside other fuels, creating a system that is much
more diverse than at present. The most promising options include the following:
● Biofuels: The United States and the European Union have ambitious plans to increase bio-ethanol, largely
derived from corn, and bio-diesel, based on seed crops such as rape. Costs have fallen sharply in recent years
but remain well above the cost of oil-based fuels – despite higher oil prices.
● All-electric vehicles: The efficiency of electric-battery vehicles, charged from the grid, can be higher than that of
hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles. But the driving range and the time it takes to recharge the battery are still major
hurdles to market deployment.
● More efficient internal combustion engines: These would reduce emissions from vehicles powered by
petroleum-based fuels. Hybrid technologies, which combine an electric battery recharged by an on-board
internal combustion engine, appear to have the greatest potential for raising efficiency in the near term.
16
commercial production will undoubtedly lower unit costs. In fact, car makers
are confident of achieving large cost reductions in just a few years. Toyota aims
to cut the cost of fuel-cell cars to $50,000 by 2015. General Motors aims to have
a car in full commercial production by 2010 with a fuel cell costing no more
than $5000. The US Department of Energy’s Fuel Cell Program has a goal of
lowering the cost of stationary fuel cells by a factor of ten to around $400 per
kW or less. This would be close to the current cost of a combined-cycle gas-
turbine power plant.
Carbon Capture and Storage

The prospects for the hydrogen economy becoming a reality in the foreseeable
future hinge on advances in carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology, and
its integration into hydrogen production based on fossil fuels. This is a necessary,
but not a sufficient, condition. Success in deploying CCS would also pave the way
for environmentally acceptable production of electricity using fossil fuels;
hydrogen would still have to compete against electricity in final energy uses,
including transport.
There are three distinct steps involved in CCS associated with hydrogen
production:
● Capturing CO2 from the flue-gas streams emitted during the production
process (pre-combustion capture).
● Transporting the captured CO2 by pipeline or in tankers.
● Storing CO2 underground in deep saline aquifers, depleted oil and gas
reservoirs or unmineable coal seams.
CO2 capture and transportation has been carried out for decades, albeit generally
on a small scale and not with the purpose of ultimately storing it. There is a need
to improve these technologies for them to be widely deployed on a large scale in
association with hydrogen production, and to lower the cost. At present, most
capture research and development is focused on post-combustion capture from
burning fossil fuels in power plants. Much more work also needs to be done on
carbon storage to demonstrate its viability and reduce the cost (Box 6).
Current carbon-capture technologies are capable of reducing emissions from

hydrogen plants using steam reforming by about 85%, allowing for the additional
emissions from the energy consumed in the capture process (IPCC, 2005). For
every tonne of hydrogen produced today, 9 tonnes of carbon dioxide is vented
into the atmosphere when natural gas is the feedstock and about 19 tonnes when
coal is used. It is possible today to reduce those emissions to 1.5-3 tonnes (IEA,
2004b). Bigger reductions may be possible in the future, by improving the
efficiency of both the hydrogen-production process and the capture technology.
However, the cost per tonne of carbon dioxide captured increases sharply with
each incremental improvement in the capture rate, so 100% capture is unlikely
ever to be economic.
17
Box 6: Current Carbon Capture and Storage Demonstration Projects

A number of CCS demonstration projects have been launched in recent years. In most capture projects, existing
technologies are applied at power plants. Various small-scale pilot plants based on new capture technologies are in
operation around the world. Only one power plant demonstration project on a megatonne-scale has so far been
announced: the FutureGen project in the US. This is a coal-fired advanced power plant for cogeneration of
electricity and hydrogen. Its construction is planned to start in 2007. Other demonstration projects are planned in
Canada, Europe, and Australia.
There are about a hundred ongoing and planned geologic storage projects. The two largest are in Norway and
Canada. The first is at the offshore Sleipner oil and gas field, where CO2 is stored in deep saline aquifers. About
1 million tonnes of the gas has been stored each year since 1996. No leakage has so far been detected. The
second involves the use of CO2 to enhance oil recovery and its subsequent storage underground at the Weyburn
oilfield in Canada. About 2 million tonnes per year have been stored since 2001. The results of both projects
suggest that the gas can be stored permanently without leakage or other major problems. Pilot projects suggest
that CO2-enhanced coalbed methane and enhanced gas recovery may also be viable storage methods.
Deep saline aquifers, depleted oil and gas reservoirs and unmineable coal seams
are the most promising options for underground CO2 storage. The capacity of
saline aquifers – the single largest potential storage option – might be large
enough to store decades-worth of global CO2 emissions. Another option is
storing the gas at the bottom of oceans, but the prospects are uncertain because
of the unknown environmental effects. Transforming CO2 into a solid and storing
it underground is still at a conceptual stage. All three storage options need to be
demonstrated on a large scale. A particular concern is whether the CO2 can leak
back into the atmosphere.
The future cost of CCS will depend on which technologies are used, how they
are applied, how far costs fall as a result of research and development and market
uptake, and fuel prices. Capturing CO2 from plants which co-generate electricity
and hydrogen might be more economical than stand-alone power or hydrogen
production with CO2 capture. Total CCS costs can be broken down into capture,
transportation and storage:
● Current estimates for large-scale capture systems are of the order of $25–50
per tonne of CO2 (IEA, 2004b). Costs are expected to fall significantly as the
technology is developed and deployed on a large scale, possibly to around
$10–25 for coal-fired plants and to $25–30 for gas-fired plants over the next
25 years.
● With CO2 transportation by pipeline, costs depend on the volumes being

transported and on the distances involved. For a large-volume system, costs
currently range from $1–5 per tonne of CO2 per 100 km.
● Storage costs depend on the type of site, its location and method of injection.
They are low relative to capture and transportation costs, at about $1–2 per
tonne of CO2. But in some parts of the world, storage sites are far from where
hydrogen plants would be built, which would add to the cost.
18
At present, the total cost of CCS typically ranges from $50 to $100 per tonne of
CO2. This is equivalent to about 15–30 US cents per gallon of gasoline, $20–40
per barrel of crude oil or 2–4 US cents per kWh – roughly equal to the current
cost of gas-fired power generation. By comparison, the average price of a permit
to emit one tonne of CO2 under the European Emission Trading Scheme was
around $28 in September 2005. CCS costs could drop significantly in future –
perhaps by half within the next 25 years – depending on funding for research and
development and the success of demonstration projects. In this case, CCS would
become competitive in Europe, even without any increase in carbon values.
CCS will not ensure a sustainable energy future, as fossil fuel resources are finite.
But, if integrated into the production of hydrogen and/or electricity, it could
provide the basis for a more sustainable energy system over a transitional period
lasting at least several decades. The planet’s fossil-fuel resources are far from
being depleted. Proven reserves of oil are equal to 40 years of current
production; natural gas reserves are equal to 67 years, and coal reserves, 164
years (BP, 2005). Exploration and improved production technologies that
enhance recovery rates will undoubtedly increase these reserves. In the very long
term, as fossil resources are eventually depleted, mankind will have no choice
but to turn to renewable energy technologies – if they have not become
competitive with fossil fuels associated with CCS before then.
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The Transition to the Hydrogen Economy
The transition to a hydrogen economy would require trillions of

dollars of investment in new infrastructure to produce, transport,
store and deliver hydrogen to end users, as well as to manufacture
fuel cells. The need to install carbon capture and storage systems will
add to the cost. Continuing government support for research and
development, and strong incentives to kick-start investment will be
essential. The transition to the hydrogen-energy system could take
several decades, because of the slow turnover of the existing stock of
capital that either makes or uses energy and the sheer amount of
capacity that would need to be built.
Investment in Hydrogen Infrastructure

