M

  aternity
The struggle for equality is intimately
linked to the struggle for social justice
in the world of work.

and paternity
Guy Ryder, ILO Director-General,
International Women’s Day 2014

at work
Law and practice across the world

Overview cent of these workers are in Africa and Asia. Discrimin-

ation against women in relation to maternity is a perva-
Safe maternity and health care for mother and infant sive problem throughout the world. Where legislation
survival is at the core of life itself. It is also central to exists, ensuring it is effectively implemented remains a
decent work and productivity for women and gender persistent challenge.
equality at work. Maternity protection is therefore a The basis of this policy brief is Maternity and pater-
fundamental labour right enshrined in key universal nity at work,1 a report by the ILO on national legislative POLICY BRIEF
human rights treaties. The International Labour provisions covering maternity protection, including the
­Organization (ILO) has made the provision for child extent to which national laws conform to Convention
welfare and maternity protection a primary concern No. 183 and the Workers with Family Responsibil-
since its very inception in 1919. Today, virtually all ities Convention, 1981 (No. 156). The report updates
countries have adopted legislative provisions on mater- two previous editions (2005 and 2010) and compares
nity protection at work. Recent ILO data on 185 coun- national laws in 185 countries and territories with the
tries and territories show that 34 per cent fully meet the most recent ILO standards. It uses data on national
requirements of ILO Maternity Protection Convention, legislation collected by the ILO since 1994.
2000 (No. 183), and Recommendation, 2000 (No. 191) This policy brief presents the key findings from the
on three key aspects: they provide for at least 14 weeks report on maternity leave, paternity and parental leave,
of leave at a rate of at least two-thirds of previous health protection at work, employment protection and
earnings, paid by social insurance or public funds. non-discrimination, breastfeeding arrangements and
Despite this progress, the large majority of women childcare. It outlines the ILO framework on maternity
workers in the world – around 830 million – do not and paternity at work and concludes with recommen-
have adequate maternity protection. Almost 80  per dations on policy design and implementation.
 2 Maternity and paternity at work  Law and practice across the world

ILO framework and context Maternity leave

Throughout its history, the ILO’s concerns regarding
maternity protection have remained the same  –  to KEY POINTS
preserve the health of the mother and her newborn; to nn There has been a gradual global shift towards
maternity leave periods that meet or exceed
enable women to combine successfully their reproduc-
the ILO standard of 14 weeks: the majority of
tive and productive roles; to prevent unequal treatment countries now provide leave duration in line
at work due to their reproductive role; and to promote with Convention No. 183. No country has cut
the principle of equality of opportunity and treatment maternity leave duration since 1994.
between women and men. The ILO has adopted three nn Only two 4 of 185 countries and territories
maternity protection Conventions: in 1919, 1952, and studied provide no statutory cash benefits
the most recent in 2000, the Maternity Protection Con- during maternity leave. More than 100 coun-
tries now finance benefits through social se-
vention (No. 183). They stipulate protective measures
F EIR B YCILOP

curity, reducing employers’ liability. However,

for pregnant women and for women who have recently analysis showed that benefits in more than
given birth, including the prevention of exposure to half were neither financially adequate nor suf-
health and safety hazards during and after pregnancy, ficiently long-lasting.
entitlement to paid maternity leave, maternal and child nn Expanding coverage in law and in practice
health care and breastfeeding breaks, protection against is critical for the approximately 830  million
women workers who are not adequately covered
discrimination and dismissal in relation to maternity,
in practice, mainly in developing countries.
and a guaranteed right to return to work after mater-
nity leave.
Sixty-six countries ratified at least one of the three Duration of leave:
maternity protection Conventions, but the influence of A gradual positive shift
ILO standards extends well beyond ratifications.2 Not The most recent ILO standard on duration of maternity
only does almost every country now have some mater- leave5 mandates a minimum leave period of 14 weeks, up
nity protection legislation, many others also have meas- from 12 weeks in the previous Conventions. Recommen-
ures to support workers with family responsibilities, dation No. 191 encourages ILO member States to increase
including fathers. This is occurring within a context the period of maternity leave “to at least 18 weeks”.6
of broader social developments, including the rise in The length of leave is critical in enabling mothers
women’s paid work, the growth in non-standard work to recover from childbirth and return to work while
(part-time, temporary or casual), population ageing providing adequate care to their children. When leave
and changes in family patterns. The global economic is too short, mothers may not feel ready to return to
crisis has in some countries exacerbated pre-existing work and drop out of the workforce. However, very
gender inequalities and highlighted the need to recon- long leave periods, or parental leave mostly taken up
figure both men’s and women’s work.3 by women, especially without job protection, may also
damage women’s attachment to and advancement in
paid work, resulting in wage penalties.
Among the 185 countries and territories studied:
• 53 per cent (98 countries) meet the ILO standard of
at least 14 weeks’ leave;
• 42 of those countries meet or exceed the suggested
18 weeks’ leave;
• 60 countries provide 12 to 13 weeks’ leave – less than
the duration in Convention No. 183, but consistent
with previous Conventions;
• only 15  per cent (27 countries) provide less than
12 weeks.
 Law and practice across the world  Maternity and paternity at work 3

Map 1.  Statutory duration of maternity leave, 2013 (185 countries and territories)

Duration of maternity leave

Less than 12 weeks

POLICY BRIEF
12 to 13 weeks
14 to 17 weeks
18 weeks or more
No data

Source: ILO Working Conditions Laws Database – Maternity Protection, 2013. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/travdatabase.

