Base Band Pulse Signaling - 1399-12-6-19-00

Introduction to Communication Systems
Chapter 4: Base band pulse signaling
ECED | Girma G. | 1
Outline
1 Pulse modulation
2 Sampling process
3 Pulse-Amplitude Modulation
4 Other forms of pulse modulation
5 Pulse coded modulation

Sampling
Quantization
Encoding
Line codes
6 Reference
ECED | Girma G. | 2
Pulse modulation
Modulation types
1. Continuous-wave (CW) modulation: some parameter of a sinusoidal
carrier wave varied continuously in accordance with a message signal.
2. Pulse modulation: Some parameter of a pulse train varied in
accordance with the message signal.
Pulse modulation
1. analog pulse modulation: a periodic pulse train, used as a carrier
wave, varied continuously in accordance with a sample value of a
message signal.
2. digital pulse modulation: digital message transmitted in digital form
as a sequence of coded pulses.
Sampling process is basic to all pulse modulation systems.
ECED | Girma G. | 3
Pulse modulation
Consider g(t) denote a finite energy signal.
Instantaneous sampling: g(t) sampled instantaneously and at a
uniform rate, once every Ts seconds.
Result is an infinite sequence of samples spaced Ts seconds apart
and denoted by g(nTs ).
Ts is called the sampling period.
fs = 1/Ts is the sampling rate.
ECED | Girma G. | 4
Pulse modulation
gδ (t): ideal sampled signal is given as
∞
X
gδ (t) = g(nTs )δ(t − nTs )
n=−∞
Delta function approximated by a rectangular pulse of duration ∆t

and amplitude g(nTs )/∆t.
The smaller we make ∆t, the better will be the approximation.
If G(f ) is the Fourier transform of the original signal g(t), the
Fourier transform of ideal sampled signal gδ (t) is given by
∞
X
F {gδ (t)} = Gδ (f ) = fs G(f − mfs )
m=−∞
The process of uniformly sampling a continuous-time signal of finite energy

results in a periodic spectrum with a period equal to the sampling rate.
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Pulse modulation
If g(t) is strictly band-limited (i.e G(f ) = 0 for |f | ≥ W ), and if we
choose Ts = 1/2W , then
∞
X
Gδ (f ) = fs G(f ) + fs G(f − mfs )
m=−∞,m6=0
Reconstruction filter: a LPF that passed frequency components between

−W and W . ⇒ Origianl signal reconstructed (recovered).
ECED | Girma G. | 6
Pulse modulation
Under the following two conditions:

1. G(f ) = 0 for |f | ≥ W
2. fs = 2W
Spectrum of the original signal is related to the spectrum of the sampled
signal as follows.
1
G(f ) = 2W Gδ (f ) −W <f <W
Sampling theorem expressed in two equivalent forms as follows;
A band-limited signal of finite energy, which has no frequency components
higher than W Hertz,
1. is completely described by specifying the values of the signal at
instants of time separated by 1/2W seconds.
2. may be completely recovered from a knowledge of its samples taken
at the rate of 2W samples per second.
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Pulse modulation
Sampling rate 2W and its reciprocal 1/2W are called Nyquist rate
and Nyquist interval.
What if sampling rate is less than 2W (i.e signal undersampled) ?
Aliasing is produced by the sampling process.
ECED | Girma G. | 8
Pulse modulation
How to combat aliasing in practice?

1. A low pass anti-aliasing filter used to attenuate high frequency
components prior to sampling.
2. Filtered signal sampled at a slightly higher rate that the Nyquist rate
(Oversampling).
Oversampling eases design of reconstruction filter.
Reconstruction filter
1. is low pass with passband from −W to W .
2. has a transition band extending from W to fs − W
Reconstruction filter with a well-defined transition band means it is
physically realizable.
ECED | Girma G. | 9
Pulse modulation
ECED | Girma G. | 10
Pulse-Amplitude modulation
Most basic form of analog pulse modulation.