The introduction of hydrogen on a large scale would require a radical
transformation of the global energy-supply system. A vast infrastructure to
produce, transport, store and deliver hydrogen, as well as to manufacture fuel
cells, would need to be built. And consumers would need to invest in hydrogen
fuel-cell vehicles and related equipment. The installation of facilities to capture
the carbon emitted in the production process and store it underground would
add to the cost, though this would be needed regardless of the choice of energy
carrier for as long as fossil fuels remain the primary source of energy. New
hydrogen and related infrastructure would be needed not just to replace existing
energy facilities, but also to meet rising global energy needs. This presents both a
challenge and an opportunity to introduce new hydrogen-energy infrastructure.
The total cost of building hydrogen infrastructure would depend on timing, the
pace of unit-cost reductions and the extent to which hydrogen replaces existing
Building enough energy systems. All these factors are very uncertain. Even if hydrogen were to
centralised hydrogen replace only conventional automotive fuels, the eventual investment cost
plants to supply the fuel worldwide along the entire fuel-supply chain – over and above what would have
needed to run all the been invested anyway – would certainly run to trillions of dollars, even on
cars, trucks and buses optimistic cost assumptions. Fuel-cell vehicles would probably account for a large
in use in the world part of the cost. If all of the estimated 800 million vehicles on the world’s roads
today would require a today were eventually replaced with fuel-cell models, the incremental
staggering $8 trillion production cost alone would be $2 trillion, on the hypothetical assumption that
of investment at each fuel-cell vehicle costs on average $2 500 more than a conventional vehicle.
current costs. The cost of building pipelines to supply hydrogen refuelling stations and
hydrogen plants would also be very large. For example, on current costs, building
20
enough centralised hydrogen plants to supply the fuel needed to run all the cars,
trucks and buses in use in the world today would require a staggering $8 trillion
in investment – not including the cost of carbon capture. This sum is equal to
almost half the total cumulative investment in the entire energy sector that the
International Energy Agency estimates will be needed worldwide over the next
quarter of a century (IEA, 2005a).
Cost is the principal barrier to investment in hydrogen. No private firm will invest
in a commercial hydrogen venture unless it believes that it will be able to
compete against existing fuels and turn a profit. Hydrogen is still far from being Hydrogen could become
competitive in most applications, but that could change with technological competitive with
breakthroughs and government incentives or mandates. If that is the case, the technological
opportunities for profitable development of hydrogen facilities would expand breakthroughs and
over time. Initially, investment may be limited to a few remote locations, where government incentives
the costs of fuel distribution and electricity infrastructure are relatively high, or mandates.
where public concern about environmental sustainability is especially strong and
where governments provide large incentives. As the market develops mass
production of supply equipment and fuel cells will bring economies of scale,
advance the learning process and further lower costs.
But cost is not the only barrier to investment. As with any radically new
technology, hydrogen could face the classic chicken-and-egg conundrum: the
lack of a market in the first place deters investment, preventing the market from
developing. Put another way, why develop hydrogen cars when there is no
distribution network, and why develop a distribution network if there are no
hydrogen cars? Hydrogen use will not take off until critical market mass is
achieved. The market needs to be large enough to demonstrate to potential
users and fuel providers that hydrogen is a safe, reliable and cost-effective
alternative to conventional fuels. The more fuel-cell vehicles there are on the
road, the more confidence other vehicle owners will have to switch fuels. And
the hydrogen refuelling network would have to be developed quickly: a lack of
refuelling stations would be a major impediment to persuading vehicle owners
to switch to hydrogen, even if there were a financial incentive to do so.
The sheer scale of investment in a hydrogen project, together with inherent

technical and financial risks, could also discourage private companies. Government
intervention in the form of financial incentives and regulatory measures that tilt the
playing field in favour of hydrogen will almost certainly be necessary to get around
this problem, especially where the economic case for hydrogen is marginal (see
below). A strong, long-term commitment by government to the development of
hydrogen infrastructure will be essential in giving fuel suppliers, equipment
manufacturers and consumers confidence that they will be able to make a
reasonable return on the investments required to switch fuels.
In the early stages of the transition – or more accurately, series of transitions – to

hydrogen, the fuel would both complement existing energy systems and
compete against them (Figure 2). The inter-linkages that could emerge could
make the energy system more flexible, more diversified and more secure. Natural
gas and coal would probably provide the main inputs to hydrogen production,
while also remaining important inputs to electricity-generating plants. Gas would
21
also continue to play a role in meeting energy needs in stationary uses in industry
and in buildings, and possibly in the transport sector as well (in the form of
compressed natural gas). It might also prove economic to mix hydrogen with
natural gas for distribution through the existing gas-pipeline system.
Figure 2: Linkages between Hydrogen and the Rest of the Energy System
Wind, nuclear and Biomass Coal Natural gas

solar power
Gasification
Electrolysis Steam reforming
Hydrogen production
Hydrogen storage
Vehicles Buildings/industry Thermal power

generation
Primary energy
Hydrogen
Electricity
Source: Menecon Consulting analysis.
Hydrogen would compete against electricity and gas, as well as oil, in all final
energy uses, but might also complement electricity by providing a means of
storing it. This could be a particularly attractive solution for handling
unpredictable fluctuations in outputs from intermittent sources of power
generation, such as wind power, and for managing diurnal or seasonal load
variations. Local hydrogen-storage facilities would reduce the need for expensive
investments in transmission capacity connecting centralised power stations to
where electricity service is needed. They would enhance the security of
electricity supply, by providing back-up in the event of a failure at a power station
or in the transmission system.
22
Government Support
For the transition to the hydrogen economy to begin, there will most likely be a
need for decisive government action in two areas:
● Research, development and demonstration of hydrogen technologies. This

effort could be vital to achieving the necessary technological breakthroughs.
● Incentives to encourage investment in hydrogen infrastructure and switching

to the fuel once technologies are deemed to be economic.
Because hydrogen is a long way from becoming competitive, the focus of