The longest average statutory durations of maternity • 45 per cent (74 countries) provide cash benefits of at
leave are in Eastern Europe and Central Asia (almost least two-thirds of earnings for at least 14 weeks – an
27 weeks), and the Developed Economies (21 weeks). overall increase of 3 per cent since the last ILO review
The shortest regional average is in the Middle East in 2010;9
(9.2 weeks). • among these, 61 countries provide 100 per cent of
Trend data7 from 1994 to 2013 show that no single previous earnings for at least 14 weeks;
country has reduced its statutory duration of maternity • in 93 countries (around 55 per cent) maternity leave
leave. In 1994, 38 per cent of countries provided at least is unpaid, paid at less than two-thirds of previous
14 weeks’ leave. By 2013, among this same set of coun- earnings, or paid for a period of less than 14 weeks.
tries, 51 per cent provided at least 14 weeks’ leave.
The most common types of funding for maternity
leave cash benefits are: employment-related social insur-
Cash benefits: A mixed picture ance (contributory scheme); the employer, through
To be in conformity with Convention No. 183, the the direct payment of maternity benefits (so-called
cash benefit paid during maternity leave should be at “employer liability”); or some mix of the two.10 Among
least two-thirds of a woman’s previous earnings – or a the 185 countries and territories surveyed:
comparable amount if other methods are used to deter- • 58 per cent (107 countries) provide for cash benefits
mine cash benefits – for a minimum of 14 weeks. The through national social security schemes;
overall guiding principle is that the level of benefits • in 25 per cent (47 countries), benefits are paid solely
should ensure “that the woman can maintain herself by the employer;
and her child in proper conditions of health and with • in 16 per cent (29 countries), employers and social
a suitable standard of living”.8 security systems share the cost of maternity cash
Countries use a variety of methods for fixing the level benefits;
of cash maternity benefits. Some do not pay benefits • benefits are not paid in two countries (1 per cent).
for the full duration of leave; some reduce the level of
benefits during leave; others provide statutory pay only Eastern European and Central Asian countries rely
to some categories of workers. From a subset of 167 entirely on social security systems, as do 88 per cent of
comparable countries, the report found: Developed Economies. Employer liability systems are
 4 Maternity and paternity at work  Law and practice across the world

Map 2.  Source of funding of maternity leave cash benefits, 2013 (185 countries and territories)

Source of funding
F EIR B YCILOP

Unpaid
Employer liability
Mixed
Social security
No data

Source: ILO Working Conditions Laws Database – Maternity Protection, 2013. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/travdatabase.

Figure 1.  Source of funding of maternity leave cash benefits, 1994 and 2013 (144 countries) (%)
100 100

1994 S = Social security

2013 E = Employer
83
M = Mixed 80 80
U = Unpaid 77

68

60 60

53
47 45
44
42

35 35
33 32 33 33

26
23
20 20 20
18 18
15 15
13
9 10
6 7 7 7 7
5 5 5
3
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

S E M U S E M U S E M U S E M U S E M U S E M U S E M U

Eastern Europe Developed Latin America

All regions Africa Asia Middle East
and Central Asia Economies and the Caribbean

Source: Conditions of work digest: Maternity and work (ILO, 1994); ILO Working Conditions Laws Database – Maternity Protection, 2013.
Available at: http://www.ilo.org/travdatabase.

more common in Africa, Asia and the Middle East, may be reluctant to hire, retain or promote pregnant
where challenges in setting up maternity branches of workers or women with family responsibilities, or may
social security systems are considerable (Map 2). find reasons to discharge pregnant employees to avoid
Research shows that employer liability schemes work paying the costs of wage replacement during maternity
against the interests of women workers by placing the leave and other (potential or actual) costs linked to
financial burden on employers and creating a possible their replacement. In many cases, this simply means
source of discrimination against women.11 Employers not hiring women of childbearing age. This is despite
 Law and practice across the world  Maternity and paternity at work 5

the existence of a recognized “business case” for work- Scope of coverage in law and in practice:
family measures that are shown to foster better per- Expansion is critical
formance and commitment, and can result in lower There is a distinction between how many workers are
absenteeism, skill preservation and a boost to the image covered by maternity protection in law and how many
of socially responsible companies.12 actually benefit in practice. A disparity between the
Despite the ongoing reliance on employer liability two arises depending on how laws are implemented
systems in some regions, trend data show that since and enforced. Coverage gaps are linked to women’s lack
1994 there has been a general shift away from this of awareness of legal entitlements and their benefits,
method towards collective systems in which social insufficient contributory capacity, the gaps of social
insurance or public funds alone, or in conjunction with security systems, inadequate enforcement, discrimina-
employers, provide maternity leave benefits. The per- tory practices, informality and social exclusion.
centage of countries that finance cash benefits through ILO estimates of the numbers covered reveal that
employer liability systems fell from 33 to 26 per cent, 40.6 per cent of employed women have a statutory right

POLICY BRIEF
while those that provide unpaid leave dropped from to maternity leave. But only 34.4 per cent of the total
5 to 1 per cent (Figure 1). are legally entitled to cash benefits during maternity
Supporting member States to shift progressively leave on a mandatory basis. A large majority of women
from employer liability to social security systems is workers are still not adequately protected in practice
a priority of ILO technical assistance. Activities to for income loss during maternity.
this end include: evidence-based awareness-raising of Regional differences are striking (Map 3).
the benefits of maternity protection, and the need to • Almost 80  per cent of the 830  million women
create fiscal space to finance it; technical expertise in workers unprotected are in Africa and Asia. These
the review and drafting of legislation; and preparation are the regions where employer liability schemes are
of financial and actuarial feasibility studies. For more prevalent, informal work is predominant and
instance, Ghana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Occupied maternal and child mortality ratios are still very high.
Palestinian Territory, Sri Lanka, Rwanda and Zambia • Only around 330 million women (28.4 per cent of
are benefiting from such assistance. Finding further employed women worldwide) are effectively pro-
ways to foster this shift should be a priority of policy tected – that is, they would receive cash benefits in
action. the event of childbirth.

