applied

sciences
Review
Distributed Bragg Reflectors for GaN-Based
Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers
Cheng Zhang , Rami ElAfandy and Jung Han *
Department of Electrical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA;
[email protected] (C.Z.); [email protected] (R.E.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-203-432-7567




Received: 14 March 2019; Accepted: 15 April 2019; Published: 17 April 2019


Featured Application: GaN based vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers.

Abstract: A distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) is a key building block in the formation of semiconductor
microcavities and vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs). The success in epitaxial GaAs
DBR mirrors paved the way for the ubiquitous deployment of III-V VCSELs in communication and
mobile applications. However, a similar development of GaN-based blue VCSELs has been hindered
by challenges in preparing DBRs that are mass producible. In this article, we provide a review of the
history and current status of forming DBRs for GaN VCSELs. In general, the preparation of DBRs
requires an optimization of epitaxy/fabrication processes, together with trading off parameters in
optical, electrical, and thermal properties. The effort of epitaxial DBRs commenced in the 1990s and
has evolved from using AlGaN, AlN, to using lattice-matched AlInN with GaN for DBRs. In parallel,
dielectric DBRs have been studied since 2000 and have gone through a few design variations including
epitaxial lateral overgrowth (ELO) and vertical external cavity surface emitting lasers (VECSEL).
A recent trend is the use of selective etching to incorporate airgap or nanoporous GaN as low-index
media in an epitaxial GaN DBR structure. The nanoporous GaN DBR represents an offshoot from the
traditional epitaxial approach and may provide the needed flexibility in forming manufacturable
GaN VCSELs. The trade-offs and limitations of each approach are also presented.

Keywords: distributed Bragg reflector; VCSEL; GaN

1. Introduction
Propagation of electromagnetic waves in periodic media has produced a plethora of intriguing
natural phenomena and useful applications. The natural world provides a rich collection of examples
of bio-photonic structures including the wing of the Morpho butterfly [1,2], peacock feathers [3],
the striking colors of flower petals [4], the iridescent luster from nacre shells [5], and light confinement
in C. Wailesii cell wall [6,7], to name just a few [8]. Technological applications of periodic photonic
structures include diffraction of X-rays in crystals, wavelength selection in fiber gratings, physical
sensors and manipulation of light in photonic crystals. Distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs), sometimes
called Bragg mirrors or quarter wavelength stacks, represent one of the simplest periodic photonic
structures. In a multi-layered structure with a periodic high-low contrast in the optical index of
refraction, when the thicknesses of the individual layers equal to a quarter of the optical wavelength
(λ/4) (or more broadly the odd multiples of a quarter wavelength such as 3λ/4, 5λ/4, etc.), the successive
reflections at each interface cause constructive interference for the reflective wave around the Bragg
wavelength λ, and the multiple layers act as a mirror with a tunable reflectivity and bandwidth.
Multi-layered Bragg mirror structures were first demonstrated around 1940 with coatings of
alternate dielectric layers [9–11]. These dielectric structures contributed to the formation of high-Q

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1593; doi:10.3390/app9081593 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1593 2 of 20

cavity in the early development of lasers. With advances in modern epitaxial techniques such as
molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and organometallic vapor phase epitaxy (OMVPE) in the 1970s,
tremendous progress was made in the growth of AlGaAs heterostructures with atomic layer control.
Single crystalline, epitaxial DBR mirrors were demonstrated in the 1980s [12], which was arguably
the most important factor that led to the demonstrations of room-temperature of continuous-wave
operation of vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) in the infrared wavelengths [13,14].
Currently III-V VCSELs play an important role in data communications, mobile sensing, and many
emerging applications [15], with a projected global market of 3.89 billion USD by 2023 [16].
Since early 1990s, GaN-based blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes (LDs) have
revolutionized contemporary technologies in illumination and display. The technology of blue VCSELs,
however, has not reached the same level of maturity. Beginning in the late 1990s there were reports
of optically-pumped InGaN VCSELs [17,18]. More than 10 years later, electrically-injected InGaN
VCSELs were demonstrated in 2008 [19,20]. At the preparation of this review article, after another
10 years of pursuit, GaN VCSELs have yet to be commercialized in spite of encouraging progress. It is
accepted that a key component and bottleneck in the GaN VCSEL technologies is the preparation of
DBR mirrors, in particular the DBR mirror on the substrate side.
With the increasing interest in and reports of GaN VCSELs as a backdrop, this article aims to
provide a review and assessment of this key element for VCSEL with an intention that, by outlining
the experiences learned and remaining challenges, new breakthroughs and innovations will lead to the
ubiquitous deployment of short-wavelength visible VCSELs in lighting, display, communication and
other applications. This article is arranged in the following way, in Section 2 we will first review the
different techniques in preparing DBR mirrors for VCSELs, followed by a discussion of the properties
of and design constraints in fabricating DBR mirrors. Turning our focus to specific embodiments of
DBR mirrors for GaN VCSELs, we will then review the development of both epitaxial (Section 3) and
dielectric DBR mirrors (Section 4) and highlight the state of the art. The article is concluded with new
approaches of using airgap or nanoporous DBR mirrors to tackle this challenging yet crucial problem
for GaN VCSELs (Section 5).

2. Fabrication Techniques and Design Considerations of Distributed Bragg Reflectors (DBRs)

2.1. Fabrication Techniques of DBRs

Prior to 1980s, all of the highly reflective DBR mirrors were produced by the deposition of
amorphous dielectric layers with oxides (SiO2 , HfO2 , and Ta2 O5 ), nitrides (SiNx ), and fluorides
(MgF2 , . . . ) [21]. This was a branch in the mature field of optical coating [22] for interference filters,
anti-reflective coatings, mirrors, and absorbers. In this article we refer this approach of fabricating
DBR mirrors as non-epitaxial or dielectric DBRs, interchangeably. After the conceptual proposal of
VCSEL by K. Iga in 1977 [23], dielectric DBRs and/or metal reflectors were the only options toward
the realization of this novel device [24–27]. However, since the semiconductor gain region (a double
heterostructure, DH, or multiple quantum wells, MQWs) of a VCSEL needs to be prepared epitaxially
on a single crystalline substrate, major fabrication efforts had to be exerted to remove the single
crystalline substrates, or to expose the backside of the active region, and to coat both the top and
bottom surfaces of the gain region with non-epitaxial DBR mirrors. During this time the overall pursuit
of VCSEL devices can be considered more of a laboratory curiosity than for technology development.
With the advances in modern epitaxial technologies for III-V compound semiconductors, epitaxial
growth of AlGaAs/GaAs DBR mirrors was first demonstrated in 1983 using MBE [12] and subsequently
with OMVPE [28]. Epitaxial DBRs enable a continuous growth of a full VCSEL structure to greatly
simplify the fabrication process. Furthermore, semiconductor epitaxial DBRs could be made electrically
and thermally conductive, thus producing significant benefits to the VCSEL performance. With these
stated benefits, nevertheless, the pathway to manufacturable DBRs is by no means straightforward.
In the epitaxial growth of DBRs, an implicit requirement is the hetero-epitaxy of two λ/4 layers having
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1593 3 of 20

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sufficiently contrasting dielectric property in order to induce appreciable reflection at each interface.
means straightforward. In the epitaxial growth of DBRs, an implicit requirement is the hetero-epitaxy
Several technical challenges are often reported in the epitaxial production of DBR mirrors:
of two λ/4 layers having sufficiently contrasting dielectric property in order to induce appreciable
(1) In the at
reflection case
eachwhere the DBR
interface. Severallayers consists
technical of different
challenges cation
are often elements
reported in thesuch as Al,
epitaxial Ga, and or In,
production
the difference in
of DBR mirrors: diffusion properties of surface adatoms [29] needs to be factored into growth design
to ensure (1)two-dimensional growth modes [30,31].
In the case where the DBR layers consists of different cation elements such as Al, Ga, and or
In, In
(2) thethe
difference in diffusion
case where the DBR properties of surface
layers consists ofadatoms
different[29]
anionneeds to be factored
elements into As,
including growth
P, or Sb,
design to ensure
the difference two-dimensional
in surface reactivity growth modes [30,31].
and sticking coefficients needs to be carefully monitored and
controlled(2)[32,33],
In the case where the DBR layers consists of different anion elements including As, P, or Sb,
the difference in surface reactivity and sticking coefficients needs to be carefully monitored and
(3) In the use of ternary or quaternary alloys as DBR layers, it is crucial to maintain uniformity in
controlled [32,33],
compositions and thicknesses across the entire wafer [34–36],
(3) In the use of ternary or quaternary alloys as DBR layers, it is crucial to maintain uniformity
(4) As a result of (1)–(3), a need to use different, and sometimes compromised growth
in compositions and thicknesses across the entire wafer [34–36],
conditions (4)for
As the twooflayers,
a result (1)–(3),which
a need tooften results inand
use different, interfacial
sometimes disorder
compromisedor deterioration in surface
growth conditions
morphology [37,38], and
for the two layers, which often results in interfacial disorder or deterioration in surface morphology
(5) Lastand
[37,38], but not least, a difference in lattice parameters between the constituent layers leading to
high-tensile(5) Last but not least,strains
or compressive a difference
duringin lattice parameters
the growth between
of DBRs the constituent layers leading to
[39,40].
high-tensile or compressive strains during the growth of DBRs [39,40].
Given these challenges, growth of highly-reflective DBRs is often considered both the most
challenging Given
taskthese
andchallenges,
a symbolicgrowth
gaugeofofhighly-reflective
maturity in epitaxyDBRs foris often considered
a specific both the most
heteroepitaxial system.
challenging task and a symbolic gauge of maturity in epitaxy for a specific heteroepitaxial system.
We also want to add that the success in epitaxial DBRs has laid a foundation for modern integrated
We also want to add that the success in epitaxial DBRs has laid a foundation for modern integrated
optics [41] and even quantum optics [42].
optics [41] and even quantum optics [42].
2.2. Optical Design Consideration
2.2. Optical Design Consideration
The optical principle
The optical of a DBR
principle mirror
of a DBR is based
mirror on successive
is based Fresnel
on successive reflection
Fresnel at normal
reflection incidence
at normal
n1 −n2
at interfaces
incidenceamong two alternating
at interfaces among two layers withlayers
alternating refractive indices n1indices
with refractive r = nn21: +n2 . When
and nn21: and . the
optical thickness of each layer is maintained at a quarter wavelength (λ/4) thick, the
When the optical thickness of each layer is maintained at a quarter wavelength (λ/4) thick, the path
path difference
between reflections from successive interfaces equals to half the wavelength (λ/2), or 180 ◦
difference between reflections from successive interfaces equals to half the wavelength (λ/2),out of phase.
or 180°
However, ◦
out of phase. However, since reflections (r) at successive interfaces have alternating signsthe
since reflections (r) at successive interfaces have alternating signs to compensate to 180
phasecompensate
shift from the
the180°
differences in path
phase shift from length, all the reflected
the differences components
in path length, interferecomponents
all the reflected constructively,
and the cumulative
interfere reflection
constructively, andcanthebe enhancedreflection
cumulative by design.can The reflectance
be enhanced spectrum
by design. Theofreflectance
a DBR can be
spectrum
calculated of the
using a DBR can be calculated
transmission matrixusing
theory the[43];
transmission
an example matrix theory
of the [43]; anspectrum
calculated example of ofthe
an AlN
(n = 2.15)/GaN (n = 2.52)ofDBR
calculated spectrum an AlN
with (n=2.15)/GaN (n=2.52)of
different number DBR with
pairs differentinnumber
is shown Figureof 1a.pairs is shown
in Figure 1a.