The amplitudes of regularly spaced pulses are varied in proportion to
the corresponding sample values of a continuous message signal.
Two operations involved in the generation of the PAM signal:

1. Instantaneous sampling of the message signal m(t) every Ts seconds.
2. Lengthening the duration of each sample so obtained to some
constant value T .
The two operations combined called sample and hold.
PAM signal s(t) is given by

∞
X
s(t) = m(nTs )h(t − nTs )
n=−∞
h(t) is a standard rectangular pulse given by




 1, 0<t<T

h(t) = 1
 2 , t = 0, t = T


0, otherwise

Instantaneously sampled version of m(t) is

∞
X
mδ (t) = m(nTs )δ(t − nTs )
n=−∞
Instantaneously sampled signal convolved with the rectangular pulse

is given by Z ∞
mδ (t) ∗ h(t) = mδ (τ )h(t − τ )dτ
−∞
Z ∞ ∞
X
= m(nTs )δ(τ − nTs )h(t − τ )dτ
−∞ n=−∞
∞
X Z ∞
= m(nTs ) δ(τ − nTs )h(t − τ )τ
n=−∞ −∞
∞
X
= m(nTs )h(t − nTs ) ≡ s(t)!
n=−∞
⇒ s(t) = mδ (t) ∗ h(t)
Taking the Fourier transform of both sides gives
S(f ) = Mδ (f )H(f )
P∞
Using Mδ (f ) = fs k=−∞ M (f − kfs ), S(f ) becomes
∞
X
s(f ) = fs M (f − kfs )H(f )
k=−∞
When PAM signal s(t) is passed through a reconstruction filter as

used previously, the resulting signal has a spectrum of M (f )H(f ).
This output is equivalent to passing m(t) through another LPF of
frequency response H(f ).
So original signal m(t) experiences amplitude distortion and a delay

of T /2.
This distortion may be corrected by using an equalizer.
Ideally the magnitude response of the equalizer is given by

1 1 πf
= =
H(f ) T sinc(f T ) sin(πf T )
The amount of equalization needed in practice is usually small.

PAM transmission imposed rather stringent requirements on the
magnitude and phase responses of the channel.
Cause: short duration of transmitted pulses.
Furthermore, noise performance of PAM can never be better than
baseband-signal transmission.
So, PAM is not preferred for long distance transmissions, rather is
used for message processing in TDM.
Other forms of pulse modulation
In a pulse modulation system, increased channel bandwidth can be

used to improve the noise performance of the system.
This can be achieved by representing sample values of the message
signals by some property of the pulse other than amplitude.
Pulse-duration modulation (PDM)
Also referred to as pulse-width modulation.
Message signal are used to vary the duration of the individual pulse in
the carrier.
Pulse-position modulation (PPM)
Position of a pulse relative to its unmodulated time of occurrence is
varied in accordance with the message signal.
PDM: long pulses expend considerable power while bearing no

additional information.
When this unused power is subtracted from PDM, PPM is obtained.
∴ PPM is more efficient than PDM.
If pulses were perfectly rectangular (ideal), additive noise would
have no effect. Noise free! (noise changes amplitude of the pulse)
But, perfectly rectangular pulses would require infinite bandwidth.
So, pulses with finite rise time are used, as a result of which PPM
receiver is affected by noise.
Pulse coded modulation (PCM)
The basic form of digital pulse modulation.

A sequence of coded pulses which is accomplished by representing
the signal in discrete form in both time and amplitude.
Better bandwidth-noise trade-off.
i.e The effect of channel noise at the receiver output can be reduced
to a negligible level simply by making the SNR of the PCM wave
large enough.
Fundamental precesses involved in the generation of binary PCM are
Sampling
Quantization
Encoding
Sampling
Incoming message signal sampled with a train of narrow rectangular

pulses so as to approximate instantaneous sampling process.
In accordance to the sampling theorem.
Sampling rate must be greater than twice the highest frequency
component W of the message signal.
Low pass anti-aliasing filter used at the front end of the sampler.
Continuously varying message signal ⇒ discrete values in time.
Quantization
Continuous amplitude samples ⇒ discrete amplitude values.