government action today in the field of hydrogen is in research and development Research into the use of
(R&D). Research into the use of hydrogen for energy purposes goes back many hydrogen for energy
decades, but the scale of public (and private) funding for hydrogen and fuel cell purposes goes back
R&D and demonstration activities has increased enormously in the last few years. many decades, but
This reflects significant technological advances that make it more likely that the funding has increased
fuel will become a viable energy solution in the not too distant future, as well as enormously in the last
a growing urgency on the part of policy-makers to seek out sustainable energy few years.
solutions that address environmental and energy-security concerns. Many
governments now expect the transition to the hydrogen economy to begin
within the next two decades and are looking to speed up the process, often
through collaborative international and joint private-public sector programmes.
The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that current public hydrogen
R&D spending worldwide amounts to about $1 billion per year (IEA, 2004a).
This spending might seem impressive, but is actually modest compared to the
sums governments are spending on other forms of energy R&D. In member
countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD), hydrogen accounts for only about 15% of total energy R&D budgets.
R&D spending on hydrogen is thought to exceed that on fossil fuels and
renewables, but is still much lower than that on nuclear energy. In 2001 – the
latest year for which comprehensive data is available – OECD countries spent
$3.8 billion on nuclear energy, $700 million on fossil fuels and $760 million on
renewables (IEA, 2004d). Total OECD R&D spending in that year was $8.9
billion. Official data may underestimate the importance of hydrogen R&D, as
some activities related to hydrogen are covered by fossil-fuel, nuclear energy
and end-use technology programmes.
By far the largest hydrogen programmes are in the United States, Japan and the
European Union (Table 1). Between them, these countries account for about two-
thirds of total public hydrogen R&D spending. The US administration sharply
increased funding, with the launch in late 2003 of a five-year $1.7 billion hydrogen
programme. This includes $1.2 billion for the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative and $0.5
billion for the FreedomCAR programme, a joint initiative between the US
Department of Energy, General Motors, Ford and DaimlerChrylser to develop a
commercially viable fuel-cell vehicle. Japan – the first country to undertake a large-
scale hydrogen fuel-cell R&D programme – has allocated ¥35 billion ($320 million)
to its hydrogen-research activities in the financial year 2005. Total EU funding – not
including national budgets – is expected to reach €2.8 billion over the ten years to
2011, half of which will be provided by the private sector. Of this amount,
23
production-related projects will account for €1.3 billion and end-use projects for
€1.5 billion. Other industrialised countries account for almost all the rest, though
some developing economies – notably China, Brazil and India – have launched
their own programmes. Details of national and collaborative international
programmes, as well as private-sector activities, can be found in Annex A.
Table 1: Public Research and Development Spending on Hydrogen and Other Energy
Technologies in the Largest OECD Countries, 2003 ($ million)
Hydrogen Fossil fuels Renewables Nuclear Other Total
Canada* 24 47 30 47 92 240
Japan 270 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Germany* 34 14 74 154 25 301
France** 45 33 27 359 0 463
Italy 34 15 61 107 124 341
United Kingdom 3 5 20 n.a. n.a. n.a.
United States* 97 416 243 371 1623 2750
* Federal spending only. ** 2002 data.
Source: International Energy Agency (2004d).
Despite recent increases in public spending on hydrogen R&D, it is still dwarfed

by that of private companies and organisations, including energy companies, car
makers, chemical producers, power utilities and fuel-cell manufacturers. The
total amount of private hydrogen-related R&D spending is not known precisely,
but it is thought to total about $3-4 billion per year. This gives an indication of
how optimistic the private sector is about the prospects for hydrogen. However,
much of this spending would probably not occur without matching
commitments from the public sector. Many private research bodies work in
partnership with publicly-funded programmes. A continued strong government
commitment to R&D will remain a key determinant of the success of long-term
efforts to bring hydrogen energy into commercial use.
Government incentives will almost certainly be needed to encourage the

development of the hydrogen market as the technology approaches the
threshold of competitiveness. Such incentives could be justified by the long-term
social, economic and environmental benefits that a shift to hydrogen would
bring. They could take the form of favourable taxation vis-à-vis conventional
forms of energy, other economic incentives or regulatory measures aimed at
speeding up the switch to hydrogen. They might come on top of carbon
penalties, in the form of carbon taxes or emission caps, which would most likely
favour hydrogen. These subsidies would normally be removed once scale
economies have been achieved, the technology is well proven and critical market
mass has been reached. There are plenty of precedents for proactive government
action to effect a shift in the pattern of energy use through the use of market
instruments. For example, governments in continental Europe used preferential
24
taxes to encourage the development of the natural gas transmission and

distribution network.
Governments will also need to work with fuel providers, equipment

manufacturers, car makers and standard-setting bodies to establish appropriate
standards and codes for designing, building, testing and ultimately marketing
hydrogen-related equipment. They will be crucial to ensuring safety and
lowering costs. International harmonisation of standards would encourage
trade and avoid parallel development of incompatible equipment and
technology lock-in with different standards, further driving down costs.
Governments will also be called upon to assist in promoting public awareness
about the benefits of hydrogen, as well as the training and education of
industry personnel.
Long-Term Projections of Hydrogen Use

It is extremely hard to predict how soon the transition to hydrogen as an energy
carrier might begin and how long it might take, as it depends critically on
technology breakthroughs in a number of different areas. It is impossible to
know when these might occur and the extent to which they will lower costs and
enhance the competitiveness of hydrogen vis-à-vis conventional forms of energy.
As a result, all long-term projections of hydrogen use are based on assumptions
about supply costs.
However successful current hydrogen R&D efforts are in bringing down costs
and improving performance, the transition process to a hydrogen economy If competitive hydrogen
would undoubtedly be gradual, probably lasting several decades. The planning, technologies were to
construction, operation and decommissioning of energy infrastructure stretch emerge within the next
over very long timeframes. Cars and trucks typically last a decade or two, but twenty years, it would
power stations, oil refineries and pipelines are built to last for decades. Retiring probably take most of
them early would be very expensive. And the widespread deployment of carbon the rest of this century to
capture and storage technology will be a mammoth undertaking. Mobilising all complete the transition
the investment needed to completely overhaul the entire existing energy system to a hydrogen economy.
within a decade or two would simply not be practical, even if we were prepared
to pay the enormous cost of phasing out existing energy facilities early. So, even
if competitive hydrogen technologies were to emerge within the next 20 years, it
would probably take most of the rest of this century to complete the transition
to the hydrogen economy – a stage at which only hydrogen and electricity are
used to deliver energy services.
The leading sources of long-term global energy projections, including the US