Figure 1. (a)1.Calculated
Figure reflectance
(a) Calculated reflectancespectrums
spectrums of of
an an
AlN/GaN
AlN/GaN distributed
distributedBragg
Braggreflectors
reflectors (DBRs)
(DBRs) with
a Bragg
withwavelength λ of 450λnm.
a Bragg wavelength The
of 450 number
nm. of DBR
The number pairs
of DBR is increased
pairs is increasedfrom
from 1010toto500
500pairs. See text
pairs. See
text
for the explanation of ∆λmax
for the explanation of. Δλ
(b)max. (b) of
Plots Plots of peak
peak mirrormirror reflectance,
reflectance, R, versus
R, versus thethe numberofofDBR
number DBRpairs
pairs for AlAs/GaAs
for AlAs/GaAs mirrors (2.95,3.52),
mirrors (2.95,3.52), InP/InGaAsP
InP/InGaAsP lattice lattice
matched matched mirrors
mirrors (3.17,3.40),
(3.17,3.40), AlN/GaN
AlN/GaN mirrors
(2.15,2.52), and AlInN/GaN latticed matched mirrors (2.33,2.52) [44]. Reflectance from a dielectrica DBR
mirrors (2.15,2.52), and AlInN/GaN latticed matched mirrors (2.33,2.52) [44]. Reflectance from
dielectric DBR is also calculated and plotted.
is also calculated and plotted.

As the number of pairs increases, the shape of the reflectance spectrum evolves from a rounded
peak to a perfect rectangular spectral band, with the peak of reflectance increasing according to the
following equation [45]:
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As the number of pairs increases, theshape  ofthe

2m reflectance
2 spectrum evolves from a rounded
 1 − nL
peak to a perfect rectangular spectral band, withnHthe peak of reflectance increasing according to the

R = 

 , (1)
following equation [45]:  1 +  nL 2m 
n H

where m is the number of layer pairs, and nL and nH are the optical indices of the materials with
, (1)
lower and higher indices of refraction, respectively. According to Equation (1), we plot in Figure 1b
the peak reflectivity versus the number of DBR pairs m for several epitaxial systems consisting of
GaAs,where m isGaN,
InP, and the number
and a of layer pairs,
dielectric DBRand and2 /HfO
from SiO are the optical indices of the materials with
2 for comparison. For a low-threshold
VCSEL operation, a mirror reflectivity of > 99.5% is often required totoreduce
lower and higher indices of refraction, respectively. According Equation
the(1), we plot mirror
round-trip in Figure 1b
loss.
the peak reflectivity versus the number of DBR pairs m for several epitaxial systems
Dielectric DBRs in general provides the most ideal reflectance curve with relatively few numbers of consisting of
GaAs, InP, and GaN, and a dielectric DBR from SiO2/HfO2 for comparison. For a low-threshold
DBR pairs (m ~ 10). AlAs/GaAs and AlN/GaN have a sufficient index contrast to reach high reflectance
VCSEL operation, a mirror reflectivity of > 99.5% is often required to reduce the round-trip mirror
in ~20 pairs of DBR. In the other two cases epitaxial DBRs requires more than 40 pairs for high
loss. Dielectric DBRs in general provides the most ideal reflectance curve with relatively few numbers
reflectance. In practice, the number of pairs calculated based on Equation (1) gives a lower bound in
of DBR pairs (m ~10). AlAs/GaAs and AlN/GaN have a sufficient index contrast to reach high
experimental design; additional pairs are often required to offset other non-idealities such as surface
reflectance in ~20 pairs of DBR. In the other two cases epitaxial DBRs requires more than 40 pairs for
roughness or thickness variations.
high reflectance. In practice, the number of pairs calculated based on Equation (1) gives a lower
As seen in
bound in experimental
Figure 1a, thedesign;
width of the high-reflectance
additional band
pairs are often of DBRtomirrors,
required ∆λmax
offset other , is an important
non-idealities such
designasparameter for VCSEL. The stopband
surface roughness or thickness variations.width of DBR mirror is expressed as [45]:
As seen in Figure 1a, the width of the high-reflectance  band of DBR mirrors, Δλmax, is an
4λ ∆n

−1
important design parameter for∆λ VCSEL.
max = The sin
stopband width ,of DBR mirror is expressed as [45]: (2)
π nH + nL
∆
∆ sin , (2)
The ∆λmax given in Equation (2) specifies the full width at half maxima of the reflectance of
a DBR mirrorThe Δλ when the number
max given of pairs
in Equation approaches
(2) specifies the full width ∆λ
infinity. max is
at half proportional
maxima to the Bragg
of the reflectance of a
wavelength λ and when
DBR mirror is sensitively affected
the number by the
of pairs index contrast
approaches infinity.(∆nΔλ = max
nH is
− nproportional to the ∆n
L ). Thus, a higher is
Bragg
very desirable
wavelength in λDBR
and fabrication
is sensitively foraffected
both aby high
thepeak
indexreflectance
contrast (Δn (from
= Equation (1))a and
). Thus, a wide
higher Δn is
very width
stopband desirable
(fromin DBR fabrication
Equation (2)). In forthe
both a high implementation
practical peak reflectance (from with aEquation (1)) andofaDBR
finite number wide
pairs, stopband
the actualwidth
“usable”(from reflectance (2)). In the ∆λ
Equationbandwidth, practical
usable , implementation
for a high with
performance a finite
VCSEL number
(for of DBR
example
for R > 0.995) can be a factor of 2 to 3 times narrower than ∆λmax . Figure 2a provides a close-up plot of
pairs, the actual “usable” reflectance bandwidth, Δλ usable , for a high performance VCSEL (for example
for R > 0.995)
the evolution can be a factor
of spectrums of 2 1a,
in Figure to 3focusing
times narrower
on the highthan Δλ max. Figure
reflectance 2a provides
portion. As thea close-up
numberplotof
of the evolution of spectrums in Figure 1a, focusing on the high reflectance
pairs increases, the peak of the reflectance spectrum will reach a practical threshold (say, 0.995) portion. As the number
above
whichof∆λ pairs increases, the peak of the reflectance spectrum will reach a practical threshold (say, 0.995)
usable becomes greater than 0. As the number of DBR pairs continues to increase, ∆λusable
above which Δλusable becomes greater than 0. As the number of DBR pairs continues to increase, Δλusable
gradually increases toward the respective ∆λmax , defined by Equation (2). Such a transition of ∆λusable
gradually increases toward the respective Δλmax, defined by Equation (2). Such a transition of Δλusable
is plotted in Figure 2b here for two lattice-matched material systems, AlAs/GaAs and AlInN/GaN.
is plotted in Figure 2b here for two lattice-matched material systems, AlAs/GaAs and AlInN/GaN.
The large difference of ∆λusable in Figure 2b can be explained by Equation (2) due to approximately a
The large difference of Δλusable in Figure 2b can be explained by Equation (2) due to approximately a
2× difference in wavelength and almost 3× difference in ∆n.
2× difference in wavelength and almost 3× difference in Δn.