Any human sense can detect only finite intensity differences.
Not necessary to transmit exact amplitudes of the samples.
Original continuous signal may be approximated by a signal
constructed of discrete amplitudes.
Amplitude quantization: the process of transforming the sample
amplitudes m(nTs ) of a message signal m(t) at time t = nTs into a
discrete amplitude v(nTs ) taken from a finite set of possible
amplitudes.
Quantization
jk : mk < m ≤ mk+1 , k = 1, 2, ..., L

jk : partition cell
k = 1, 2, ..., L: decision levels or decision thresholds.
Discrete amplitudes vk , k = 1, 2, ..., L: representation levels or
reconstruction levels.
Spacing between two adjacent representation levels: quantum or
step size.
The quantizer output v equals vk if the input signal sample m
belongs to the interval jk .
Quantization
The mapping v = g(m) is the quantizer characteristic.

Quantizers can be uniform or nonuniform type.
Quantizer characteristic can be of midtread or midrise type.
Quantization Noise
Quantization Noise: Error defined as the difference between input

signal m and the output signal v.
Quantization Noise
Output signal to noise ratio of a uniform quantizer is expressed as

P 3P
(SN R)o = 2 = ( 2 )22R
σQ mmax
Output signal to noise ratio of the quantizer increases exponentially

with increasing number of bits per sample, R.
Increase in R requires a proportional increase in the channel
bandwidth BT .
Better tradeoff between SN Rout and BT than FM or Pulse-position
modulation (PPM).
Nonuniform quantization
Nonuniform quantization is commonly used in telephone and other

applications employing PCM.
Quantization steps are smaller for weaker signals and bigger for
stronger signals.
Soft speakers (more frequent) favored over loud speakers (less
frequent).
In effect signal is compressed using devises called Compressors.
Two common compression laws are common.
1.µ-law:
log(1 + µ|m|)
|v| =
log(1 + µ)
Quantum steps are given as
d|m| log(1 + µ)
= (1 + µ|m|)
d|v| µ
µ-law is approximately
linear at low input levels (µ|m| 1).
logarithmic at high input levels (µ|m| 1).
µ = 0 corresponds to uniform quantization.
2. A-law:
A|m|

1

 , 0 ≤ |m| ≤ A
|v| = 1 + logA

1 + log(A|m|) 1
, ≤ |m| ≤ 1


A

1 + logA
Reciprocal of slop (which defines the quantum steps) os given as


d|m|  1 + logA ,

0 ≤ |m| ≤ 1
A A
=
d|v| (1 + A)|m|,
 1
≤ |m| ≤ 1
A
Uniform quantizer corresponds to A=1.

At the receiver signals are restored using expander.
Compressor + expander = compander.
For both compression laws, dynamic range capability of the compander

improves with increasing µ and A.
SNR for low-level signals increases at the expense of SNR for high-level
signals.
Reasonable values should be selected to accommodate these conflicting
requirements.
Typical values used in practice are µ = 255 and A = 87.6.
Encoding
Encoding process translates the discrete set of sample values to a

more appropriate form of signal.
To make the transmitted signal more robust to noise, interference
and other channel impairments.
Any plan for representing each of this discrete set of values as a
particular arrangement of discrete events (symbols) is called a code.
code word (character) is a particular arrangement of symbols used
in a code to represent a single discrete value.
Binary code: each symbol may be either of two distinct values or
kinds, such as the presence or absence of a pulse.
denoted as 0 and 1.
Encoding
Ternary code: each symbol may be one of three distinct values or

kinds.
And so on for other codes.
Binary codes are the best choice, because they can withstand a
relatively high level of noise and are easy to generate.
Each code word consists of R bits. (bit is acronym for binary digit.)
With R bits, 2R discrete sample values can be represented.
Encoding
Line codes
Electrical representations of a binary data stream.