Energy Information Administrations’ International Energy Outlook 2005 and
the IEA’s World Energy Outlook 2005, project hydrogen to play only a marginal
role in meeting final energy needs in the next 20-25 years. However, both reports
acknowledge that major technological breakthroughs could result in earlier and
faster market penetration. Longer-term scenarios developed by the IEA paint a
slightly more optimistic outlook for hydrogen use: in a scenario that assumes a
$50 per tonne carbon-dioxide penalty, hydrogen use, mostly for transport,
reaches almost 300 million tonnes of oil equivalent – enough to fuel over a
quarter of all passenger cars in the world. Fuel cells also play a significant role in
25
industry, power generation and the residential and commercial sectors.
All projections of hydrogen use are, of course, highly sensitive to assumptions

about the rate at which the unit costs of different components of a hydrogen-
energy system decline over time. The technology-learning curves observed for
technologies in the past vary considerably, so it is hard to be sure about what
might reasonably be expected in the way of cost improvement for hydrogen
technologies. How many resources are devoted to research and development
will be vitally important, as will the commitment of energy providers and vehicle
manufacturers to large-scale commercial production. Government incentives
and regulations, including carbon penalties, to encourage investment in
hydrogen infrastructure will also play a key role.
26
Hydrogen and the Developing World
Developing economies have at least as much to gain from a move

towards the hydrogen economy as industrialised ones, since they
generally suffer more from urban pollution and their economies tend
to be more energy intensive. Yet the transition will probably start later
in most developing nations, as they are less able to afford to
participate in R&D and the financial incentives needed to kick-start
the process. The rich world must be ready to support developing
economies in making this happen, as and when it becomes a viable
energy solution, to the benefit of the overall push for hydrogen.
International and non-governmental organisations have an
important role to play in assisting countries in creating a market-
based policy environment within which hydrogen and other emerging
energy technologies are able to compete against existing, conventional
energy systems.
Relevance of Hydrogen to Developing Economies

Although most current hydrogen R&D is taking place in the industrialised
countries, developing economies have as much – if not more – to gain from Developing economies
moving to the hydrogen economy. Their towns and cities generally suffer far more have as much – if not
from the pollution caused by road traffic, coal-fired power stations and industrial more – to gain from
boilers. Many developing economies are more economically vulnerable to moving towards a
fluctuations in international energy prices, as their economies are more energy- hydrogen economy than
intensive. The poorest countries lacking appreciable resources of fossil fuels may industrialised ones.
be able to exploit their biomass and other renewable energy potential to produce
hydrogen. The entire world stands to benefit from the deployment of hydrogen
in developing economies, if it leads to fewer emissions of greenhouse gases and
less regional pollution, and if it stimulates economic development.
The transition to hydrogen is likely to begin later in most developing economies

than in the industrialised countries, as they will be less able to afford the cost of
participating in R&D. But engaging developing economies early in the process of
developing and commercialising hydrogen technologies could speed up the
transition to hydrogen in the developing world. This could allow the poorest
countries, which today have only limited energy-distribution networks, to
leapfrog conventional fossil-fuel technologies. The developing economies as a
whole are expected to account for the bulk of the increase in global energy use
27
The earlier developing in the coming decades. Most of that increase will take the form of oil, natural gas
economies begin the and coal – unless there are breakthroughs in technology or radical shifts in
transition to hydrogen, energy policy that allow renewables and/or nuclear energy to play a much bigger
the less their energy use role than currently appears likely. The earlier these countries begin the transition
would be tied to fossil- to hydrogen, the less their energy use would be tied to fossil-energy systems and
energy systems. the quicker they could achieve energy sustainability.
The initial focus of efforts to establish hydrogen systems in developing

economies will most likely be on transport and possibly on stationary uses in
remote, rural settings where the cost of connecting communities to the
electricity grid is highest. The local environmental gains from switching from
conventional automotive fuels to hydrogen would generally be much greater in
developing than in industrialised countries, where automotive-fuel quality and
vehicle-emission control technology is already much more advanced and air
pollution is consequently less of a problem. In most cities in the developing
world, road traffic is the primary source of air pollution – a problem that has
reached catastrophic proportions in many cases. Demonstration projects of fuel-
cell vehicles and refuelling systems are already underway in parts of the
developing world. The joint Global Environment Facility / United Nations
Development Programme Fuel Cell Bus Programme, for example, involves
commercial demonstrations in Beijing, Cairo, Mexico City, New Delhi, Sao Paulo
and Shanghai. China has also set up its own fuel-cell bus demonstration scheme,
with the aim of putting 200 buses into commercial operation in time for the 2008
Olympic Games in Beijing.
The local availability of biomass, solar energy and wind resources could
provide the basis for the production of hydrogen in those countries where
fossil fuel resources are scarce. This would preclude the need to capture and
store carbon dioxide. Biomass, in particular, could be a low-cost option for
some countries. The modular nature of fuel cells makes them an attractive
option for supplying power to remote, off-grid communities. Hydrogen could
provide a means of storing electrical energy generated from intermittent solar
or wind energy.
Implications for National Energy Policy-making

What should the governments of developing economies be doing today in
anticipation of an eventual transition to a hydrogen economy? For the largest and
richest countries, active involvement in hydrogen research and development,
especially through collaborative international programmes, could facilitate the
introduction of new hydrogen technologies as they become competitive. Brazil,
China and India have launched their own hydrogen programmes and are
members of the International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy (see Annex
A for details). But, with the exception of China, the resources that they will be
able to devote to these activities will inevitably remain modest compared to
those of the biggest industrialised countries. For the poorest developing
economies, a strong commitment to research and development is simply beyond
their means. Most developing economies will probably be buyers rather than
developers of cutting-edge technologies.
28
As hydrogen technologies approach the stage at which they are ready to be

commercialised, policy-makers will need to pay more attention to the
implications for the transition to hydrogen of immediate decisions about
investment in large-scale conventional energy infrastructure. As developing
economies grow richer, they will build thousands of power plants, as well as new
refineries and pipeline systems. These facilities will be intended to last many
decades. Replacing them before the end of their economic lifetimes would be
very expensive. There is a risk that a decision taken today to pursue a
conventional energy project will hinder the introduction of hydrogen
technologies at some point in the future, by anchoring the energy system to
fossil fuels. There is inevitably a trade-off between the benefits of providing
modern energy services today and developing a sustainable energy system in the
longer term. There is an urgent need to make available those services to the two
billion people in the developing world that do not yet have them. Waiting for
affordable clean energy solutions to emerge is neither a practical nor a morally
acceptable option.
The best way to ensure that energy investment is undertaken in the most
economically efficient manner is to establish a market-based policy framework. The best way to ensure
The aim should be to establish competitive markets and effective mechanisms for that energy investment
regulating natural monopolies, and to make sure that energy is priced correctly. is undertaken in the
In properly regulated, well-functioning markets, competition ensures that the full most economically
costs of supplying energy are reflected in the price the consumer pays. In practice, efficient manner is to
this is often far from the case. In many developing economies, energy is heavily make sure that energy is
subsidised, leading to excessive consumption and waste, and exacerbating the priced and taxed
harmful effects of energy use on the environment. Subsidies can also place a correctly.
heavy burden on government finances and undermine private and public
investment in the energy sector, impeding the expansion of distribution networks
and the development of more environmentally benign energy technologies.
Getting energy prices right does not stop there. The environmental and health
costs of harmful emissions from burning fossil fuels are rarely reflected in the
prices of those fuels, especially coal, in most countries – developing and
industrialised alike. There is no perfect way to do this, but one sensible approach
is for governments to tax the consumption of each form of energy according to
how much carbon dioxide and/or noxious gases it emits. At a minimum, the
dirtiest fuels should be taxed more. In that way, the external environmental costs
are reflected, or internalised, in the final prices for energy, and the polluter pays
proportionately for the damage he causes. Alternatively, the authorities can
impose emission limits on each power plant or industrial facility and allow the
owners to trade emission allowances – the approach adopted by the European
Union to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Both approaches provide an
incentive for power generators and end users to reduce their use of dirty fuels
such as coal in conventional plants and to invest in clean technologies, including
CCS, renewables and hydrogen.
The prospects for the commercial introduction of hydrogen in developing

