Gene and Its Structure

(ASSIGNMENTt#t01t……tSEMESTERtSPRING-2020)

Submission tDate (Febraryt21, 2020)

BY

Abdul Hanan (18551507-105)

Course Code: ZOO-103

Course Title: (Principles of Animal Life-II)

BS Chemistry IV (B)

Submitted to

Mr. Muhammad Umar

DepartmenttoftChemistry

UNIVERSITYtOFtGUJ’RAT

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 Table of Contents

Sr. no. Topics Page no.

1. Definition of Gene 3

2. History 3

3. Production of a functional Protein 3

4. Number of genes in Genome 4

5. What are they made of ? 4

6 Where do they come from ? 5

7 Types of Genes 5

8 Chemical Structure of Gene 7

9 Genes in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes 8

10 One gene and One polypeptide 8

11 Gene Expression 9

12 Structure of Gene in Eukaryotes 10

13 Gene Functions 11

References 12ssssss

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 Gene and Its Structure
1. Definition of Gene

“A specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA that is located usually on a chromosome and that is
the functional unit of inheritance controlling the transmission and expression of one or more traits by
specifying the structure of a particular polypeptide and especially a protein or controlling the function of
other genetic material.”

Figure 1.1 https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/gene

2. History

Wilhelm Roux in 1883 speculated that chromosomes are the carriers of inheritance. Danish botanist
Wilhelm Johansen coined the word “gene” in 1909 to describe these fundamental physical and functional
units of heredity. William Bateson in 1905 coined the term genetics from the word gene.

3. Production of a functional Protein

Genes are made up of promoter regions and alternating regions of introns (noncoding sequences) and
exons (coding sequences). The production of a functional protein involves the transcription of the gene
from DNA into RNA, the removal of introns and splicing together of exons, the translation of the spliced
RNA sequences into a chain of amino acids, and the posttranslational modification of the protein
molecule.

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 Figure 1.2 https://www.britannica.com/science/gene

4. Number of Genes in Genome

The number of genes in an organism’s genome (the entire set of chromosomes) varies significantly
between species. For example, whereas the human genome contains an estimated 20,000 to 25,000
genes, the genome of the bacterium Escherichia coli has 5,416 genes. Arabidopsis thaliana—the first
plant for which a complete genomic sequence was recovered—has roughly 25,500 genes; its genome is
one of the smallest known to plants. Among extant independently replicating organisms, the bacterium
Mycoplasma Genitelium has the fewest number of genes, just 517.

5. What are they made of?

A gene consists of a long combination of four different nucleotide bases, or chemicals. There are many
possible combinations.

The four nucleotides are:

 A (adenine)
 C (cytosine)
 G (guanine)
 T (thymine)

Different combinations of the letters ACGT give people different characteristics. For example, a person
with the combination ATCGTT may have blue eyes, while somebody with the combination ATCGCT
may have brown eyes.

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6. Where do they come from?

A gene is a basic unit of heredity in a living organism. Genes come from our parents. We may inherit
our physical traits and the likelihood of getting certain diseases and conditions from a parent.

Genes contain the data needed to build and maintain cells and pass genetic information to offspring.

Each cell contains two sets of chromosomes: One set comes from the mother and the other comes from
the father. The male sperm and the female egg carry a single set of 23 chromosomes each, including 22
autosomes plus an X or Y sex chromosome.

A female inherits an X chromosome from each parent, but a male inherits an X chromosome from their
mother and a Y chromosome from their father.

7. Types of Genes

 House Keeping Genes (Constitutive Genes):

They are those genes which are constantly expressing themselves in a cell because their products are
required for the normal cellular activities, e.g., genes for glycolysis, ATP-ase

 Non-constitutive Genes (Luxury Genes):

The genes are not always expressing themselves in a cell. They are switched on or off according to the
requirement of cellular activities, e.g., gene for nitrate reductase in plants, lactose system in Escherichia
coli. Non- constitutive genes are of further two types, inducible and repressible.