Different line codes exist.
1. Unipolar nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) signaling
Symbol 1 represented by a pulse of amplitude A.
Symbol 0 corresponds to no pulse. (A pulse of zero amplitude.)
Also called on-off signaling.
Disadvantages are DC value transmitted and PSD doesn’t approach
zero near 0 frequency.
• Have a look at the PSD plots on pg 206, Haykin.
Line codes
Line codes
2. Polar nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) signaling

Symbol 1 represented by a pulse of amplitude +A.
Symbol 0 by a pulse of amplitude -A.
Advantage: relatively easy to generate.
Disadvantage: Power spectrum is large near zero frequency.
3. Unipolar return-to-zero (RZ) signaling
Symbol 1 → amplitude A and half-symbol width.
Symbol 0 → no pulse.
Advantage: presence of a delta function at f = 0. ± 1/Tb , which
can be used for bit timing recovery at the receiver.
Disadvantage: Requires a 3 dB more power than polar NRZ
signaling for the same BER.
Line codes
4. Bipolar return-to-zero (BRZ) signaling

pulse of amplitude +A and -A are used alternately for symbol 1.
No pulse for symbol 0.
Also called alternate mark inversion (AMI) signaling.
Advantage: No DC component, and relatively insignificant power
spectrum near zero frequency.
5. Split-phase (Manchester code)
Symbol 1 → positive pulse of amplitude A followed by a negative
pulse of amplitude -A.
Symbol 0, polarities are reversed.
No DC component and low near zero frequency power spectrum.
Reference
Communications sytems by Simon Haykin, [4th ed]

Communication Systems Engineering John G. Proakis & Masoud
Salehi, [2nd ed]

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Introduction to Communication Systems

Chapter 4: Base band pulse signaling

4 Other forms of pulse modulation

5 Pulse coded modulation

Delta function approximated by a rectangular pulse of duration ∆t

The process of uniformly sampling a continuous-time signal of finite energy

Reconstruction filter: a LPF that passed frequency components between

Under the following two conditions:

How to combat aliasing in practice?

Most basic form of analog pulse modulation.

Two operations involved in the generation of the PAM signal:

PAM signal s(t) is given by

h(t) is a standard rectangular pulse given by

Instantaneously sampled version of m(t) is

Instantaneously sampled signal convolved with the rectangular pulse

⇒ s(t) = mδ (t) ∗ h(t)

Taking the Fourier transform of both sides gives

When PAM signal s(t) is passed through a reconstruction filter as

So original signal m(t) experiences amplitude distortion and a delay

Ideally the magnitude response of the equalizer is given by

The amount of equalization needed in practice is usually small.

In a pulse modulation system, increased channel bandwidth can be

PDM: long pulses expend considerable power while bearing no

The basic form of digital pulse modulation.

Incoming message signal sampled with a train of narrow rectangular

Continuous amplitude samples ⇒ discrete amplitude values.

jk : mk < m ≤ mk+1 , k = 1, 2, ..., L

The mapping v = g(m) is the quantizer characteristic.

Quantization Noise: Error defined as the difference between input

Output signal to noise ratio of a uniform quantizer is expressed as

Output signal to noise ratio of the quantizer increases exponentially

Nonuniform quantization is commonly used in telephone and other

Quantum steps are given as

Reciprocal of slop (which defines the quantum steps) os given as

Uniform quantizer corresponds to A=1.

For both compression laws, dynamic range capability of the compander

Encoding process translates the discrete set of sample values to a

Ternary code: each symbol may be one of three distinct values or

Electrical representations of a binary data stream.

2. Polar nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) signaling

4. Bipolar return-to-zero (BRZ) signaling

Communications sytems by Simon Haykin, [4th ed]

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