economies would be much brighter were governments to pursue market,
pricing and tax reforms along these lines. There may be a case for more targeted
action to spur the take-up of hydrogen – especially in the transport sector and
29
in rural communities that lack access to modern energy. Rural energy

development plans could be modified to support the building of physical
linkages between hydrogen, renewable technologies and off-grid systems to
supply electricity and other forms of commercial energy to rural areas not yet
served by existing distribution networks. This could be justified by the market
barriers to the deployment of hydrogen and its long-term social, environmental
and economic benefits.
Role of International and Non-Governmental Organisations

The rich world will need to help poorer countries to switch to cleaner energy.
The G8 leaders attending the Gleneagles summit in July 2005 acknowledged that
it is in their interests to work together with developing economies to find ways
to achieve substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance
private investment in more sustainable energy technologies – including
hydrogen – and their transfer to those countries. The rich world must be ready
to help pay for the poor to switch to low-carbon energy. This should not be seen
as charity, but rather as part of a cost-effective strategy to address the threat of
global warming.
International and non-governmental organisations – including UNEP – have an

important role to play in this process. It is not for any organisation to try to pick
winners among the various energy technologies that could emerge in the coming
years. The aim should rather be to assist developing economies in creating an
energy-policy landscape that promotes efficient, competitive markets, and in
facilitating the rapid introduction of hydrogen energy as and when it reaches
competitiveness. This will require energy to be priced and taxed so as to reflect
the full account of the environmental costs and benefits of different
technologies. The scale of the challenge should not be underestimated: the
energy-market and pricing reforms that are necessary to make this happen are
thorny issues in many developing economies. Development aid, multilateral
lending institutions and export-credit agencies will need to play a central role in
providing technical assistance to help developing economies along this path, as
well as to supply the capital needed to bring hydrogen projects to fruition.
UNEP will play its part in encouraging and facilitating the adoption of hydrogen
and other emerging technologies where they are economic and where they bring
clear environmental benefits – especially in developing economies. This will
involve informing and educating stakeholders, including policy-makers and
national and multilateral development-aid funds about the environmental
implications of hydrogen. To this end, UNEP is investigating various platforms for
disseminating information and advice about hydrogen and fuel-cell
developments. Later, UNEP will be on hand to assist countries in preparing for
the introduction of hydrogen on a commercial scale.
30
Key Messages
Key Messages
Hydrogen holds out the promise of a truly sustainable global energy future. As a
clean energy carrier that can be produced from any primary energy source,
hydrogen used in highly efficient fuel cells could prove to be the answer to our
growing concerns about energy security, urban pollution and climate change.
This prize surely warrants the attention and resources currently being directed at
hydrogen – even if the prospects for widespread commercialisation of hydrogen
in the foreseeable future are uncertain.
Considerably more research and development will be needed to overcome the

formidable technical and cost hurdles that currently stand in the way of
hydrogen. Large reductions in unit costs, notably in bulk transportation and
storage, and in fuel cells, are needed for hydrogen to become competitive with
existing energy systems. Finding a practical solution to the problem of storing
hydrogen on board vehicles is a critical challenge. Governments, energy
companies, car makers and equipment manufacturers, who between them are
investing billions of dollars in hydrogen-supply and fuel cell R&D and
demonstration, are confident that these challenges can be overcome.
Unexpected technological breakthroughs stemming from advances in basic
sciences, which could have a revolutionary impact on hydrogen supply and fuel
cells, cannot be ruled out.
If technological and cost breakthroughs were to be achieved in the near future, the
transition to a hydrogen energy system would still take several decades. The slow
turnover of the existing stock of capital that either makes or uses energy and the
sheer amount of capacity that would need to be built to replace existing systems
and to meet rising demand will mean that fossil fuels will most likely remain the
backbone of the global energy system until at least the middle of the century.
It seems likely that, in the initial stages of any transition to the hydrogen
economy, the fuel would be produced in large part from fossil fuels using existing
energy systems. Natural gas, in particular, could provide a “bridge” between the
existing fossil fuel economy and the future hydrogen economy. If integrated with
carbon capture and storage, hydrogen could be produced from gas or coal with
minimal emissions of greenhouse gases. In the longer term, as fossil fuel
resources are depleted, renewable energy sources or nuclear energy would
increasingly need to take over as primary energy sources for the production of
hydrogen and electricity.
Developing economies have at least as much as industrialised countries to gain

from an eventual shift to the hydrogen economy, since they generally suffer more
from urban pollution and their economies tend to be more energy intensive. But
31
that process may start later in most developing economies, as they are less able
to afford to participate in hydrogen R&D. They could speed up the commercial
introduction of hydrogen by establishing a market-based policy framework that
ensures that energy is priced and taxed efficiently. In any event, the rich world
must be ready to support developing economies in moving onto more
sustainable energy paths. International and non-governmental organisations
have an important role to play in assisting countries in creating a policy
environment within which hydrogen – and other emerging energy technologies
– can penetrate the market, as and when it becomes a viable energy solution.
32
Annex A: Key Players in Hydrogen Research and Development
Annex A: Key Players in Hydrogen Research