 Inducible Genes:

The genes are switched on in response to the presence of a chemical substance or inducer which is
required for the functioning of the product of gene activity, e.g., nitrate for nitrate reductase.

 Repressible Genes:

They are those genes which continue to express themselves till a chemical (often an end product) inhibits
or represses their activity. Inhibition by an end product is known as feedback repression.

 Multigenes (Multiple Gene Family):

It is a group of similar or nearly similar genes for meeting requirement of time and tissue specific
products, e.g., globin gene family (e, 5, (3, у on chromosome 11, oc and 8 on chromosome 16).

 Repeated Genes:

The genes occur in multiple copies because their products are required in larger quantity, e.g., histone
genes, tRNA genes, rRNA genes, actin genes.

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  Single Copy Genes:

The genes are present in single copies (occasionally 2—3 times), e.g., protein coding genes. They form 60
—70% of the functional genes. Duplications, mutations and exon reshuffling can form new genes.

 Pseudogenes:

They are genes which have homology to functional genes but are unable to produce functional products
due to intervening nonsense codons, insertions, deletions and inactivation of promoter regions, e.g.,
several of snRNA genes.

 Processed Genes:

They are eukaryotic genes which lack introns. Processed genes have been formed probably due to reverse
transcription or retroviruses. Processed genes are generally non-functional as they lack promoters.

 Transposons (Jumping Genes; Hedges and Jacob, 1974):

They are segments of DNA that can jump or move from one place in the genome to another. Transposons
were first discovered by Me Clintock (1951) in case of Maize when she found that a segment of DNA
moved into gene coding for pigmented kernels and produced light coloured kernels.

 Structural Genes:

Structural genes are those genes which have encoded information for the synthesis of chemical substances
required for cellular machinery.

The chemical substances may be:

(a) Polypeptides for the formation of structural proteins (e.g., colloidal complex of protoplasm, cell
membranes, elastin of ligaments, collagen of tendons or cartilage, actin of muscles, tubulin of
microtubules, etc.).

(b) Polypeptides for the synthesis of enzymes,

(c) Transport proteins like haemoglobin of erythrocytes, lipid transporting proteins, carrier proteins of cell
membranes, etc.

(d) Proteinaceous hormones, e.g., insulin, growth hormone, parathyroid hormone,

(e) Antibodies, antigens, certain toxins, blood coagulation factors, etc.

(f) Non-translated RNAs like tRNAs, rRNA. Broadly speaking, structural genes either produce mRNAs
for synthesis of polypeptides/proteins/enzymes or noncoding RNAs.

 Regulatory Genes (Regulatory Sequences):

Regulatory genes do not transcribe RNAs for controlling structure and functioning of the cells. Instead,
they control the functions of structural genes. The important regulatory genes are promoters, terminators,

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operators and repressor producing or regulator genes. Repressor does not take part in cellular activity.
Instead, it regulates the activity of other genes. Therefore, repressor producing gene is of intermediate
nature.

 Tissue Specific Genes:

They are genes which are expressed only in certain specific tissues and not in others.

8. Chemical Structure of Genes

Genes are composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), except in some viruses, which have genes
consisting of a closely related compound called ribonucleic acid (RNA). A DNA molecule is composed
of two chains of nucleotides that wind about each other to resemble a twisted ladder. The sides of the
ladder are made up of sugars and phosphates, and the rungs are formed by bonded pairs of nitrogenous
bases. These bases are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). An A on one chain bonds
to a T on the other (thus forming an A–T ladder rung); similarly, a C on one chain bonds to a G on the
other. If the bonds between the bases are broken, the two chains unwind, and free nucleotides within the
cell attach themselves to the exposed bases of the now-separated chains. The free nucleotides line up
along each chain according to the base-pairing rule—A bonds to T, C bonds to G. This process results in
the creation of two identical DNA molecules from one original and is the method by which hereditary
information is passed from one generation of cells to the next.

Figure 1.3 https://www.britannica.com/science/gene

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9. Genes in Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes

In eukaryotes (such as animals, plants, and fungi), genes are contained within the cell nucleus. The
mitochondria (in animals) and the chloroplasts (in plants) also contain small subsets of genes distinct
from the genes found in the nucleus.