Map 3. Percentage of women workers contributing to a maternity cash benefits scheme

or otherwise protected for income loss during maternity, 2010 (117 countries)

Broad ranges of coverage

(% of employed women)
0–9
10–32
33–65
66–89
90–100
No data

Source: ILO estimates based on data from official sources.

 6 Maternity and paternity at work  Law and practice across the world

• Among these women workers, 38 per cent are in the benefits is not only affordable and feasible in even the
Developed Economies compared to less than 5 per poorest countries, but it is conducive to social and eco-
cent in Africa. nomic development. There are also various options for
• In only 21 countries – mostly in Europe – more than expanding fiscal space for maternity benefits as part of
90 per cent of employed women would be entitled broader strategies to extend social security for all.
to receive some form of income support for having
a child.
Paternity and parental leave
Many countries specify the categories of workers not
covered by paid maternity leave. Broadly these include: KEY POINTS
workers in self-employment (in particular, own-account nn Paternity leave provisions are becoming more
and contributing family workers); domestic workers (the common and reflect evolving views of father-
ILO estimates 15.6 million women domestic workers hood. A statutory right to paternity leave is
F EIR B YCILOP

do not have legal rights to maternity protection); agri- found in 78 of the 167 countries with infor-
cultural workers; non-standard workers (part-time, mation available. Leave is paid in the majority
of these (70), underlining the trend for greater
temporary or casual workers); women in small and medi- involvement of fathers around childbirth.
um-sized enterprises (SMEs) and migrant workers.
nn Parental leave provisions were found in 66 of
At least 27 countries explicitly exclude agricultural 169 countries studied, predominantly in the
workers by law. An ILO survey in two rural areas of Developed Economies, Eastern Europe and
Senegal found that 26 per cent of women farmers work Central Asia, and only rarely in other regions.
until the day of childbirth, a practice found also in nn Parental leave is typically offered as a shared
Asian countries such as Nepal. The exclusion of women entitlement, mainly taken by women. Take-up
in non-standard employment is not specific to devel- rates among men are low, especially where
leave is unpaid.
oping countries. In Japan, part-time workers are legally
excluded from social security coverage of maternity
benefits, as are casual workers in Canada. Paternity leave: Towards
There have been positive changes. Legislation in more fathers’ involvement
an ever-increasing number of countries offers protec- Paternity leave is usually a short period of leave for
tion to the unprotected categories of women workers the father to take immediately following childbirth to
mentioned above as set out in ILO Conventions. For help care for the child and assist the mother. Research
instance, in at least 54 countries, domestic workers are suggests links between fathers’ leave, men’s take-up of
covered by maternity leave legislation on the same con- family responsibilities and child development. Fathers
ditions as other workers, in line with Article 14 of the who take leave, especially those taking two weeks or
ILO Domestic Workers Convention, 2011 (No. 189). more immediately after childbirth, are more likely to be
Since 2010, individual micro-entrepreneurs in Brazil involved with their young children.13 This can have pos-
can now register for and access medical care, paid itive effects for gender equality in the home and at work
maternity leave and other benefits, through a single and may indicate shifts in relationships and perceptions
social security contribution, thus formalizing an esti- of parenting roles and prevailing stereotypes.
mated 3 million workers. No ILO standard exists concerning paternity leave.
However, given the substantial numbers of women in However, the Resolution concerning gender equality
informal or non-standard employment, lack of access at the heart of decent work adopted by the Inter-
to maternity protection remains a very serious con- national Labour Conference in 2009 recognizes that
cern. The ILO considers that access to social security work-family reconciliation measures concern both men
is a fundamental human right and a public responsi- and women. The Resolution calls for governments to
bility. Efforts to expand its scope and improve access develop adequate policies for a better balance of work
to social health protection are urgently needed. ILO and family responsibilities, to include paternity and/or
research suggests a minimum package of social security parental leave, with incentives for men to use them.14
 Law and practice across the world  Maternity and paternity at work 7

Leave provisions for fathers are most common in take-up rates. Enshrining a statutory right to paid
the Developed Economies, Africa and Eastern Europe paternity leave in national legislation would signal the
and Central Asia. The length of paternity leave varies, value that society puts on the care work of women and
although only five countries (Finland, Iceland, Lith- men and would help advance gender equality.
uania, Portugal and Slovenia) offer leave periods of
longer than two weeks. In almost all countries that
offer paternity leave, fathers may choose whether to Parental leave: A difficult balancing act
take up the right. Only Chile, Italy and Portugal make Parental leave is a period of longer-term leave available
paternity leave compulsory. to either or both parents, to allow them to look after an
In 1994, statutory paternity leave provisions existed infant or young child, usually after maternity or pater-
in 40 of the 141 countries for which data were avail- nity leave expires. Provisions on parental leave are con-
able at the ILO. By 2013, legislation on paternity leave tained in Recommendation No. 191 (accompanying
existed in 78 countries of the total with available infor- Convention No. 183) and Recommendation No. 165