Figure 2. (a) A close-up of the reflectance spectrums near the peak as the number of pair increases.
Here aFigure
threshold > 99.5%ofisthe
2. (a)ofARclose-up reflectance
used above which spectrums near the
the portion of peak as the number
the reflectance of pair
spectrum is increases.
defined
as “usable” with a width of ∆λusable . (b) Plot of ∆λusable vs the number of DBR pairs for two
Here a threshold of R > 99.5% is used above which the portion of the reflectance spectrum is defined
lattice
as “usable”
matched with a width
material systems, of Δλusable
AlAs/GaAs and . (b) Plot of ΔλThe
AlInN/GaN. vs thedifference
usable large number of DBR pairs
of ∆λ is for to
due two lattice
mainly
usable
a 2× difference in wavelength and almost 3× difference in ∆n.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1593 5 of 20

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19

2.3. Transport Properties: Electrical and Thermal Conductivities
matched material systems, AlAs/GaAs and AlInN/GaN. The large difference of Δλusable is due to
The choice
mainly between non-epitaxial
a 2× difference in wavelength and epitaxial
and almost 3×DBRs hasina Δn.
difference significant implication on the resulting
device configuration. In the case of non-epitaxial DBRs, complex processing techniques are required
2.3. Transport
to encase Properties:
the epitaxial Electrical and
gain/active Thermal
region withConductivities
top and bottom dielectric DBRs (Figure 3a). Since
non-epitaxial
The DBRs
choiceare typically
between electricallyand
non-epitaxial insulating,
epitaxialone needs
DBRs hastoadevelop schemes
significant for lateral
implication on thecurrent
resulting
injection device
(shown configuration.asInred
schematically the arrows
case of non-epitaxial
in Figure 3a) DBRs, complex
through processingcurrent
intra-cavity techniques are
spreading
required
layers. Thesetolayers
encaseare thenecessarily
epitaxial gain/active
thin yet region
heavily with top and
doped, bottom
often dielectric DBRs
representing (Figurebetween
a trade-off 3a).
Since non-epitaxial DBRs are typically electrically insulating, one needs to develop
electrical impedance and optical absorptive loss. The issue of joule heating with lateral current injectionschemes for lateral
current injection (shown schematically as red arrows in Figure 3a) through intra-cavity current
is exacerbated by the rather poor thermal conductivities of dielectric DBRs (0.1~2 W/m-K). Thermal
spreading layers. These layers are necessarily thin yet heavily doped, often representing a trade-off
transport in non-epitaxial DBRs is sometimes improved by lengthening the cavity with additional
between electrical impedance and optical absorptive loss. The issue of joule heating with lateral
n-type layersinjection
current to facilitate lateral heat
is exacerbated flow
by the [46,47],
rather poororthermal
by incorporating
conductivities sophisticated CMOS-like
of dielectric DBRs (0.1~2 3D
heat-sinking
W/m-K).schemes through the
Thermal transport dielectric DBRs
in non-epitaxial DBRs[48].
is sometimes improved by lengthening the cavity
Epitaxial semiconductor
with additional n-type layers DBR mirrors offer
to facilitate lateralgood electrical
heat flow conductivities
[46,47], and improved
or by incorporating thermal
sophisticated
conductivities
CMOS-likeover their dielectric
3D heat-sinking counterpart.
schemes through the In dielectric
the best case
DBRsof[48].
the mature Al(Ga)As/GaAs system,
electrical Epitaxial
resistancesemiconductor
and thermal DBR mirrors offerof
conductivity good10−3 Ω-cm conductivities
electrical and 300 W/m-K, and improved thermal
respectively, can be
achieved [49,50]. Conductive DBRs enable vertical current injection into the gain region system,
conductivities over their dielectric counterpart. In the best case of the mature Al(Ga)As/GaAs of a VCSEL
electrical
for best current resistance
uniformity and thermal
and device conductivity
impedance of 10 -3 Ω-cm and 300 W/m-K, respectively, can be
(Figure 3b). This is the configuration nearly all
achieved [49,50]. Conductive DBRs enable vertical current injection into the gain region of a VCSEL
commercial VCSELs employ. However, injecting current though the epitaxial DBR comes with its own
for best current uniformity and device impedance (Figure 3b). This is the configuration nearly all
challenges. The stacking of alternating layers of different bandgaps, create potential barriers which
commercial VCSELs employ. However, injecting current though the epitaxial DBR comes with its
inhibit carrier
own flow and
challenges. The increase
stacking theofoverall DBRlayers
alternating resistance. Several
of different techniques
bandgaps, have
create been implemented,
potential barriers
such which
as interfacial doping [51] or interfacial alloy grading [52,53], however,
inhibit carrier flow and increase the overall DBR resistance. Several techniques these implementations
have been
often implemented,
come on the expense
such as of the optical
interfacial reflectivity
doping [51] or and thermal
interfacial properties
alloy grading of the DBRs
[52,53], and athese
however, trade-off
between the differentoften
implementations properties
come on is the
usually
expensedecided.
of the optical reflectivity and thermal properties of the
DBRs and a trade-off between the different properties is usually decided.

Figure 3. Schematic
Figure 3. Schematicillustrations ofvertical
illustrations of vertical cavity
cavity surface-emitting
surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs)
lasers (VCSELs) employing employing
non-
non-epitaxial
epitaxial (a)
(a) and epitaxial
epitaxial(b)
(b)DBRs.
DBRs.The
Thepathways
pathways forfor current
current injection
injection are shown
are shown in and
in red red green
and green
arrows
arrows fornon-epitaxial
for the the non-epitaxial
andand epitaxialmirrors,
epitaxial mirrors,respectively.
respectively.

While While the epitaxial

the epitaxial DBR DBR configurationisisaa clear
configuration clear preference
preferenceandandthe mainstream
the mainstream for the
for mature
the mature
infrared and red VCSEL industry, the choice of DBR for AlGaInN-based
infrared and red VCSEL industry, the choice of DBR for AlGaInN-based VCSELs remains a debatableVCSELs remains a debatable
subject and represents a tradeoff among optical properties, transport limitation, and ultimately the
subject and represents a tradeoff among optical properties, transport limitation, and ultimately the
manufacturability. In Figure 4 we illustrate these design constraints in a qualitative way. As is
manufacturability. In Figure 4 we illustrate these design constraints in a qualitative way. As is described
described in Section 2.2, semiconductor DBRs sometimes have limited Δn and consequently a narrow
in Section 2.2, semiconductor DBRs sometimes have limited ∆n and consequently a narrow width of
width of stopband Δλusable. A more pertinent gauge for the manufacturability of VCSELs is not the
stopband ∆λ
absolute usable width . Aofmore pertinent
Δλusable gauge
, as is shown in for the 4,
Figure manufacturability
but a normalized of VCSELs
ratio, which is
wenot the absolute
defined as
widthΔλ ∆λ
ofusable that, as
/λ,usable is shown
needs in Figure 4,above
to be maintained but aa normalized
certain margin ratio, which
against the we defined as ∆λ
non-uniformities usable /λ,
and
that needs
variationsto bethatmaintained
are often above a certain
inevitable margin
in epitaxy and against the processes.
fabrication non-uniformities and variations
For example, for a blue that
are often inevitable in epitaxy and fabrication processes. For example, for a blue VCSEL emitting at
λ = 450 nm, a ∆λusable of 9 nm wide, centered around 450 nm, would require the variation of cavity
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1593 6 of 20
VCSEL emitting at λ = 450 nm, a Δλusable of 9 nm wide, centered around 450 nm, would require the
variation of cavity mode (related to the thickness control) and gain peak (related to indium
mode (related to2019,
Appl. Sci.
the9,thickness
x FORrate)
control)
PEER toREVIEW
and gain peak (related to indium composition and growth rate)
6 of 19
composition and growth be with ± 1.0% across the wafer to have a sufficient yield of VCSELs.
to be with ± 1.0% across the wafer to have a sufficient yield of VCSELs. Any deviation across the
Any deviation across the wafer in thickness or composition that exceeds this 1% margin will
wafer in VCSEL
thickness or composition
emitting at λ = 450 nm, that exceeds
a Δλ usable of this
9 nm1% margin
wide, willaround
centered substantially
450 nm, change, if notthe
would require fail,
substantially change, if notmode
of cavity ∆λ
fail, the VCSEL characteristics. Δλusableand
/λ therefore can(related
be considered the
the VCSEL variation
characteristics. usable /λ
(related to
therefore the
can thickness
be control)
considered the gain
tolerance peak
in process to indium
variations in
tolerancecomposition
in process and variations in manufacturing VCSELs. In Figure 4 we plot the calculated Δλ usable/λ
manufacturing VCSELs. growth In Figure rate) to beplot
4 we with the± 1.0%
calculated ∆λwafer
across the
usable /λ
toversus
have a m sufficient
for the yield of VCSELs.
AlAs/GaAs (λ =
versus mAny for the AlAs/GaAs
deviation across (λ
the= 950
wafer nm) in and AlInN/GaN
thickness or (λ = 450 nm)
composition that systems
exceeds to illustrate
this 1% marginthiswill
idea,
950 nm) and AlInN/GaN (λ = 450 nm) systems to illustrate this idea, using a value ∆λusable /λ = 0.02
using a value Δλusable/λ
substantially = 0.02if as
change, notthe
fail,cutoff belowcharacteristics.
the VCSEL which the process Δλusablewindow
/λ thereforebecomes too narrow
can be considered thefor
as the cutoff below which the process window becomes too narrow for the specific approach to be
the specific approach
tolerance to bevariations
in process deemed mass-producible
in manufacturing VCSELs. [54]. As Inthe number
Figure 4 weof DBR
plot thepair increases,
calculated there
Δλusable /λ
deemed mass-producible [54]. As the number of DBR pair increases, there will be a practical upper
will be aversus m for upper
practical the AlAs/GaAs (λ = 950 jointly
limit defined nm) andby AlInN/GaN
opposing(λfactors
= 450 nm) systems
such to illustrate
as electrical this idea,
impedance,
limit defined
using jointly
a value byΔλ opposing factors such as electrical impedance, thermal resistance, and epitaxial
usable/λ = 0.02 as the cutoff below which the process window becomes too narrow for
thermal resistance, and epitaxial strain energy. Such a practical upper bound is labeled as the dashed
strain energy. Such approach
the specific a practical to upper
be deemed bound is labeled as [54].
mass-producible the dashed verticaloflines
DBR in Figure 4, beyond
vertical lines in Figure 4, beyond which the DBR synthesis isAs nothe number
longer deemed pair increases,
manufacturable. there
The
which the DBR
will be synthesis
a practicalisupper no longer deemedjointly
limit defined manufacturable.
by opposing The feasibility
factors such as of a particular
electrical choice
impedance,
feasibility of a particular choice of DBRs will depend on how much the calculated Δλusable/λ curves
of DBRs thermal
will depend on how
resistance, and much
epitaxial the strain energy. ∆λ
calculated Such /λ curves
a practical
usable traverse
upper boundthe “second
is labeled quadrant”,
as the dashed
traverse vertical
the “second quadrant”,
lines in inFigure
or thewhich
4, beyond
greenthe quadrant, in Figure 4.
DBR synthesis is no longer deemed manufacturable. The
or the green quadrant, Figure 4.
feasibility of a particular choice of DBRs will depend on how much the calculated Δλusable/λ curves
traverse the “second quadrant”, or the green quadrant, in Figure 4.