In prokaryotes (organisms lacking a distinct nucleus, such as bacteria), genes are contained in a
single chromosome that is free-floating in the cell cytoplasm. Many bacteria also contain plasmids—
extra chromosomal genetic elements with a small number of genes.

Figure 1.4 https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/120574

10. One-gene/ one – polypeptide:

Experiments conducted in the 1940s introduced that “one gene is being responsible for the assembly of
one enzyme”. This is known as one gene – one enzyme hypothesis.

This relationship is now commonly called one- gene / one- polypeptide, because many enzymes contain
multiple protein or polypeptide subunits, each encoded by a specific separate gene.

This concept is very important for the transcription and translational process.

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 Figure 1.5 One gene one polypeptide

11. Gene Expression:

Gene expression is process through which a gene produces a specific phenotype or such enzymes that
control a specific metabolic activity.

Mechanism of Gene Expression:

Gene is a functional part of DNA. It holds the heredity message that are encoded in the specific form of
nitrogenous bases (A, T, G, C). the encoded message expresses in the form of polypeptide chain. The
polypeptide chain is formed according to the strict instructions of a gene through its mRNA.
Transcription is a process through which mRNA copies instructions from DNA. mRNA then comes out
from the nucleus of the organism and attach to the ribosomes and form the polypeptide chain by linking
the amino acids in a specific sequence. Gene expression involves the following processes:

 Transcription
 Translation

Transcription:

“The process of synthesis of RNA from the DNA by using RNA polymerase enzyme.”

 Transcription of the mRNA from the deoxyribonucleic acid segment composing the gene.
 Formation of ribosomal subunits through transcription of ribosomal RNA.
 Transcription of transfer ribonucleic acid.

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Translation:

“It is a process in which protein is synthesized by using messenger RNA.”

 ssFormation of polypeptide chain through the translation of the codons of messenger RNA to link
the amino acids.
 After the polypeptide chain of required information is made the stop codons are sent to terminate
the process of translation.
 After this maturation of proteins take place.

Figure 1.6 Process of Transcription and Translation

12. Structure of Gene in Eukaryotes:

The structure in eukaryotes is complex as compared to structure of genes in prokaryotes. The structure of
gene in eukaryotes consist of following regions:

 Exon
 Introns
 Promoter sequences
 Terminator sequences
 Upstream sequences
 Downstream sequences
 Enhancers
 Silencers
 Signals

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 Figure 1.7 Structure of Gene in Eukaryotes

 Promoters:
In genetics, a region of DNA that leads to the initiation of the transcription of a specific gene is
called promoters.
 Introns:
Intron is basically a segment of a DNA or RNA molecule which does not code for proteins and
interrupts the sequence of genes.
 Exons:
Exons are the portions of the messenger RNA molecule code for the amino acids to produce
protein.

13. Gene Functions

 Genes are components of genetic material and are thus units of inheritance,
 They control the morphology or phenotype of individuals,
 Replication of genes is essential for cell division,
 Genes carry the hereditary information from one generation to the next,
 They control the structure and metabolism of the body,
 Reshuffling of genes at the time of sexual reproduction produces variations,
 Different linkages are produced due to crossing over,
 Genes undergo mutations and change their expression,
 New genes and consequently new traits develop due to reshuffling of exons and introns.
 Genes change their expression due to position effect and transposons.
 Differentiation or formation of different types of cells, tissues and organs in various parts of the
body is controlled by expression of certain genes and non-expression of others,
 Development or production of different stages in the life history is controlled by genes.

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References:

 Principle of Genetics by D. Peter Snustad

 Gene Structure and Transcription by Trevor J. C. Beebee
 https://www.britannica.com/science/gene
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/gene-structure
 https://condor.depaul.edu/mfiddler/hyphen/genefx-new.htm
 http://www.wormbppk.org/chapters/www_overviewgenestructure.html
 https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/gene

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