POLICY BRIEF
mation (167). The regions with the largest increases in (accompanying Convention No. 156). Both leave the
provision since 1994 are Eastern Europe and Central duration, payment and other aspects to be determined
Asia, the Developed Economies and Latin America at a national level.
and the Caribbean (Figure 2). There is considerable variation in systems of parental
Paternity leave is paid in 70 countries (89 per cent) leave concerning eligibility, payment, duration, flexi-
out of 78 where there is entitlement. Among those: bility in use, age of the child cared for and transfera-
• employer liability is prevalent in 45 countries (57 per bility between parents. Broadly, parental leave is longer
cent), 24 of which are in Africa; than maternity leave, but payment is often lower or
• social security is found in only 22 countries (28 per non-existent. In several countries, collective bargaining
cent), predominantly among Developed Economies agreements replace or extend legislated provision on
(15 out of 24 countries); leave policies for parents.
• mixed systems are present in three countries. Parental leave provisions were found in 66 of the
169 countries with available information, mostly in
As with maternity leave, risk pooling through social Developed Economies, Eastern Europe and Central
insurance or public funds can help mitigate potential Asia. The regional breakdown showed that:
discrimination or disadvantages against men with • nearly all the Developed Economies (35 out of 36)
family responsibilities at work and can boost fathers’ offer a period of parental leave;15

Figure 2. Provision of statutory paternity leave, by region, 1994 (141 countries)

and 2013 (167 countries) (%)
67

55

47

40 40 39
36
1994
28 28
2013
20
17
14
11

Eastern Europe Developed Latin America

All regions Africa Asia Middle East
and Central Asia Economies and the Caribbean

Source: ILO Working Conditions Laws Database – Maternity Protection, 2013. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/travdatabase
and the Conditions of work digest: Maternity and work (ILO, 1994).
 8 Maternity and paternity at work  Law and practice across the world

• all 16 of the Eastern European and Central Asian benefits. Where leave is paid, it is usually funded by
countries offer a period of parental leave; social security systems and general taxation, especially
• in Africa, only Burkina Faso, Chad, Egypt, Guinea where the amount is not income-related.
and Morocco offer a type of long-term parental leave, In general, women are most likely to take parental
all unpaid; leave following maternity leave, particularly where
• in the Middle East, Bahrain, Iraq, Jordan, the Syrian there is a shared entitlement between parents. This
Arab Republic and Kuwait offer unpaid parental trend can weaken women’s footing in the labour market
leave – only for mothers; and exacerbate gender inequalities both in the work-
• just three of 25 Asian countries analysed (Mongolia, place and in the division of labour at home. Efforts to
Republic of Korea and the Philippines) provide for incentivize men to take up parental leave have included
parental leave; making allocations individual, non-transferable or
• only Chile and Cuba among the 31 Latin American compulsory and providing incentives and adequate
and Caribbean countries analysed provide for compensation during leave. High take-up rates are
F EIR B YCILOP

parental leave. strongly related to the level of compensation for lost

earnings while on leave and availability of job protec-
Parental leave is paid in more than half the countries tion.16 Overall, evidence suggests that workers prefer
where it is provided (36 out of 66), all of which are better-paid leave for both women and men during
among the Developed Economies, Eastern Europe and shorter periods, followed by family-friendly working
Central Asia, except Chile and Cuba. Only 18 of these arrangements and quality, affordable childcare services
offer cash benefits equivalent to two-thirds or more of a responsive to the needs of both working parents and
worker’s previous earnings, while the remaining coun- children, rather than extended leave periods with little
tries offer lower levels of support, including flat rate compensation.17

Box 1.  How the global economic crisis has affected leave entitlements
Perhaps contrary to expectations, the global eco- As part of a programme of measures to help fam-
nomic crisis, which started in 2008, brought posi- ilies, El Salvador boosted income compensation
tive change in addition to cuts to public spending on from 75 to 100 per cent during the 12-week mater-
work-family policies. Some Developed Economies nity leave for working mothers registered with the
hardest hit by the crisis cut support to families or Salvadorian Social Security Institute. This operated
postponed announced reforms as part of fiscal as a countercyclical measure, simultaneously pre-
consolidation drives. Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lith- venting the living conditions of these women and
uania and Romania reduced the duration of leaves their families from deteriorating, while supporting
or the level of benefits in direct response to the unpaid care work.2
crisis, some temporarily, although not all.1 There were positive developments in paternity
However, many countries increased support and parental leave schemes intended to increase
to families during the crisis. Measures included men’s take-up rates. Australia introduced paid
access to early education, tax credits, and paternity leave (14 days) in 2013. In Norway, the
increases in duration, scope and levels of benefits paternity quota of parental leave was extended
for maternity or parental leave. Australia, France, from 12 to 14 weeks. Not only do these schemes
Germany, Poland and Slovakia are among coun- underline the trend towards greater involvement of
tries enacting such measures. China extended men in family responsibilities, they also explore the
maternity leave from 90 to 98 days in 2011 and possibility of overcoming economic turmoil by pro-
Chile shifted parental leave for women from 18 to moting women in the labour force through better
30 weeks (with a leave transfer option for fathers). work-family measures.
1  A.H. Gauthier: The impact of the economic crisis on family policies in the European Union (Brussels, European Union, 2010).
2  A. Espino: “Gender Dimensions of the Global Economic and Financial Crisis in Central America and the Dominican Republic”,
in Feminist Economics (2013, Vol. 19, No.3), pp. 267–288.
 Law and practice across the world  Maternity and paternity at work 9

Other maternity protection to dismiss them if they become pregnant, have a long-
components term illness or family responsibilities. Reports suggest
that some of these tactics intensified during the global
economic crisis.19
KEY POINTS Notwithstanding, legislation exists in 145 of the
nn All but 20 of the 165 countries with available 165 countries with available information that prohibits
information had explicit prohibitions against
discrimination on the grounds of maternity. Conven-
discrimination during pregnancy, leave and/or
an additional prescribed period.18 Yet, mater- tion No. 183 sets out various measures to bolster the
nity discrimination persists around the world, strength of this protection against discrimination, and
according to various sources. many countries employ these.
nn More than two-thirds of countries have The guaranteed right to return to work to “the
statutory measures on dangerous or unhealthy same position or an equivalent position paid at the
work that affects pregnant or nursing women. same rate” is an essential protective measure.20 Of the