and Development
National and Regional Programmes

Most OECD countries and a growing number of developing economies have active
hydrogen and fuel-cell R&D programmes, with aggregate public funding
worldwide now running at about $1 billion per year. Fuel cells account for about
half of this spending. Most of the rest is devoted to production, transportation and
storage, with small amounts going to end-use technologies not based on fuel cells,
such as gas turbines and internal combustion engines. Total spending has
increased sharply in the last few years. The biggest increases in funding in dollar
terms have occurred in the United States and the European Union. Almost all other
countries that undertake hydrogen R&D have also stepped up their activities.
Some countries have integrated R&D programmes that cover all elements of
hydrogen supply and end uses. Others focus on specific aspects. In each case,
the balance of funding between different research areas reflects a mixture of
national policy priorities, indigenous resource endowment, and research
traditions and strengths. For example, the COAL21 programme in Australia, a
country with very large coal reserves, covers hydrogen production from coal
integrated with CCS. Germany places heavy emphasis on fuel cells for vehicles,
reflecting the country’s traditional strength in vehicle manufacturing.
United States
The US government carries out most of its hydrogen and fuel-cell R&D under the
Hydrogen, Fuel Cells and Infrastructure Technologies Program, run by the
Department of Energy. The government’s strategy is to concentrate funding on
high-risk applied research on technologies in the early stages of development,
and leverage private-sector funding through partnerships. The administration
sharply increased funding in 2003, with the launch of a five-year $1.2 billion
hydrogen development programme, known as the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative. An
additional $500 million has been earmarked for the FreedomCAR and Fuel
Program, a joint private/public initiative to develop a fuel-cell vehicle (see below).
The Department of Energy has identified four phases in the transition to the
hydrogen economy (Figure 3). In phase 1, government and private organisations
will conduct R&D, implement technology-demonstration projects, carry out
public education and develop codes and standards. In 2015, the administration
will determine whether or not hydrogen technologies can be commercialised in
the near term and whether R&D should be continued. The second initial market
penetration phase is expected to begin as early as 2010. The government will
subsidise the modification of existing infrastructure to support stationary and
transport hydrogen applications. If the commercialisation decision is positive,
33
the federal government will continue with phase 2 and launch phase 3, which
will involve building large-scale infrastructure for manufacturing fuel cells and
distributing hydrogen. Subsidies are expected to remain in place to maintain the
momentum. The final phase 4, the realisation of the hydrogen economy, is
expected to begin in 2025.
Figure 3: Transition to the Hydrogen Economy Envisaged by the US

Hydrogen Programme
Strong government R&D role Strong industry commercialisation role
Technology development
PHASE I
Research to meet customer

requirements and establish RD&D
business case leads to a
commercialisation decision
Commercialisation decision
Initial market penetration
PHASE II
Portable power and stationary

transport systems begin Transition to
commercialisation; infrastructure the marketplace
investment begins with governmental
policies
Infrastructure investment
PHASE III
H2 power and transport systems

commercially available; infrastructure Expansion of markets
business case realised and infrastructure
Fully developed market and

PHASE IV
infrastructure phase
H2 power and transport systems Realisation of Hydrogen Economy
commercially available in all regions;
national infrastructure
Source: www.hydrogen.gov/president.html
Japan
Japan was the first country to undertake a large-scale hydrogen fuel cell R&D
programme – a ten-year, ¥18 billion ($165 million) effort that was completed in
2002. The New Hydrogen Project (NEP), which started up in 2003, focuses on
commercialisation. Funding has been raised each year since the project began,
reaching ¥35 billion ($320 million) in the financial year 2005. The Japanese
government is confident that, with continuing strong financial support,
hydrogen fuel cells can become competitive within the next two decades.
The NEP sets ambitious targets for the introduction of fuel-cell vehicles,
refuelling stations and stationary fuel-cell capacity for 2010 and 2020 (Table 2).
Implementation is due to occur in three stages. The initial stage, which ran
through to 2005, focused on continued technology development, fuel cell
demonstrations and the development of codes and standards. The induction
stage, which will run to 2010, involves the acceleration of vehicle sales in parallel
with the construction of refuelling infrastructure. The diffusion stage, which will
run from 2011 to 2020, will step up initiatives to build infrastructure started in
the second stage.
34
Table 2: Hydrogen Commercialisation Targets in Japan
2010 2020
Fuel-cell vehicles on the road (number) 50,000 5,000,000
Hydrogen refuelling stations (number) - 4000
Stationary fuel-cell co-generation systems (MW) 2200 10,000
Source: International Energy Agency (2004a).
European Union
Most EU funding for hydrogen-related activities is provided under the Renewable
Energy Sixth Framework Programme, which runs from 2002 to 2006. Some
€100 million ($120 million) of EU funds, matched by an equivalent amount of
private investment, has been awarded to R&D and demonstration projects for
hydrogen and fuel cells after the first call for proposals in 2003. Further calls for
R&D proposals, worth a public and private investment of €300 million (of which
EU funding will amount to €150 million), are planned. Total public and private
funding is expected to reach €2.8 billion over the ten years to 2011. Of this
amount, production-related projects will account for €1.3 billion and end-use
projects in communities, €1.5 billion. Some other EU programmes also include
some activities related to hydrogen.
All the hydrogen projects that are being funded by the European Union are
intended to support the large-scale Quick Start initiative, which aims to attract
private investment in infrastructure projects in partnership with national public
institutions and the European Investment Bank. The ultimate goal is to
accelerate the commercialisation of hydrogen-related technologies during the
coming decades. Production-related projects aim to advance cutting-edge
research to build a large-scale demonstration plant that is able to produce
hydrogen and electricity on an industrial scale and to separate and store safely
the CO2 generated in the process. End-use projects are intended to explore the
economic and technical feasibility of managing hydrogen-energy communities,
known as the “hydrogen village”. This will involve establishing centralised and
decentralised hydrogen production and distribution infrastructure,
autonomous and grid-connected hydrogen/power systems, a substantial
number of hydrogen-powered vehicles and refuelling infrastructure. Research
will also be conducted into different production pathways including renewable
energy sources, notably wind and biomass, culminating in demonstrations of
leading-edge technologies.
Other Programmes
There are sizeable hydrogen programmes in a number of other OECD countries,
including Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy and Korea. In most cases,
projects are carried out in collaboration with private organisations:
● Australia’s hydrogen programme is aimed at reducing the carbon/greenhouse-

gas intensity of energy supply and use, to allow the continued exploitation of
35
its large fossil-fuel reserves. One focus of R&D is the production of hydrogen
through the gasification of coal under the COAL21 programme.
● Canada’s hydrogen R&D focuses on production from renewable energy and

fuel cells. Notable successes include the development of the Ballard PEM fuel
cell, which led to the world’s first demonstration of a fuel-cell bus in 1993, and
the Hydrogenics alkaline water electrolyser. Public funding has been running
at over C$30 million (US$25 million) per year and cumulative spending since
the early 1980s exceeds C$200 million.
● In France, hydrogen activities cover PEM and solid-oxide fuel cells;

production technologies based on coal-gasification with carbon capture,
high-temperature solar and nuclear energy, and small biomass and fossil-fuel
reforming; and storage devices. Total annual government spending, including
EU contributions, is estimated at about €40 million ($48 million).
● Germany is a world leader in hydrogen and fuel cell development. Fuel cells
have become the main focus of public and private R&D and demonstration,
reflecting in large part the country’s traditional strength in car manufacturing.
There are a number of demonstration projects under way, including two
hydrogen-refuelling stations at Munich Airport to support three buses and a
fleet of hydrogen-powered BMWs, and the Clean Energy Partnership initiative
in Berlin, which involves the installation of a refuelling station for up to 30
fuel-cell cars. In fact, nearly three-quarters of the fuel cells being
demonstrated in Europe are in Germany. In total, the country’s fuel-cell
industry employs an estimated 3000 people. Total public funding for
hydrogen-related activities is estimated at €34 million ($41 million) per year.
● In Italy, public funding has averaged about €30 million per year since the start
of the decade, with about 60% going to hydrogen production and the rest to
fuel cells. Several demonstration projects are under way. One notable
achievement is the construction of a plant producing hydrogen through
electrolysis integrated with photovoltaics. Another initiative, the Biocca
Project, aims to demonstrate urban hydrogen infrastructure in Milan and in
the Lombardy region.
● The government of Korea only started funding hydrogen-related R&D in