Figure 4. A plot of normalized stop bandwidth, ∆λusable /λ, versus the number of DBR pairs for
Figure 4. A plot of normalized stop bandwidth, Δλusable/λ, versus the number of DBR pairs for (a)
(a) AlAs/GaAs DBR, (b) AlN/GaN DBR, and (c) AlInN/GaN DBR. The normalized stop bandwidth for
AlAs/GaAs DBR,
Figure 4. A(b)plot
AlN/GaN DBR, stop
of normalized and bandwidth,
(c) AlInN/GaN DBR.
Δλusable The normalized
/λ, versus stop
the number of bandwidth
DBR for
pairs for (a)
selected material
AlAs/GaAssystems is also
DBR, (b) labeled.
selected material systems is AlN/GaN DBR, and (c) AlInN/GaN DBR. The normalized stop bandwidth for
also labeled.
selected material systems is also labeled.
As can be inferred from Figure 4, the range of operation is drastically different from AlAs/GaAs
As can be inferred from Figure 4, the range of operation is drastically different from AlAs/GaAs
to III-nitride DBRs.
As can beThe binaryfrom
inferred AlN/GaN
Figure 4,hasthearange
high of
index contrast
operation yet is exceedingly
is drastically different fromchallenging
AlAs/GaAsin
to III-nitride DBRs. The binary AlN/GaN has a high index contrast yet is exceedingly challenging in
epitaxy. The lattice-matched
to III-nitride DBRs. The AlInN/GaN
binary AlN/GaN system can
has be prepared
a high in principle
index contrast with morechallenging
yet is exceedingly pairs, yet the
in
epitaxy. The lattice-matched AlInN/GaN system can be prepared in principle with more pairs, yet
epitaxy. The lattice-matched AlInN/GaN system can be prepared in principle
increased feasibility is somewhat offset by a low index that can be summarized as finding or creating with more pairs, yet
the increased feasibility is somewhat
the increased offsetoffset
by abylow index thatthatcan
canbe besummarized as finding
findingoror
a sweet spot betweenfeasibility is somewhat
Figure 4b,c. In the following a low
we index
will review the summarized
history as
and development of
creating a sweet aspot between Figure 4b and 4b,c.
FigureIn 4c.
theInfollowing
the following wereview
will review the history
different creating
DBRs in GaN sweet spot between
VCSELs. Numerous Figure implementations of DBRs we have
will the history
been reported andand
are
and development
development of different DBRs
of different DBRs in in
GaNGaN VCSELs.
VCSELs.Numerous
Numerous implementations
implementations ofofDBRs DBRshave havebeen
been
categorized in Figure 5 for clarity. For the III-nitride VCSELs, it is pretty much the consensus that
reportedreported
and areand categorized in Figure
are categorized 5 for5clarity.
in Figure ForFor
for clarity. thethe
III-nitride
III-nitrideVCSELs,
VCSELs, itit is pretty
prettymuch
muchthe the
p-type III-nitride epitaxial DBRs cannot be realized in the foreseeable future, so the types of III-nitride
consensus that p-type III-nitride epitaxial DBRs cannot be realized in the
consensus that p-type III-nitride epitaxial DBRs cannot be realized in the foreseeable future, so the foreseeable future, so the
VCSELs types
are divided into either
of III-nitride VCSELshybrid (dielectric-epitaxial)
are divided or all(dielectric-epitaxial)
dielectric versions. Inallour review,
types of III-nitride VCSELs are divided intointo either
either hybrid
hybrid (dielectric-epitaxial) or or all dielectric
dielectric
we will outline theIntechnical issues associated with growthissues
or fabrication and
withwill discuss the respective
versions.versions. our review,
In our review, we willweoutline
will outline the technical
the technical associatedwith
issues associated growth
growth or
or fabrication
fabricationand and
strengthswill
anddiscuss
limitations.
the respective strengths and limitations.
will discuss the respective strengths and limitations.

.
Figure 5. A chart depicting different approaches to prepare DBRs toward the fabrication of III-nitride
VCSEL devices. The corresponding sections of review are labeled at the bottom.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19

Figure 5. A chart depicting different approaches to prepare DBRs toward the fabrication of III-nitride
Appl. Sci. 2019,
VCSEL 9, 1593The corresponding sections of review are labeled at the bottom.
devices. 7 of 20

3. Epitaxial DBRs for GaN Vertical Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers (VCSELs)

3. Epitaxial DBRs for GaN Vertical Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers (VCSELs)
3.1. Al(Ga)N/GaN DBRs
3.1. Al(Ga)N/GaN DBRs
A lattice mismatching of 2.4% between AlN and GaN introduces excessive tensile or
A lattice mismatching of 2.4% between AlN and GaN introduces excessive tensile or compressive
compressive strain and stress (~7 kPa) in AlN/GaN heteroepitaxial layers [55]. Instead of using the
strain and stress (~7 kPa) in AlN/GaN heteroepitaxial layers [55]. Instead of using the two binary
two binary ends (AlN and GaN) as the DBR materials, adjusting the AlN or GaN mole fraction in a
ends (AlN and GaN) as the DBR materials, adjusting the AlN or GaN mole fraction in a ternary
ternary AlGaN compound can help to reduce the strain accumulation during DBR growth and
AlGaN compound can help to reduce the strain accumulation during DBR growth and minimize the
minimize the possibility of crack formation. However, the index contrast between AlN and GaN is
possibility of crack formation. However, the index contrast between AlN and GaN is only ~0.34 [56,57].
only ~0.34 [56,57]. Using a ternary layer as one of the DBR layers will significantly reduce the index
Using a ternary layer as one of the DBR layers will significantly reduce the index contrast, which then
contrast, which then necessitates a large number of AlGaN/GaN pairs (>50 pairs) to achieve a high
necessitates a large number of AlGaN/GaN pairs (>50 pairs) to achieve a high reflectance.
reflectance.
While the index contrast between AlN and GaN is 0.34, the large lattice mismatch (2.4%) between
While the index contrast between AlN and GaN is 0.34, the large lattice mismatch (2.4%) between
the two compounds would introduce excessive tensile or compressive strain and stress (~7kPa) within
the two compounds would introduce excessive tensile or compressive strain and stress (~7kPa)
the AlN/GaN heteroepitaxial layers, extremely deteriorating the DBRs properties. Therefore, it is
within the AlN/GaN heteroepitaxial layers, extremely deteriorating the DBRs properties. Therefore,
common adjust the AlN and GaNN mole fraction in a ternary AlGaN compound to reduce strain
it is common adjust the AlN and GaNN mole fraction in a ternary AlGaN compound to reduce strain
accumulation and minimize the possibility of crack formation. However, due to the lowered refractive
accumulation and minimize the possibility of crack formation. However, due to the lowered
index contrast, in an AlGaN/GaN DBR, a large number of pairs (>50) is required to achieve high
refractive index contrast, in an AlGaN/GaN DBR, a large number of pairs (>50) is required to achieve
reflectance, which is indeed not an easy growth task.
high reflectance, which is indeed not an easy growth task.
In 1991, Khan et al. [58] reported the first Al0.2 Ga0.8 N/GaN DBRs in the blue (442 nm) and
In 1991, Khan et al. [58] reported the first Al0.2Ga0.8N/GaN DBRs in the blue (442 nm) and violet
violet (375 nm) wavelengths. A small amount of Al was used in ternary AlGaN for the ease
(375 nm) wavelengths. A small amount of Al was used in ternary AlGaN for the ease of growth but
of growth but compromised the reflectance (80~95%). In 1996, Redwing et al. [59] reported the
compromised the reflectance (80~95%). In 1996, Redwing et al. [59] reported the first optically
first optically pumped GaN-based VCSEL with a 10-µm GaN active region sandwiched between
pumped GaN-based VCSEL with a 10-μm GaN active region sandwiched between 30 pairs of
30 pairs of Al0.40 Ga0.60 N/Al0.12 Ga0.88 N top and bottom DBRs with reflectances of 93% and 84%,
Al0.40Ga0.60N/Al0.12Ga0.88N top and bottom DBRs with reflectances of 93% and 84%, respectively. The
respectively. The low-reflectivity mirrors and a long cavity lead to a very high threshold pumping
low-reflectivity mirrors and a long cavity lead to a very high threshold pumping power (2.0
power2 (2.0 MW/cm2 ). To overcome the stress generation and enable growth of a larger number of DBR
MW/cm ). To overcome the stress generation and enable growth of a larger number of DBR pairs
pairs with good epitaxial quality, several proposals were made using either short-period superlattices
with good epitaxial quality, several proposals were made using either short-period superlattices (SLs)
(SLs) [60] or thin low-temperature AlN interlayers [61] below or inside the DBRs to release the strain.
[60] or thin low-temperature AlN interlayers [61] below or inside the DBRs to release the strain.
Between 1999 and 2000, several groups reported optically pumped VCSEL operation using AlGaN/GaN
Between 1999 and 2000, several groups reported optically pumped VCSEL operation using
epitaxial DBRs [17,18,62]. The research on AlGaN DBRs continued in subsequent years [60,63–67].
AlGaN/GaN epitaxial DBRs [17,18,62]. The research on AlGaN DBRs continued in subsequent years
Electrical injection with AlGaN/GaN DBR microcavity began with a resonant cavity light-emitting
[60,63–67]. Electrical injection with AlGaN/GaN DBR microcavity began with a resonant cavity light-
diode (LED) in 2001 [68]. The continual pursuit of Al(Ga)N epitaxial DBR-based VCSEL culminated
emitting diode (LED) in 2001 [68]. The continual pursuit of Al(Ga)N epitaxial DBR-based VCSEL
in 2008 when National Chiao Tung University (NCTU) reported the continuous-wave operation at
culminated in 2008 when National Chiao Tung University (NCTU) reported the continuous-wave
room temperature of an electrically injected GaN VCSEL, using a strain-engineered AlN/GaN DBR in
operation at room temperature of an electrically injected GaN VCSEL, using a strain-engineered
combination with a top dielectric Ta2 O5 /SiO2 DBR [19]. An AlN/GaN superlattice AlN/GaN insertion
AlN/GaN DBR in combination with a top dielectric Ta2O5/SiO2 DBR [19]. An AlN/GaN superlattice
layer was employed to ease the mismatch. In Figure 6 the TEM micrographs and the corresponding
AlN/GaN insertion layer was employed to ease the mismatch. In Figure 6 the TEM micrographs and
reflectance spectrums are shown to demonstrate the benefit [69].
the corresponding reflectance spectrums are shown to demonstrate the benefit [69].