POLICY BRIEF
The majority provide protective measures as
an alternative to hazardous work. 146 countries with available information, 64 give legal
guarantees for a woman to return to the same post or
nn At least 75 per cent of countries with avail-
able data had legislation providing for nursing an equivalent one after maternity leave. However, the
breaks. Trends were consistent across all majority (82 countries) do not guarantee the right to
regions, although 24  per cent of countries return to work (Figure 3).
still have no national laws on the issue. Convention No. 183 also calls for protection during
a period following a woman’s return to work after
maternity leave but leaves it to national laws or regu-
Employment protection and ­non- lations to define that duration. At least 56 countries
discrimination: Challenges persist specify the time period covered by this protection,
ILO standards on maternity protection call both for which in many cases extends well beyond the expiry of
the protection of women’s employment during mater- maternity leave.
nity, maternity leave and a period following the return Burden of proof is another protective measure. Con-
to work, and for measures to ensure that maternity is vention No. 183 stipulates that the burden for proving
not a source of discrimination in employment. Con- that reasons for dismissal are unrelated to pregnancy,
vention No.  183 notes that discrimination can also childbirth or nursing “shall rest on the employer”.21
occur in recruitment and hiring, negatively affecting Among the 144 countries for which information was
women in search of employment. available, 38 per cent (54 countries) have legal provi-
Determining the extent of dismissals and sions that place the burden of proof on the employers.
employment discrimination on the basis of maternity Sixty per cent of countries (86) do not specify a burden
is very difficult. Surveys on the matter are rare. How- of proof, while in the remaining countries the burden
ever, information from court cases, equal opportunity of proof is on the worker.
bodies, trade unions and other sources indicate that “Non-discrimination in relation to maternity”
discrimination is a continuing problem throughout refers to the right of all women not to be treated less
the world. For example, a European Union country favourably in a work situation – including access to
review showed a considerable level of maternity-based employment – because of their sex, or due to circum-
discrimination across its Member States – in a region stances arising from their reproductive function. Con-
where countries have adequate anti-discrimination vention No. 156 extends protection to workers with
laws. Tactics to pressure pregnant workers and new family responsibilities, both men and women.22
mothers to resign, such as harassment, were reported Countries in all regions have enacted legislation pro-
in Romania, Spain and Lithuania. In Croatia, Greece, hibiting discrimination on the basis of sex but there
Italy and Portugal, there are reports of widespread use are variations in how the grounds for discrimination
of “blank resignations” – undated resignation letters are specified. Of the 155 countries with available infor-
that workers are forced to sign upon hiring, then used mation, 114 had legislation prohibiting discrimination
 10 Maternity and paternity at work  Law and practice across the world

Figure 3.  Right to return to work, 2013 (146 countries) (%)

83

76
74 Same position or equivalent
Same position
Not guaranteed
56
50

42
39
36 36
33
29
26
20
18 17 17 18 17

10
4
0
F EIR B YCILOP

Eastern Europe Developed Latin America

All regions Africa Asia Middle East
and Central Asia Economies and the Caribbean

Source: ILO Working Conditions Laws Database – Maternity Protection, 2013. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/travdatabase.

in employment (which typically includes access to Health protection at the workplace:

employment, recruitment, promotion, changes in pos- Blanket bans
ition, dismissal, retirement and other working condi- ILO standards set out broad frameworks for a pre-
tions) on the basis of “sex” alone or “sex” in addition ventive occupational safety and health culture.23 A gen-
to other grounds indirectly linked to maternity or der-responsive approach to prevention and protection
pregnancy. “Maternity” or “pregnancy” was explicitly recognizes that promoting safe and healthy workplaces
given as prohibited grounds for discrimination in is relevant to both men and women. Gender-specific
43 countries. interventions, for pregnant and breastfeeding workers,
Convention No. 183 specifically prohibits requiring are also needed.
women to take pregnancy tests at the time they apply Arrangement of working time as a means of health
for employment, with a few exceptions related to work- protection for pregnant or nursing workers is im-
based risks to health. However, the explicit prohibition portant. Several ILO member States have provisions
of pregnancy tests does not seem to be widespread in covering night work, overtime and time off for medical
labour legislation. Among the 141 countries with avail- examinations during pregnancy.
able information, 47 set out explicit or implicit provi- Recommendation No.  191 states that a woman
sions banning pregnancy tests. should not be obliged to perform night work if incom-
The ILO calls for bans on pregnancy tests to be patible with her pregnancy or nursing, as determined
expressly established in national law and practice. by a medical certificate. Among the 151 countries with
It urges policy-makers to design clearer policies on available data:
non-discrimination related specifically to a woman’s • 49 specify no restrictions or regulations for night
reproductive function and to workers with family work in their legislation;24
responsibilities. • 20 do not prohibit night work, but pregnant (and
sometimes all) women are not obliged to work at
night;25
• 81 countries 26 do prohibit night work in law. There
is a general prohibition of night work covering all
women in 30 of these, especially in Africa, Asia and
the Middle East.
 Law and practice across the world  Maternity and paternity at work 11