1998, but is emerging as a major player. A new programme was launched in
2004 with a budget of $586 million through to 2011. The programme targets
for 2012 the development of hydrogen-production systems using renewables-
based electrolysis, the commercialisation of a stationary 370 MW fuel cell and
the introduction of 10,000 fuel-cell vehicles. The government also makes
available large subsidies for hydrogen and fuel-cell investments.
Outside the OECD, the leading countries in hydrogen R&D are China, India,
Russia and Brazil. China’s hydrogen R&D and demonstration efforts are
motivated largely by severe pollution in many of its cities, as well as by worries
about energy security. Annual public funding is thought to be in the tens of
millions of dollars, with even larger sums being spent by private organisations. A
fuel-cell bus demonstration scheme in Beijing aims to put 200 buses into
36
commercial operation in time for the 2008 Olympic Games. The first hydrogen-
powered buses have already begun operation in the city under the UNDP/GEF
demonstration project. The Shanghai government also plans to introduce 1000
fuel-cell vehicles by 2010.
India has budgeted 2.5 billion rupees ($58 million) to fund hydrogen and fuel
cell projects in universities and government-run research laboratories over the
three years to 2007. A planned pilot project involves blending small amounts of
hydrogen into diesel fuel for use in about 50 buses in New Delhi. Nationally,
there are plans to introduce by the end of the decade 1000 hydrogen-powered
vehicles, of which 800 will be three-wheelers, and 200 buses. Car makers are
expected to contribute at least 5 billion rupees ($116 million) to the
development and demonstration of fuel-cell vehicles over the next five years.
Russia has a long history of hydrogen production and R&D. A national hydrogen
development programme, financed by the federal budget and private investors,
is under discussion, aimed at developing a market for hydrogen-powered
vehicles. Hydrogen-related activities were stepped up in 2003 with an agreement
between the Russian Academy of Science and the Norilsk Nikel Company on a
fuel cell development programme. Total joint funding will be $120 million, of
which $30 million was budgeted in 2005.
Brazil has devised a Hydrogen Roadmap, which aims to commercialise fuel cells
for transport and off-grid energy systems. The focus of Brazilian hydrogen R&D
is on production from water electrolysis; reforming of natural gas and reforming
or gasification of ethanol and other biofuels; storage technologies, including
metal hydrides; and fuel cells.
Private Industry
Private-sector spending on R&D and demonstration of hydrogen, fuel cells and
related technologies is thought to be considerably larger than public budgets.
Precise budgets are not available. The International Energy Agency estimates that
private-sector spending currently amounts to between $3 billion and $4 billion
per year – up to four times the amount being spent by public bodies. The main
players are oil and gas companies, car manufacturers, electricity and gas utilities
and power-plant construction companies. A growing number of firms that
manufacture fuel cells and other hydrogen-related equipment supplied to
private- and public-sector organisations also fund their own R&D.
One of the largest projects in which private firms are involved is the FreedomCAR
and Fuel Partnership, a joint initiative originally set up in 2002 by the US
Department of Energy with General Motors, Ford and DaimlerChrysler to
develop non-oil fuelled vehicles. It was expanded to include five energy
companies – BP America, ChevronTexaco Corporation, ConocoPhillips, Exxon
Mobil Corporation and Shell Hydrogen (US) – in 2003. Hydrogen fuel cells are a
central element of the project. US government funding is $500 million.
The US government is also seeking private funding for FutureGen – an initiative

to build the world’s first zero-emission hydrogen production and power plant
37
integrated with CCS. The Department of Energy is negotiating a cooperative

agreement with a consortium led by the coal-fired electric power industry and
the coal-mining industry. The consortium will be responsible for the design,
construction and operation of the plant, and for the monitoring, measurement
and verification of carbon dioxide capture at the plant. The consortium is
expected to contribute approximately $250 million towards the total cost of the
project, which is estimated at $950 million (in year-2004 dollars).
The California Fuel Cell Partnership is another example of a collaborative private-

public initiative, involving car manufacturers, energy companies, fuel-cell
developers and government agencies. It aims to develop and demonstrate fuel-
cell vehicles under real day-to-day driving conditions, and promote the
development of refuelling infrastructure.
International Cooperation
Government and private R&D efforts are complemented by three major
multilateral international collaborative initiatives, all of which were launched
in 2003:
● The International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy (IPHE) was set up
to serve as a mechanism for international collaboration on all aspects of
hydrogen and fuel cell R&D and commercialisation. It provides a forum for
advancing policies, and developing common technical codes and standards to
accelerate the cost-effective transition to a hydrogen economy. It also
educates and informs stakeholders and the general public on the benefits of,
and challenges involved in, establishing the hydrogen economy. IPHE
members include 12 OECD countries, the European Commission and four
non-OECD countries: Brazil, China, India and Russia.
● The Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology Platform, set up by the European
Commission, brings together all EU-funded public/private R&D activities
being undertaken within the Commission’s Framework Programmes. It helps
to develop awareness of market opportunities for fuel cell and hydrogen
technologies, to elaborate energy scenarios, and to foster co-operation
between stakeholders within and outside the European Union.
● The International Energy Agency Hydrogen Coordination Group aims to

enhance coordination of the public R&D programmes and policies of
member countries. It builds on existing IEA implementing agreements on
technology collaboration covering, among other activities, hydrogen,
advanced fuel cells, greenhouse gas R&D, bio-energy, advanced motor fuels
and clean coal.
There is some overlap in the membership of these collaborative groups and