Figure 6. Cont.
 Appl.
Appl. Sci.Sci.
2019, 9, x9,FOR
2019, 1593PEER REVIEW 8 of 819
of 20

Figure 6. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) cross-sectional images of AlN/GaN DBR grown
Figure 6. Transmission
on sapphire substrateelectron
(a) withmicroscope (TEM)
AlN/GaN SLIL, (b)cross-sectional
without AlN/GaNimages of and
SLIL, AlN/GaN
(c) the DBR grown
corresponding
on reflectance
sapphire substrate (a) Copyright
spectrum. with AlN/GaN SLIL, (b)ofwithout
2009 Journal Crystal AlN/GaN SLIL, and (c) the corresponding
Growth [69].
reflectance spectrum. Copyright 2009 Journal of Crystal Growth [69].
Usually before reaching the required number of pairs for high reflectance, the growth of the
AlGaN/GaN DBRsreaching
Usually before already encounters
the required significant
number cracking, morphological
of pairs for degradation,
high reflectance, or generation
the growth of the
of dislocations.
AlGaN/GaN DBRsAs already
VCSEL devices require
encounters exceptionally
significant accuratemorphological
cracking, control in longitudinal and lateral
degradation, or
modes, any
generation strain or wafer
of dislocations. bowing
As VCSEL wouldrequire
devices have serious consequences
exceptionally accurate in production.
control After the
in longitudinal
anddemonstration
lateral modes,by anyNCTU, the
strain or effortbowing
wafer in making
would VCSELs using consequences
have serious Al(Ga)N/GaNinDBRs has somewhat
production. After
thesubsided, likelyby
demonstration because
NCTU,ofthe the almost
effort insurmountable
in making VCSELs usingproblem in epitaxial
Al(Ga)N/GaN strain
DBRs hasmanagement,
somewhat
especially
subsided, in a because
likely manufacturing
of the environment.
almost insurmountable problem in epitaxial strain management,
especially in a manufacturing environment.
3.2. AlInN/GaN DBRs
3.2. AlInN/GaN DBRs is an interesting alloy in the III-nitride family that is much less explored compared
Ternary AlInN
with ternaryAlInN
Ternary AlGaN. is Early work of MOCVD
an interesting alloy ingrowth of AlInNfamily
the III-nitride [70,71] that
identified
is muchthe challenges
less explored in the
growth of this ternary compound due to both the large mismatch
compared with ternary AlGaN. Early work of MOCVD growth of AlInN [70,71] identified the between InN and AlN covalent bonds,
as well as
challenges inathevast difference
growth of thisin ternary
optimalcompound
growth conditions
due to bothbetween InNmismatch
the large (~600 C) and AlN (>
between InN 1100
and°C)
using MOCVD. In spite of these difficulties, AlInN with an Al fraction
AlN covalent bonds, as well as a vast difference in optimal growth conditions between InN (~600 C)of around 80% has drawn a lot
andofAlN
attention [72] due
(> 1100℃) usingto its ability to
MOCVD. Inbe made
spite completely
of these lattice-matched
difficulties, AlInN with toanGaN, raising the
Al fraction hope of a
of around
duplicate of the success in AlGaAs/GaAs material system.
80% has drawn a lot of attention [72] due to its ability to be made completely lattice-matched to GaN,
In 2003,
raising the hopethe of aÉcole Polytechnique
duplicate Fédérale
of the success de Lausanne
in AlGaAs/GaAs (EPFL)system.
material demonstrated lattice-matched
AlInN(Al
In 2003, ~0.82)/GaN distributed Bragg
the École Polytechnique reflectors
Fédérale (20 pairs)
de Lausanne with demonstrated
(EPFL) a peak reflectance of ~90% [44].
lattice-matched
AlInN(Al ~0.82)/GaN distributed Bragg reflectors (20 pairs) with a peak reflectance of ~90%. [44]with
Two years later they improved the reflectance to 99% and demonstrated a planar microcavity Twotop
and bottom epitaxial AlInN/GaN DBRs [73].
years later they improved the reflectance to 99% and demonstrated a planar microcavity with top
The typical
and bottom epitaxial growth
AlInN/GaNrate ofDBRsAlInN by OMVPE was very low (less than 0.2 µm/h) due to vastly
[73].
different
The typical growth rate of AlInN by OMVPE[44])
supersaturation (6 orders of magnitude! was of Al and
very lowIn species
(less thanat0.2 growth
μm/h)surface.
due to Avastly
narrow
growthsupersaturation
different window is typically identified
(6 orders to simultaneously
of magnitude! [44]) ofallow
Al and a very limitedat
In species diffusion
growthofsurface.
Al adatomsA
narrow growth window is typically identified to simultaneously allow a very limited diffusion of Al to
while accommodating the incorporation of In atoms. Due to such a low growth rate, it can take up
one fullwhile
adatoms day to synthesize a 40-pair
accommodating AlInN/GaN of
the incorporation DBRIn with
atoms.over
Due 99% of peak
to such reflectance.
a low growth rate,Afteritalmost
can
10 up
take years fromfull
to one their
dayinitial report of AlInN,
to synthesize a 40-pair EPFL reported DBR
AlInN/GaN an electrically
with overinjected
99% of GaN
peakVCSEL in 2012
reflectance.
with
After a bottom
almost Al0.82from
10 years In0.18 N/GaN DBRreport
their initial and a of TiO2 /SiO
topAlInN, 2 DBR
EPFL [74], attesting
reported the inherent
an electrically challenges
injected GaN
in growing this ternary compound.
VCSEL in 2012 with a bottom Al0.82In0.18N/GaN DBR and a top TiO2/SiO2 DBR [74], attesting the
inherent challenges in growing this ternary compound.
Subsequently, AlInN DBRs were pursued by two groups. Otto-von-Guericke-Universität
Magdeburg studied the critical conditions of lattice matching between AlInN and GaN [76]. They
also proposed a two-temperature growth procedure [77] and reported the need to use GaN capping
layer to improve the interfacial transitions. Meijo University performed very detailed study of
OMVPE growth conditions for AlInN and identified a new window for high growth rate (~0.5 μm/h)
[75]. The growth condition for a high growth rate requires short gas mixing time, low In/Al ratio and
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1593 9 of 20

Subsequently, AlInN DBRs were pursued by two groups. Otto-von-Guericke-Universität

Magdeburg studied the critical conditions of lattice matching between AlInN and GaN [75]. They also
proposed a two-temperature growth procedure [76] and reported the need to use GaN capping layer to
improve the interfacial transitions. Meijo University performed very detailed study of OMVPE growth
conditions for AlInN and identified a new window for high growth rate (~0.5 µm/h) [77]. The growth
Appl. Sci. for
condition 2019,a9,high
x FOR PEER REVIEW
growth 9 of 19
rate requires short gas mixing time, low In/Al ratio and relatively high
growth temperature. With such a growth condition, Meijo University demonstrated AlInN/GaN DBRs
relatively
with more than high 99%growth temperature.
reflectance With such agrowth
in a much-reduced growth condition,
time Meijo University
(~12 h) (Figure 7). demonstrated
AlInN/GaN DBRs with more than 99% reflectance in a much-reduced growth time (~12 h) (Figure 7).