There is no provision in Recommendation No. 191 Provisions on hazardous or unhealthy work for

concerning overtime but some countries forbid it women during maternity are an important part of
for pregnant women (e.g. Belgium, Chile, Equatorial health protection at work. Convention No. 183 sets
Guinea, Mexico). Others state that pregnant women out the right of pregnant or nursing women not to be
shall not be required to work overtime (e.g. Cuba, obliged to perform work that is hazardous, unhealthy
Estonia and Japan). The restriction sometimes applies or harmful to their health or that of their unborn or
to nursing mothers, women with young children or in newborn child. Recommendation No. 191 promotes
cases where overtime involves a risk to health. the assessment of workplace risks, especially where
Time off for prenatal health care is vital for detecting conditions involve arduous manual work, exposure to
and preventing complications in pregnancy and for hazardous biological, chemical or physical agents, situ-
helping pregnant women know their HIV status. They ations requiring special equilibrium, or standing or sit-
can then benefit from prevention, treatment, counsel- ting for prolonged periods, in extreme temperatures or
ling, care and support to minimize the risk of moth- close to vibration.

POLICY BRIEF
er-to-child transmission. This entitlement is not widely There are statutory measures on dangerous or
provided for, despite the World Health Organization unhealthy work affecting pregnant or nursing women
(WHO) recommendations of at least four prenatal in 111 out of 160 countries with available information;
visits. It is particularly uncommon in Africa, Asia and 78 (49 per cent) set out explicit prohibitions against
Latin America and is non-existent in the Middle East. such work. Almost half of those with explicit bans
Workplaces can play a key role in enabling women’s forbid all women from working under certain condi-
access to prenatal examinations, in so doing recog- tions classed as dangerous. The ILO Committee of
nizing its importance for maternal and child health as Experts on the Application of Conventions and Rec-
well as families’ economic stability. Of the 156 coun- ommendations (CEACR) warns ratifying countries
tries with information available: against blanket bans on dangerous work as well as
• 116 countries do not provide for time off for prenatal night work and overtime, however laudable they seem
health care; in terms of concern for health. Such bans are contrary
• 40 countries provide time off as a right, 30 of which to the principle of equality of opportunity and treat-
specify that this time off is paid (Figure 4). ment in employment and occupation and contribute

Figure 4.  Time off for prenatal medical examinations, 2013 (156 countries) (%)
100
Paid time off for prenatal
90 medical examinations
87 87
Time off for prenatal
medical examinations,
unpaid or pay unspecified
74
69 No time off for prenatal
medical examinations

53

31
29

19 18

9 10
6 6
4 4 3
0 0 0

Eastern Europe Developed Latin America

All regions Africa Asia Middle East
and Central Asia Economies and the Caribbean

Source: ILO Working Conditions Laws Database – Maternity Protection, 2013. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/travdatabase.
 12 Maternity and paternity at work  Law and practice across the world

to gender-based discrimination at work. The CEACR of international standards on maternity protection

considers that maternity requires differential treatment since 1919. Convention No. 183 leaves it to countries
to achieve genuine equality, with a distinction made to determine length and number of breaks.
between measures strictly protecting maternity and In all regions, support is offered for this stage of
protective measures applicable to women’s employment, maternity through national legislation. In fact, 75 per
based on stereotypes of women’s professional abilities cent of countries (at least 121 out of 160) provide
and roles in society.27 for paid or unpaid daily breaks or a daily reduction
Recommendation No. 191 suggests that protective in working hours for nursing workers (Figure 5). Yet
measures should be taken when a workplace risk is 39 of the countries analysed (24 per cent) do not have
established. Such measures include the elimination of provisions for nursing. Two-thirds of these (26) are in
risk, an adaptation of the worker’s conditions of work, a Africa, Asia and the Caribbean.
temporary transfer to a safer position or, in the absence The duration of the entitlement to paid nursing
of other possibilities, placing a worker on temporary breaks is also fundamental in order to allow women
F EIR B YCILOP

paid leave. Of the 160 countries with information, workers to breastfeed according to their preferences
84 provide some sort of alternative to dangerous work and the WHO recommendations – namely, exclusive
while 76 do not. breastfeeding through the child’s first six months, and
breastfeeding with appropriate complementary foods
for up to two years or beyond. Almost two thirds (75)
Breastfeeding at work and childcare: of the countries with provisions allow for durations
Under-explored potential of between six and 23 months. Of these, 57 countries
Breastfeeding contributes to the health of mother and grant at least one year. Only six countries provide
child. After childbirth, many women face potential job nursing breaks for two years (5 per cent).29
and income loss and thus cannot afford to stop work Recommendation No.  191 suggests provision for
to continue nursing their infant. Without workplace hygienic facilities for nursing at or near the workplace.
support for breastfeeding, working is incompatible However, only 31 per cent (50 out of 159 countries with
with breastfeeding. Nursing breaks 28 have been part available information) had relevant national legislation.

Figure 5.  Statutory provision of nursing breaks, 2013 (160 countries) (%)

80
Paid breaks or paid reduction of working hours
Unpaid
Not provided
79
73
71
69 69
65

30 31

24 23
20 21 20

9
4 6 4
0 0 0

Eastern Europe Developed Latin America

All regions Africa Asia Middle East
and Central Asia Economies and the Caribbean

Note: Figures may not add up to 100 per cent due to rounding.