in their activities, which promotes a degree of cross-fertilisation and transfer
of knowledge.
38
Annex B: References & Information Sources
Annex B: References & Information Sources
Reports/Books
BP (2005), Statistical Review of World Energy, BP, London.
Commonwealth Government of Australia (2003), National Hydrogen Study,
Canberra.
Energy Information Administration (2005), International Energy Outlook, US
Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.
European Commission (2003), Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cells: A Vision of
our Future, DGTREN, Brussels.
Hoffman, P. (2001), Tomorrow's Energy: Hydrogen, Fuel Cells, and the
Prospects for a Cleaner Planet, MIT Press, Massachusetts.
International Energy Agency (IEA) (2004a), Hydrogen and Fuel Cells: Reviews
of National R&D Programmes, IEA/OECD, Paris.
(2004b), Prospects for Carbon Capture and Storage, IEA/OECD, Paris.
(2005a), World Energy Outlook 2005, IEA/OECD, Paris.
(2005b), Energy Policies of IEA Countries, IEA/OECD, Paris.
(2005c), Prospects for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells, IEA/OECD, Paris.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2005), Special Report on
Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage: Summary for Policymakers and
Technical Summary, IPCC, Geneva.
Larsen H., Feidenhans’l R. and Petersen L. (2004), Risø Energy Report 3:
Hydrogen and its Competitors, Risø National Laboratory, Roskilde.
National Research Council and National Academy of Engineering (2004), The
Hydrogen Economy: Opportunities, Costs, Barriers and R&D Needs, National
Academies Press, Washington, D.C.
Rifkin, J. (2002), The Hydrogen Economy: The Creation of the World-Wide
Energy Web and the Redistribution of Power on Earth, J.P. Tarcher Publishers,
Los Angeles.
Websites
European Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology Platform: www.hfpeurope.org/
International Association for Hydrogen Energy: www.iahe.org/
IEA Hydrogen Implementing Agreement: www.ieahia.org/
International Partnership for the Hydrogen Economy: www.iphe.net/
United Nations Industrial Development Organization – International Centre for
Hydrogen Energy Technologies: www.ichet.org/
US Department of Energy Hydrogen Program: www.hydrogen.energy.gov/
US Government Hydrogen R&D portal: www.hydrogen.gov/
United States Council for Automotive Research: www.uscar.org/
39
40
About the UNEP Division of Technology,
Industry and Economics
The UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE) helps
governments, local authorities and decision-makers in business and
industry to develop and implement policies and practices focusing on
sustainable development.
The Division works to promote:
> sustainable consumption and production,
> the efficient use of renewable energy,
> adequate management of chemicals,
> the integration of environmental costs in development policies.
The Office of the Director, located in Paris, coordinates activities

through:
> The International Environmental Technology Centre - IETC (Osaka, Shiga),
which implements integrated waste, water and disaster management programmes,
focusing in particular on Asia.
> Production and Consumption (Paris), which promotes sustainable consumption
and production patterns as a contribution to human development through global
markets.
> Chemicals (Geneva), which catalyzes global actions to bring about the sound
management of chemicals and the improvement of chemical safety worldwide.
> Energy (Paris), which fosters energy and transport policies for sustainable
development and encourages investment in renewable energy and energy efficiency.
> OzonAction (Paris), which supports the phase-out of ozone depleting substances
in developing countries and countries with economies in transition to ensure
implementation of the Montreal Protocol.
> Economics and Trade (Geneva), which helps countries to integrate environmental
considerations into economic and trade policies, and works with the finance sector
to incorporate sustainable development policies.
UNEP DTIE activities focus on raising awareness, improving

the transfer of knowledge and information, fostering
technological cooperation and partnerships, and
implementing international conventions and agreements.
For more information,

see www.unep.fr
Hydrogen holds out the promise of a truly
sustainable global energy future. As a clean
energy carrier that can be produced from
any primary energy source, hydrogen used
in highly efficient fuel cells could prove to
be the answer to our growing concerns
about energy security, urban pollution and
climate change. This prize surely warrants
the attention and resources currently being
For more information, contact:
UNEP DTIE
directed at hydrogen – even if the Energy Branch
prospects for widespread
39-43 Quai André Citroën A non-technical review
commercialisation of hydrogen in the
75739 Paris Cedex 15, France
foreseeable future are uncertain.
Tel. : +33 1 44 37 14 50
Fax.: +33 1 44 37 14 74
E-mail: [email protected]
www.unep.fr/energy/
U N I T E D N AT I O N S E N V I R O N M E N T P R O G R A M M E
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What are the technical and cost challenges of hydrogen production, distribution and storage?

What are the technical and cost challenges of hydrogen production, distribution and storage?

What are the challenges of using fuel cells for mobile and stationary applications?

What are the challenges of using fuel cells for mobile and stationary applications?

Hydrogen holds out the promise of a truly

sustainable global energy future. As a clean

Cover photo © Shmuel M Bowles/iStockphoto.com

The Hydrogen Economy and Sustainable Development 6

Technical and Cost Challenges 11

The Transition to the Hydrogen Economy 20

Hydrogen and the Developing World 27

Annex A: Key Players in Hydrogen Research

Annex B: References & Information Sources 39

This report was commissioned by the Division of Technology, Industry and

There is a growing belief among policy-makers, environmental organisations,

UNEP is following developments in hydrogen-energy technology with great

In keeping with its mission to encourage and facilitate the adoption of

government support, and describes long-term projections of hydrogen use. The

The Hydrogen Economy and Sustainable

Interest in hydrogen as a way of delivering energy services has been

partial oxidation. A major shortcoming of the processing of hydrocarbons is the

Box 1: Energy Sources and Carriers

Replacing fossil fuels

Road transportation is an important and growing source of both air pollutants

Hydrogen could also contribute to reducing or eliminating emissions of carbon

Despite the potential local and global environmental benefits of switching to

Safety is a critical issue. Contrary to popular opinion, hydrogen is actually less

and implement internationally agreed rules, regulations, codes and standards

Box 2: Hydrogen Exonerated as the Cause of the Hindenburg Disaster

A Global Hydrogen Energy System

Box 3: A Vision of the Hydrogen Economy

Source: Adapted from Commonwealth Government of Australia (2003).

If hydrogen does emerge as a competitive energy carrier, it will not displace

Technical and Cost Challenges

Formidable technical and cost challenges will need to be overcome for

Hydrogen Production, Distribution and Storage

CH4 (methane) + H2O (steam) ➛ CO (carbon monoxide) + 3H2 (hydrogen)

Partial oxidation of methane is also used to produce hydrogen. The process

However hydrogen is produced, its widespread use will require large-scale

Transportation and distribution are faced with similar problems. Compressed

Box 4: Centralised versus Localised Hydrogen Production

Fuel Cells for Mobile and Stationary Uses

Figure 1: Fuel Cell Configuration

hydrogen fuel excess fuel

oxygen water and heat

Several leading car manufacturers are working on demonstration fuel-cell cars,

Technical challenges also need to be addressed. There is a need to improve the

Box 5: Competing Options in the Transport Sector

Carbon Capture and Storage

● Transporting the captured CO2 by pipeline or in tankers.

Current carbon-capture technologies are capable of reducing emissions from

Box 6: Current Carbon Capture and Storage Demonstration Projects

● With CO2 transportation by pipeline, costs depend on the volumes being

The Transition to the Hydrogen Economy

The transition to a hydrogen economy would require trillions of

Investment in Hydrogen Infrastructure

The sheer scale of investment in a hydrogen project, together with inherent

In the early stages of the transition – or more accurately, series of transitions – to

Wind, nuclear and Biomass Coal Natural gas