Figure 7. (a) 2 × 2 µm2 atomic force microscope (AFM) image of a 45-pair n-type conducting AlInN/GaN
Figure 7. (a) 2 × 2 μm2 atomic force microscope (AFM) image of a 45-pair n-type conducting
DBR. (b) Measured and simulated reflectance spectra of the AlInN/GaN DBR. Reprinted from Ref [78,79],
AlInN/GaN DBR. (b) Measured and simulated reflectance spectra of the AlInN/GaN DBR. Reprinted
Copyright 2016 Applied Physics Express and 2018 Reports on Progress in Physics.
from Ref [79,81], Copyright 2016 Applied Physics Express and 2018 Reports on Progress in Physics.
In 2016, Meijo University achieved high conductivity in AlInN/GaN DBRs by using modulation
In 2016,
doping and Meijo University
composition grading atachieved high conductivity
the GaN/AlInN in AlInN/GaN
interfaces [80]. ImmediatelyDBRs after by
theusing modulation
demonstration,
doping and composition grading at the GaN/AlInN interfaces
they developed VCSELs with conductive AlInN/GaN DBRs with back-side contact, showing [78]. Immediately afterthethe
demonstration, they developed VCSELs with conductive AlInN/GaN DBRs
feasibility of GaN-based VCSELs with vertical current injections through conducting DBRs [78]. Sincewith back-side contact,
showing
2017, Stanleythe feasibility in
Corporation, ofcollaboration
GaN-based with VCSELsMeijo with verticalhas
University, current injections
further advanced through conducting
the performance
DBRs [79]. Since 2017, Stanley Corporation, in collaboration with Meijo
of AlInN-based GaN VCSELs with record high optical power and slope efficiencies [81]. The current University, has further
advanced the performance of AlInN-based GaN VCSELs with record high
trend in AlInN/GaN-based VCSEL structure appears to shift toward longer cavity and non-conductive optical power and slope
efficiencies [80]. The current trend in AlInN/GaN-based VCSEL structure appears to shift toward
DBRs [79] toward manufacturing of high-power VCSEL devices for lighting applications. Large-scale
longer cavity and non-conductive DBRs [81] toward manufacturing of high-power VCSEL devices
commercial manufacturability of VCSEL devices involving AlInN DBRs should become clear in the
for lighting applications. Large-scale commercial manufacturability of VCSEL devices involving
next few years.
AlInN DBRs should become clear in the next few years.
4. Non-Epitaxial DBRs for GaN VCSELs
4. Non-Epitaxial DBRs for GaN VCSELs
Since the beginning of GaN VCSEL development, non-epitaxial dielectric DBRs have always been
Since
considered as the beginning
the backup of the
if not GaN VCSEL
only option.development, non-epitaxial
It should be clear dielectric
from Section 3 that DBRs have always
the challenges in
beenepitaxy
nitride considered as thetobackup
continues demandif parallel
not the solutions
only option.withItnon-epitaxial
should be clearDBRs. from
ForSection 3 that
the record, Y.K.the
challenges
Song in nitride
et al. reported epitaxy
in 2000 continues
the first to demand
resonant cavity LEDsparallel
withsolutions with non-epitaxial
two dielectric DBRs.mode
mirrors [82]. Clear For the
record, Y. K. Song et al. reported in 2000 the first resonant cavity LEDs with
patterns and emission directionality was reported even though no threshold behavior was achieved. two dielectric mirrors
[82].are
There Clear mode
several patterns
methods and emission
to remove substratesdirectionality
in order to was reported
deposit even DBR
the bottom though no threshold
mirror, which
will be reviewed in Section 4.1. Several innovative methods to encase the active region with dielectricthe
behavior was achieved. There are several methods to remove substrates in order to deposit
bottom
DBRs, DBR mirror,
including which
epitaxial willovergrowth
lateral be reviewed in Section
(ELO) 4.1. Several
and substrate innovative
thinning, have methods
producedtonewencase
andthe
activeresults;
exciting regionthey
withwill
dielectric DBRs,inincluding
be discussed Sections 4.2 epitaxial
and 4.3,lateral overgrowth (ELO) and substrate
respectively.
thinning, have produced new and exciting results; they will be discussed in Sections 4.2 and 4.3,
4.1.respectively.
Dielectric DBRs through Substrate Removal
Nichia [20], Panasonic [83], and University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) [84], have
4.1. Dielectric DBRs through Substrate Removal
demonstrated GaN VCSELs using a flip-chip method. In the flip-chip and substrate removal process, a
Nichia
dielectric DBR [20], Panasonic
is firstly deposited[83],
onand Universitysurface
the as-grown of California, Santa Barbara
side (or p-type (UCSB)by
side), followed [84], have
wafer
demonstrated
bonding GaNwafer.
to a handling VCSELs using aremoval
Substrate flip-chipcan
method. In the flip-chip
be accomplished and substrate
by laser-induced removal
liftoff (LLO)process,
[20],
a dielectric DBR is (PEC)
photoelectrochemical firstlyetching
deposited
of aon the as-grown
sacrificial surface
layer [84], sideetching
wet/dry (or p-type
[85],side), followed by wafer
or chemo-mechanical
bonding to a handling wafer. Substrate removal can be accomplished by laser-induced liftoff (LLO)
[20], photoelectrochemical (PEC) etching of a sacrificial layer [84], wet/dry etching [85], or chemo-
mechanical polishing (CMP) [86]. LLO was developed in 1999 [87] to separate GaN LEDs from a
sapphire substrate with the back-side irradiation of an excimer laser. This method, however, does not
work with GaN or Si substrates due to their opacity to the excimer laser, which is a serious limitation
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1593 10 of 20

polishing (CMP) [86]. LLO was developed in 1999 [87] to separate GaN LEDs from a sapphire substrate
with the back-side irradiation of an excimer laser. This method, however, does not work with GaN
or Si substrates due to their opacity to the excimer laser, which is a serious limitation for VCSEL
devices grown on bulk GaN substrates. Generally, substrate removal requires a follow-up polishing
step
Appl.to
Sci.smoothen
2019, 9, x FORthe surface
PEER REVIEWand fine-tune the cavity thickness after layer separation. Achieving 10 of 19
precise control of cavity thickness through polishing, with good uniformity across the entire wafer
can be awafer
entire challenging
can be task. The use of
a challenging a PEC
task. Theapproach
use of a has
PECanapproach
advantage hasofan
precisely controlling
advantage the
of precisely
thickness
controlling of the
themicrocavity
thickness ofthrough a bandgap-selective
the microcavity through aetching process [84]. A
bandgap-selective schematic
etching drawing
process [84].ofA
an all-dielectric
schematic drawingVCSEL device
of an using theVCSEL
all-dielectric PEC method
device is shown
using the in Figure
PEC 8. The
method dielectric
is shown DBRs could
in Figure 8. The
impede heat dissipation, and UCSB reported a very sophisticated method of heat sinking
dielectric DBRs could impede heat dissipation, and UCSB reported a very sophisticated method of [88].
heat sinking [88].

.
Figure 8. (a) Cross-sectional schematic of nonpolar m-plane GaN VCSEL with flip-chip design and
Figure 8. (a) Cross-sectional schematic of nonpolar m-plane GaN VCSEL with flip-chip design and
dielectric mirrors. (b) Scannng electron microscope (SEM) image of multiple completed devices.
dielectric mirrors. (b) Scannng electron microscope (SEM) image of multiple completed devices. (c)
(c) Optical microscopy image of device lasing under pulsed operation [84]. Copyright 2012 Appl.
Optical microscopy image of device lasing under pulsed operation [84]. Copyright 2012 Appl. Phys.
Phys. Express.
Express.
4.2. Non-Epitaxial DBRs through Epitaxial Lateral Overgrowth (ELO)
4.2. Non-Epitaxial DBRs through Epitaxial Lateral Overgrowth (ELO)
Epitaxial lateral overgrowth (ELO) was a technique used to grow GaN over patterned dielectric
mask Epitaxial lateralisovergrowth
regions which effective in(ELO) was a technique
dislocation reductionsused [89].toThe
grow
ideaGaN over patterned
of utilizing dielectric
dielectric DBR
mask regions which is effective in dislocation reductions [89]. The idea
stacks as ELO mask layers for VCSEL fabrication was first proposed by Nurmikko and Song [90]. Sony of utilizing dielectric DBR
stacks as ELO mask layers for VCSEL fabrication was first proposed by
Corporation reported in 2015 the use of ELO to fabricate double dielectric VCSELs without substrate Nurmikko and Song [90].
Sony Corporation
removal [54,91]. The reported
fabrication in 2015 theVCSEL
of the use of ELOby thetoELO
fabricate double
technique dielectric
starts with aVCSELs without
dielectric DBR
substrate removal [54,91]. The fabrication of the VCSEL by the ELO
deposition and patterning on a GaN template. Subsequently, ELO is conducted by MOCVD to grow technique starts with a dielectric
DBR
the deposition
remaining and patterning
VCSEL structure (see on a Figure
GaN template. Subsequently,
9), and the dielectric DBR ELOisisburied
conducted
by theby overgrown
MOCVD to
growlayers.
GaN the remaining VCSEL
Finally, another structure
dielectric DBR (see Figure 9),on
is deposited andthethe
top dielectric
side to form DBR theisfull
buried by the
microcavity.
overgrown GaN layers. Finally, another dielectric DBR is deposited on the
In spite of the elegance of this approach, there is a practical limitation in the minimum thickness top side to form the full
microcavity.
of In spiteGiven
the microcavity. of thethe elegance
limitedof achievable
this approach, ratiothere is a practical
between limitation
lateral and vertical in growth
the minimum
rates
thickness of the microcavity. Given the limited achievable ratio between
(seldom exceeds 4) in ELO [92], the formation of VCSEL aperture area of greater than 20 or 30 µm forlateral and vertical growth
rates (seldom
practical exceeds
fabrication 4) in ELO
produces [92], the formation
correspondingly a cavityofofVCSEL
more thanaperture area10
5 or even ofµm
greater than 20 thus
in thickness, or 30
μm for practical
precluding fabrication
the possibility produces correspondingly
of short-cavity, single (longitudinal) a cavity
modeofoperation.
more than 5 or even
Another 10 μmfor
drawback in
thickness, thus precluding the possibility of short-cavity, single (longitudinal)
a long planar VCSEL cavity is an increased diffraction loss, amounting to greater than 1% per round mode operation.
Another
trip drawback
for a 10 µm cavity forlength
a long planar
[54]. VCSEL cavity
Additionally, is an increased
the uniformity of ELOdiffraction
growth over loss,
theamounting
entire wafer,to
greater
for thanpurposes,
photonic 1% per round is stilltrip
notfor a 10 μm and
established cavity length
could be a[54]. Additionally, the uniformity of ELO
concern.
growth over the entire wafer, for photonic purposes, is still not established and could be a concern.
 Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1593 11 of 20
Appl.
Appl. Sci.Sci. 2019,
2019, 9,FOR
9, x x FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 1111
of of
1919