Source: ILO Working Conditions Laws Database – Maternity Protection, 2013. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/travdatabase.
 Law and practice across the world  Maternity and paternity at work 13

In 29 of those 50, statutory provisions on nursing or CONCLUSIONS

childcare facilities apply if the company employs a What works for maternity
minimum number of women. This is common in
Africa, Asia, Latin America and the Middle East.30 The
and paternity at work
concern is that such stipulations create incentives for Compared to 1994, more countries offer longer mater-
employers not to hire women and promote the idea that nity and paternity leaves, are less reliant on employer
women alone are responsible for childcare. funding, provide greater protection during maternity
The earlier Maternity Protection Recommendation, from hazards and discrimination, and offer more work-
1952 (No. 95) suggests that facilities for nursing and place support for breastfeeding.
day care are financed or at least subsidized by the com- However, a large majority of women workers still
munity or compulsory social insurance. In practice, lack access to adequately paid maternity leave and pro-
however, national provisions usually put the entire cost tection. Women in Developed Economies, especially
on the employer – again creating possible disincentives those in formal and standard jobs, benefit the most;

POLICY BRIEF
to hiring workers with family responsibilities. In 2013, those in Africa and Asia benefit least. Paid parental and
Argentina bucked this trend by adopting a law that paternity leave, and adequate breastfeeding and child-
promotes breastfeeding and establishes that all imple- care facilities are unavailable, inaccessible or inadequate
mentation costs, including workplace facilities, be pub- for most women and men.
licly funded. Governments are urged to prioritize establishing and
Such are the health benefits of breastfeeding that implementing inclusive legislative and policy frame-
support for it at work when properly financed can be a works for comprehensive work-family policies, with
“win-win scenario” for workers and employers. It can be adequate fiscal space. This includes fostering social dia-
a low-cost measure yielding considerable positive out- logue on the issues and promoting collective bargaining
comes for companies and society (including better per- to help workers and employers. In line with ILO Con-
formance and commitment, lower rates of absenteeism, ventions, employers’ and workers’ organizations have
higher levels of retention, skills preservation), as well as a key role to play in devising and applying maternity
extensive long-term savings to health care systems. To protection and work-family measures.
date, these benefits to employers remain underexplored. The following points aim to help guide design and
Evidence suggests barriers persist in preventing women implementation of policy:
from continuing breastfeeding once back at work.31
Workplace initiatives alone are not enough to sup- Adopt and implement inclusive laws
port women’s return to work after maternity leave: and policies for effective protection
public policies are needed, specifically aimed at Assessing gaps in current frameworks is a first step,
improving the availability, quality and affordability of followed by making the scope of maternity protection
childcare services and other work-family support meas- and work-family measures, especially childcare, uni-
ures. Evidence has shown that childcare plays a key role versal and eligibility criteria inclusive. Implementation
in enabling parents, especially women, to engage in must be strengthened and data collection improved
paid work after childbirth.32 Some countries including to measure coverage, progress and policy outcomes
Costa Rica, Ethiopia, Mexico and South Africa are effectively.
supporting the work-family needs of the most vulner-
able by providing public childcare services. Yet one- Prevent and eliminate discrimination against
third of the 140 countries with available information women and men with family responsibilities
have no national legislation on such public provision or This requires a reliable, accessible and efficient judicial
public subsidies to offset childcare costs for pre-school system and adequately staffed and trained labour inspec-
children.33 Where programmes do exist, coverage is tion and compliance services. Governments are also
inadequate. Even in high-income countries, fewer chil- urged to set up adequate anti-discrimination frameworks
dren from low-income families attend formal childcare supported by equal opportunities bodies and to put the
than those from affluent backgrounds.34 burden of proof on employers in dismissal cases.
 14 Maternity and paternity at work  Law and practice across the world

Design maternity protection and work-family Promote the equal sharing of family
policies to achieve effective gender equality responsibilities between parents
These have great gender-transformative potential when Fathers’ involvement with infants and young children
gender equality at work and home is an explicit policy has positive effects on child development. Behav-
objective. Levels of public spending on work-family iour-changing measures to promote men’s role as
measures, especially social care services, should be caregivers and to increase take-up include time off
maintained and increased as these act as social stabi- to accompany women for prenatal visits, individual
lisers, create jobs in the care sector and promote wom- statutory right to childbirth leave of adequate duration
en’s opportunities to access quality work. Measures and with income-related benefits.
could also include addressing the prevailing stereotypes
of masculinity that hinder men in assuming caretaking Create a supportive workplace culture
roles. Maternity, paternity and care responsibilities should
become a normal fact of business life. Extending
F EIR B YCILOP

Address maternity, paternity the option for work-life balance measures, such as
and care as collective responsibilities quality part-time work or worker-friendly flexible
Risk pooling through social insurance or public funds working arrangements, to all workers would reduce
for leave benefits and social care services promotes the penalty associated with being a worker with family
non-discrimination at work, preventing employers responsibilities.
from bearing the cost of society’s reproduction and
well-being. Effective protective regulation with min- Establish preventive health
imal or no costs to employers, in combination with and safety culture at work
public incentives, especially targeting SMEs, are fun- Governments, employers and workers should actively
damental for forging positive links between adequate work to create a safe, healthy environment for all
maternity protection and work-family measures, and workers, with the highest priority on prevention. Gen-
enterprise-level outcomes. der-specific protective measures should be limited to
what is strictly necessary to safeguard maternity, in
Make maternity and unpaid care work key line with the principle of equality of opportunity and
components of social protection programmes treatment in employment and occupation.
Access to essential maternal health and income security
around childbirth should be provided as part of basic
social security guarantees that make up national social
protection floors. Affordable, quality social care ser-
vices, gender-sensitive cash transfers and employment
guarantee schemes that address care needs can help
reduce poverty and inequality, and promote gender
equality at work and at home.
 Law and practice across the world  Maternity and paternity at work 15

Notes 17.  L. Thornthwaite: Work family balance: International

research on employee preferences, Working Paper No. 79
1. ILO: Maternity and paternity at work: Law and practice for Working Time Today Conference, University of Sidney, 16
across the world (Geneva, 2014), available at: www.ilo.org/ Aug. 2002, p. 20.
maternityprotection.
18.  The 20 are: Afghanistan, Algeria, Antigua and Barbuda,
2.  As of January 2014, 28 countries ratified Convention Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Central African Republic,
No. 183. For up-to-date information on the ratification status Comoros, Congo, Denmark, Dominica, Guinea-Bissau,
of ILO Conventions, see NORMLEX, Information System on Islamic Republic of Iran, Mali, Mexico, Nepal, Sao Tome and
International Labour Standards, available at: www.ilo.org/ Principe, Trinidad and Tobago, United Arab Emirates, Yemen,
normlex. Zimbabwe.
3.  United Nations (UN): Men in families and family policies in 19.  Fundación Madrina: La crisis en España margina labo-
a changing world (New York, 2011); M. O’Brien: “Fitting fathers ralmente cada hora a más de 9 mujeres madres trabajadoras,
into work-family policies: International challenges in turbulent Nota de Prensa (Madrid, 2010); S. Koukoulis-Spilitopoulos:
times”, in International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy “Greece Country Report” in European Gender Equality Law
(2013, Vol. 33, No. 9/10), pp. 542–64; J. Ghosh: “Financial Review (2012, No.2, pp. 79–85).
crises and their gendered employment impact. Emerging
20.  Convention No. 183, Article 8(2).

POLICY BRIEF
trends and past experiences”, in R. Antonopoulos (ed.): Gender
perspectives and the gender impacts of the global economic 21.  Convention No. 183, Article 8(1).
crisis (Routledge, 2014); ILO: Work–life balance. Governing 22.  Convention No. 156 has been ratified by 43 ILO
Body GB.312/POL/4, 312th Session (Geneva, 2011). member States, as of January 2014. In addition, the
4.  Papua New Guinea and the United States provide Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 (No. 100) and the
statutory maternity leave, but have no general legal provision Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention,
of maternity leave cash benefits. 1958 (No. 111) are the fundamental international labour
standards on equality and non-discrimination, ratified by 171
5.  Convention No. 183, Article 4(1).
and 172 member States respectively.
6.  Recommendation No. 191, Paragraph 1(1).
23.  Key ILO instruments on occupational safety and health
7.  Based on a subset of 139 countries for which information include: The Occupational Safety and Health Convention,
was available in 1994 and 2013. See ILO: Conditions of work 1981 (No. 155) and its Protocol of 2002; the Occupational
digest: Maternity and work, Vol. 13 (Geneva, ILO, 1994). Health Services Convention, 1985 (No. 161); the Promotional
8.  Convention No. 183, Article 6(2). Framework for Occupational Safety and Health Convention,
2006 (No. 187).
9.  The 167-country subset discounted several countries
on the basis that the complexity of payment systems did 24.  For example, Barbados, Cambodia, Canada, Niger and
not allow the assessment of compliance with Convention Norway.
No. 183. See the report Maternity at work: A review of na- 25.  Such as China, Ethiopia, Israel and Russia.
tional legislation (Geneva, ILO, 2010).
26.  Including Austria, Guinea, Jordan, Kuwait, Mexico,
10.  Less often, maternity benefits are paid from public Namibia, Thailand and Viet Nam.
funds (non-contributory schemes), which finance maternity
27.  See ILO: General Survey on the fundamental
benefits individually or in conjunction with social insurance or
Conventions concerning rights at work in light of the ILO
employers.
Declaration on Social Justice for a Fair Globalization, 2008,
11.  Hampel-Milagrosa, A.: The role of regulation, trad- ILC 101st (Geneva, 2012).
ition and gender in doing business. Case study and survey
28.  Nursing breaks refers to both breastfeeding or ex-
report on a two-year research in Ghana (Bonn, German
pressing breast milk should the infant not be in proximity.
Development Institute, 2011).
29.  Argentina, Bahrain, Chile, Egypt, Islamic Republic of
12.  S. Lewis et al.: Maternity protection in SMEs: An inter-
Iran and Syrian Arab Republic.
national review (Geneva, ILO, forthcoming).
30.  In Madagascar, for example, a special nursing room
13.  M. Huerta et al.: “Fathers’ leave, fathers’ involvement
must be provided in or near enterprises employing more than
and child development: Are they related? Evidence from Four
25 women.
OECD Countries”, in OECD Social, Employment and Migration
Working Papers, No. 140 (OECD Publishing 2013). 31.  S. Lewis et al., op. cit.
14.  Resolution concerning gender equality at the heart of 32.  International Monetary Fund (IMF): Women, Work, and
decent work, adopted by the ILC at its 98th Session, 2009 the Economy: Macroeconomic Gains from Gender Equity, IMF
(Geneva), Paragraphs 6 and 42. Staff Discussion Note (Geneva, 2013).
15.  Switzerland is the only country with no federal parental 33.  World Bank: Gender at work. A companion to the World
leave provisions. Development Report on Jobs (Washington, 2014).
16.  D. Grimshaw and J. Rubery: The Motherhood pay gap: 34.  W.V. Lancker: “Putting the Child-Centred Investment
A review of the issues, theory and international evidence Strategy to the Test: Evidence for the EU27”, in European
(Geneva, ILO, forthcoming). Journal of Social Security (2013, Vol. 15, No. 1) pp. 4–27.
 Gender, Equality and Diversity Branch
Conditions of Work and Equality Department
International Labour Office
4, route des Morillons
1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland
Tel. +41 22 799 6730
[email protected]
www.ilo.org/maternityprotection