Figure 9.
Figure SEMimage
9. SEM image ofthe
theepitaxial
epitaxiallateral
lateralovergrowth
overgrowth(ELO)(ELO) structure, in which the n-side DBR
Figure 9. SEM image ofofthe epitaxial lateral overgrowth structure,
(ELO) structure, in in which
which thethe n-side
n-side DBRDBRis is
is encased in n-GaN grown using the ELO process. The flat surface of the epitaxial layer forms a
encased in n-GaN grown using the ELO process. The flat surface of the epitaxial layer
encased in n-GaN grown using the ELO process. The flat surface of the epitaxial layer forms a 4.5- forms a 4.5-
4.5-µm-long cavity [54]. Copyright 2016 Phys. Status Solidi A.
μm-long cavity [54]. Copyright 2016 Phys. Status Solidi
μm-long cavity [54]. Copyright 2016 Phys. Status Solidi A. A.
4.3. Non-Epitaxial DBRs through Substrate Thinning and Curved Dielectric Mirrors
4.3.
4.3. Non-Epitaxial
Non-Epitaxial DBRs
DBRs through
through Substrate
Substrate Thinning
Thinning and
and Curved
Curved Dielectric
Dielectric Mirrors
Mirrors
Given the difficulty presented in 4.1 and 4.2 in forming all dielectric mirrors, Sony recently
Giventhe
Given
demonstrated thedifficulty
difficulty
yet another presented
presented in4.14.1and
version ofinVCSEL and 4.24.2
with ininforming
forming
dielectric allalldielectric
mirrors dielectric
[93] using mirrors,
mirrors,
the Sony
Sony
concept recently
ofrecently
“external
demonstrated
demonstrated yetyet another
another version
version ofof VCSEL
VCSEL with
with dielectric
dielectric mirrors
mirrors [93]
[93] using
using the
the concept
concept
cavity” where a curved dielectric mirror is coated on the substrate side after substrate thinning [94–96]. ofof “external
“external
cavity”
cavity” where
where a curved
a curved
This implementation, dielectric
dielectric
sometimes mirror
mirror
called is is coated
coated
thin-disk onon
laser,thethe
is substrate
substrate
possibly side
side
the after
after
least substrate
substrate
complicated inthinning
thinning
terms of [94–
[94–
both
96].
96]. This
This
epitaxial implementation,
implementation,
growth and device sometimes
sometimes called
called
fabrication thin-disk
thin-disk
compared alllaser,
to laser, is is
other possibly
possibly
approaches the
the least
least
(Figure complicated
complicated
10). The use inin aterms
terms
of very
of both
of long epitaxial
both vertical growth
epitaxialcavity
growth(>100 and
andλ) device
device fabrication
fabrication
is useful compared
for highcompared
optical output to all other
to all other approaches
powerapproaches
[97]. The use (Figure
(Figure 10). The
10). Thecurved
of external use
use
of a very
of mirrors long
a very long vertical
withvertical cavity
cavity
controlled (>100 λ) is
(>100 λ) offers
curvature useful
is useful for high
for highin
tunability optical
optical output
output the
engineering power
power [97].
[97]. The
in-plane The use
use of
optical of external
external
confinement
curved
curved mirrors
mirrors with
with controlled
controlled curvature
curvature
which is typically lacking in III-nitride VCSELs. offers
offers tunability
tunability inin engineering
engineering the
the in-plane
in-plane optical
optical
confinement which is typically lacking in III-nitride
confinement which is typically lacking in III-nitride VCSELs. VCSELs.

Figure
Figure
Figure 10.10. (a)
(a)(a) Cross-sectional
Cross-sectional
Cross-sectional SEM
SEM
SEM image
image
image observed
observed
observed for
forfor the
thethe device
device
device used
used
used for
forfor the
thethe optical
optical
optical pumping
pumping
pumping test.
test.
test.
The
The light
light grey
grey shape
shape is
is a
a schematic
schematic representation,
representation, of
of the
the area
area for
for the
the resonant
resonant
The light grey shape is a schematic representation, of the area for the resonant modes in this device. modes
modes in
in this
this device.
device.
(b)(b) Laser
Laser scanning
scanning confocal
confocal
confocal microscope
microscope
microscope images
images
images ofof
of lenslets
lenslets
lenslets (diameter
(diameter
(diameter ==55
=55
55 µm)
μm)μm) fabricated
fabricated
fabricated onon
on the
the
the (000-1)
(000-
(000-
plane
1) 1) plane
plane of
ofofGaN
GaNGaNwafer.
wafer.
wafer. (c) Cross-sectional
(c)(c) Cross-sectional
Cross-sectional TEM
TEM
TEM image
image
image of
ofof the
thethecurved
curved
curved mirror
mirror
mirror of
ofof the
thethe device
device
device used
used
used for
forfor an
anan
optical
optical
optical pumping
pumping
pumping test.
test.
test. [93]
[93]
[93] Copyright
Copyright
Copyright 20182018
2018 Scientific
Scientific
Scientific Reports.
Reports.
Reports.
5. Airgap and Porous DBRs—A New Approach to Epitaxial DBR
5. 5. Airgap
Airgap andand Porous
Porous DBRs—A
DBRs—A New
New Approach
Approach toto Epitaxial
Epitaxial DBR
DBR
Since air is the ultimate low-index medium, innovative ways have been proposed to create
Since
Since airair
is is the ultimate
the low-index medium, innovative ways have been proposed toto create air-
air-containing GaNultimate
DBRs from low-index medium,
epitaxial innovative
GaN structures. Theways have been
air-containing proposed
layers create
are formed air-
typically
containing
containing GaN
GaNprocess,DBRs from
DBRs from epitaxial
epitaxial GaN
GaN structures.
structures. The air-containing
Thestructure”,
air-containing layers are formed typically
by a two-step firstly through epitaxy of a “DBR thenlayers are by
followed formed typically
selective etching
byby a two-step
a two-step process,
process, firstly
firstly through
through epitaxy
epitaxy ofof a “DBR
a “DBR structure”,
structure”, then
then followed
followed byby selective
selective etching
etching
through
through either
either chemical,
chemical, electrochemical,
electrochemical, photoelectrochemical,
photoelectrochemical, oror thermal
thermal means.
means. Depending
Depending onon the
the
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1593 12 of 20

Appl. Sci. 2019,

through 9, xchemical,
either FOR PEER REVIEW
electrochemical, photoelectrochemical, or thermal means. Depending 12 ofon19
the embodiment of the low-index layers, the structures can be further divided into GaN/air gap and
embodiment of the
GaN/nanoporous low-index layers, the structures can be further divided into GaN/air gap and
DBRs.
GaN/nanoporous DBRs.
5.1. GaN/Air Gap DBR
5.1. GaN/Air Gap DBR
GaN is known to be chemically inert with almost no known wet etchant at room temperature.
After GaN is knownofto
the discovery be chemically inert (PEC)
photoelectrochemical with almost
etchingno of known
GaN [98], wet etchant
this method at was
roomemployed
temperature.
[99]
After
to createtheadiscovery
GaN/air gap of photoelectrochemical
DBR where narrow bandgap (PEC) etching
InGaN oflayers
GaN [98], this method
are used was employed
as the sacrificial layer.
[99] to create
Microcavity LEDsa GaN/air
were also gap DBR where
reported narrow
using such bandgap DBR
a GaN/airgap InGaN layers
which are used
produces as the
a peak sacrificial
reflectance of
layer. Microcavity LEDs were also reported using such a GaN/airgap DBR which
around 70% [100]. Several limitations in PEC etching include the structural quality of InGaN sacrificial produces a peak
reflectance
layers and the of around
available 70%
size[100]. Several
of the limitations
DBR region due toin aPEC etching
limited etchinclude the structural
rate. Taking advantage quality
of the of
InGaN sacrificial layers and the available size of the DBR region due to a
chemical disparity between GaN and AlInN, several groups [101,102] reported the selective wet-etchinglimited etch rate. Taking
advantage
of AlInN in of anthe chemical structures
AlInN/GaN disparity between
with hotGaN nitricand
acidAlInN, several
to create groups [101,102]
GaN/airgap reported the
DBRs. Reflectance as
selective
high as 99% wet-etching of AlInN
can be reached withinonly
an AlInN/GaN
4 pairs of DBR. structures with hot nitric acid electrochemical
A conductivity-selective to create GaN/airgap
(EC)
DBRs. Reflectance
etching of GaN wasas high
also as 99% can be
demonstrated reached GaN/airgap
to prepare with only 4 DBRs
pairs of DBR.
using A conductivity-selective
epitaxially-grown doping
electrochemical
superlattices +
of n(EC) etching structures,
-GaN/GaN of GaN was also demonstrated
followed by selective EC to prepare GaN/airgap
etching [103]. TakingDBRs using
advantage
epitaxially-grown doping superlattices of n +-GaN/GaN structures, followed by selective EC etching
of the large disparity in thermal stability between GaN and AlGaN, Tao et al. reported the selective
[103]. Taking
thermal advantage
desorption of GaN of the large
in an disparity in
AlGaN/GaN thermaltostability
structure between GaNDBRs
form AlGaN/airgap and AlGaN, Tao et
and reported
al. reportedwith
microcavity thea Q-factor
selectiveofthermal desorption
1600 (Figure 11) [104].ofIn GaN
spite ofinallan
theAlGaN/GaN
very innovative structure to form
approaches and
AlGaN/airgap DBRs and reported microcavity with a Q-factor of 1600 (Figure
the results of broad-band and high-reflectance DBRs, the airgap DBR approach has been confined to 11) [104]. In spite of all
the very innovative approaches and the results of broad-band and high-reflectance
optical investigations of cavity physics; challenges in current injection and thermal management have DBRs, the airgap
DBR or
more approach has been
less inhibited confined toofoptical
the possibility electricalinvestigations
devices. of cavity physics; challenges in current
injection and thermal management have more or less inhibited the possibility of electrical devices.

Figure 11.(a)
Figure11. (a)Schematic
Schematicimage (view
image from
(view inside);
from (b) (b)
inside); SEM image
SEM of the
image offabricated nitride
the fabricated air-gap
nitride DBR
air-gap
micro cavity (MC) (3 top DBRs/MC/4 bottom DBRs); (c) close SEM view of the edge [104].
DBR micro cavity (MC) (3 top DBRs/MC/4 bottom DBRs); (c) close SEM view of the edge [104]. Copyright
2013 Appl. Phys.
Copyright Lett. Phys. Lett.
2013 Appl.
5.2. Nanoporous GaN/GaN DBRs
5.2. Nanoporous GaN/GaN DBRs
Recently the development of nanoporous (NP) GaN has received much attention. NP GaN can be
Recently the development of nanoporous (NP) GaN has received much attention. NP GaN can
considered as a nano-composite of perfect single crystalline GaN filled with nanoscale, inter-connected
be considered as a nano-composite of perfect single crystalline GaN filled with nanoscale, inter-
tubes that produce an overall foam or sponge-like texture. A vast amount of literature exists on the
connected tubes that produce an overall foam or sponge-like texture. A vast amount of literature
formation mechanisms of anodic aluminum oxide [105–107], porous silicon [108–111], and silicon
exists on the formation mechanisms of anodic aluminum oxide [105–107], porous silicon [108–111],
carbide [112–114]. The morphology of porous textures and patterns is determined by the highly
and silicon carbide [112–114]. The morphology of porous textures and patterns is determined by the
inhomogeneous etching process, which consists of successive steps including carrier transport in the
highly inhomogeneous etching process, which consists of successive steps including carrier transport
space-charge (SC) layer, oxidation at the semiconductor surface, transport of ions in the oxide layer
in the space-charge (SC) layer, oxidation at the semiconductor surface, transport of ions in the oxide
(OL), field-enhanced dissolution of oxide at the oxide–electrolyte interface, and ionic transport within
layer (OL), field-enhanced dissolution of oxide at the oxide–electrolyte interface, and ionic transport
the interfacial double layer (DL) [115]. Figure 12a shows a cross-sectional scanning electron microscopy
within the interfacial double layer (DL) [115]. Figure 12a shows a cross-sectional scanning electron
(SEM) image of a porous GaN DBR near the center of the cross-shaped alignment mark. A close-up
microscopy (SEM) image of a porous GaN DBR near the center of the cross-shaped alignment mark.
SEM image of the same structure is shown in Figure 12b with the NP-GaN having a porosity of ~70%
A close-up SEM image of the same structure is shown in Figure 12b with the NP-GaN having a
and an average pore size of 30 nm. The electrochemistry is highly selective based on the conductivity
porosity of ~70% and an average pore size of 30 nm. The electrochemistry is highly selective based
of and etching bias applied to GaN [116]. The non-porous layer corresponds to lightly n-doped
on the conductivity of and etching bias applied to GaN [116]. The non-porous layer corresponds to
lightly n-doped GaN, and the porous layers correspond to n++-GaN before etching. The NP GaN
region serves as a low-index medium for the producing of λ/4 reflector. Highly reflective (>99.5%)
DBR mirrors in the blue (440 nm), green (520 nm), and red (600 nm) wavelength range have been
 Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1593 13 of 20

GaN, and the porous layers correspond to n++ -GaN before etching. The NP GaN region serves as a
low-index medium for the producing of λ/4 reflector. Highly reflective (>99.5%) DBR mirrors in the blue
Appl. Sci.nm),
(440 2019,green
9, x FOR PEER
(520 REVIEW
nm), and red (600 nm) wavelength range have been demonstrated by changing 13 of 19
++
the layer thicknesses (Figure 12c). The epitaxy of n-GaN/n -GaN structures are straightforward when
demonstrated
compared with by the
changing theinlayer
challenges thicknesses
growing Al(GaN)(Figure
or AlInN 12c).
DBRs.TheNanoporous
epitaxy of GaN
n-GaN/n ++-GaN
DBR mirrors
structures
with good are straightforward
uniformity when
are shown compared
under withillumination
room-light the challenges in growing
in Figure Al(GaN)
12d. Unique or AlInNof
advantages
DBRs. Nanoporous GaN DBR mirrors with good uniformity are shown under
using n-type doping profile to create nanostructured GaN layers include (i) complete lattice matching toroom-light
illumination
conventionalinGaN Figure 12d. with
structures Unique advantages
negligible degradationof using n-type doping
in microstructure profile to(ii)create
or morphology, a high
nanostructured
tunability in the GaN layers
index include (i)index,
of refractive complete
and lattice
(iii) thematching toof
feasibility conventional GaN structures
electrical injection through with
n-type
negligible degradation in microstructure or morphology, (ii) a high tunability in the index of
NP GaN layers.
refractive index, and (iii) the feasibility of electrical injection through n-type NP GaN layers.

Figure 12. Cross-sectional SEM images of (a) a NP GaN/GaN DBR structure, (b) NP GaN/GaN DBR at a
Figure 12. Cross-sectional SEM images of (a) a NP GaN/GaN DBR structure, (b) NP GaN/GaN DBR
higher magnification, (c) Reflectance from three NP-GaN DBRs in the blue, green, and red wavelength
at a higher magnification, (c) Reflectance from three NP-GaN DBRs in the blue, green, and red
regions. Black dashed curve is the simulated reflectance spectrum of the blue DBR. (d) Photographs
wavelength regions. Black dashed curve is the simulated reflectance spectrum of the blue DBR. (d)
of the three NP-GaN DBR mirrors in (c) under room-light illumination, showing process uniformity
Photographs of the three NP-GaN DBR mirrors in (c) under room-light illumination, showing process
(scale bar = 1 cm). The top photograph was taken under incandescent light with continuous spectrum,
uniformity (scale bar = 1 cm). The top photograph was taken under incandescent light with
the color of which reflects the DBRs’ reflectance spectra, and the bottom photograph was taken
continuous spectrum, the color of which reflects the DBRs’ reflectance spectra, and the bottom
under fluorescent light with distributed wavelengths, the color of which represents scattering of
photograph was taken under fluorescent light with distributed wavelengths, the color of which
complementary wavelengths [117]. Copyright 2015 ACS Photonics.
represents scattering of complementary wavelengths [117]. Copyright 2015 ACS Photonics.
Using NP GaN, new freedom is introduced in optical engineering microcavity design without
theUsing NP GaN,
constraints new freedom
in epitaxy is introduced
or complex fabrication.in optical
VCSELsengineering
with NP GaN microcavity
based DBR design without
mirrors can be
the constraints in epitaxy or complex fabrication. VCSELs with NP GaN based DBR mirrors
produced with no need for complicated lift-off or flip-chip processes. These properties combined present can be
produced with no need for complicated lift-off or flip-chip processes. These properties
a unique opportunity to build GaN VCSELs. High-reflectance NP GaN DBR mirrors [117–122], optically combined
present
pumped a unique
VCSELs opportunity
[117,118], and to build GaN VCSELs.
resonant-cavity LEDs High-reflectance NP GaN
(RC-LEDs) [123,124] haveDBR
beenmirrors [117–
demonstrated
122], optically pumped VCSELs [117,118], and resonant-cavity LEDs (RC-LEDs)
by many groups in recently years. The ultimate viability of NP GaN DBRs will be determined by [123,124] have been
their
demonstrated
long-term stability against thermal and electrical stresses. Another common concern with thebe
by many groups in recently years. The ultimate viability of NP GaN DBRs will use
determined by their long-term stability against thermal and electrical stresses.
of porous medium in semiconductor lasers is the potentially limited thermal conductivity due to aAnother common
concern
reduced with the use
phonon mean of free
porous
pathmedium in semiconductor
[125]. Further lasersthe
studies regarding is the potentially
design tradeoffslimited
between thermal
porosity
conductivity due to a reduced phonon mean free path [125]. Further studies regarding
(for index engineering) and the thickness of pore walls [126] for enhanced thermal and electrical the design
tradeoffs
transportbetween
will beporosity (for index
critical. Lastly, engineering)
during and theofthickness
the preparation of pore
this review, walls [126]injected
an electrically for enhanced
VCSEL
thermal and electrical transport will be critical. Lastly, during the preparation
including NP GaN DBR has also been reported to provide initial validation of this novel concept of this review, [127].
an
electrically injected VCSEL including NP GaN DBR has also been reported to provide initial
validation of this novel concept [127].

6. Concluding Remarks
After more than 20 years of vigorous pursuit, GaN VCSEL research is beginning to transition
from laboratory demonstrations to commercial technology. On the one hand, the GaN VCSEL
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 1593 14 of 20

6. Concluding Remarks
After more than 20 years of vigorous pursuit, GaN VCSEL research is beginning to transition from
laboratory demonstrations to commercial technology. On the one hand, the GaN VCSEL research has
been buoyed by the success in LED and LD research. On the other hand, the method to implement
vertical cavity for GaN is hardly a settled issue and continues to call for creativity in material and device
engineering. At the moment the race, in terms of VCSEL performance and manufacturability, between
epitaxial AlInN DBR and the all-dielectric, external cavity design remains a tight one. An alternative
approach using nanoporous DBR is offering new flexibility in design and fabrication that may help to
ease the rigid constraints and speed up the progress toward commercial GaN VCSELs.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, C.Z. and J.H.; methodology, C.Z. and J.H; software, C.Z.; validation,
C.Z., R.E. and J.H.; formal analysis, C.Z.; investigation, C.Z., R.E. and J.H.; resources, J.H.; data curation, C.Z.;
writing—original draft preparation, C.Z.; writing—review and editing, J.H. and R.E.; visualization, C.Z. and J.H.;
supervision, J.H.; project administration, J.H.; funding acquisition, J.H.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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