Revised & Expanded

Creative
Problem Solving
in School Mathematics

Australian Edition

Dr. George Lenchner

A Handbook For Teachers, Parents, Students, And Other

Interested People.

Exploring Maths Through Problem Solving

 George Lenchner

Contents
INTRODUCTION
About the Author............................................................................................ ii
Preface to American Edition.......................................................................... v
Preface to Australian Edition......................................................................... vi

PART A. TEACHING PROBLEM SOLVING.......................................1

1. What is Problem Solving?......................................................................... 2
2. Using a Four-Step Method........................................................................ 3
3. Choosing Problems.................................................................................... 7
4. Evaluating Problems.................................................................................. 8
5. Presenting Problems................................................................................. 9
6. Helping Students..................................................................................... 11
7. Using Calculators and Computers....................................................... 11

PART B. SOME PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES...................... 13

1. Drawing a Picture or Diagram............................................................... 14
2. Making an Organised List........................................................................ 16
3. Making a Table........................................................................................... 18
4. Solving a Simpler Related Problem...................................................... 20
5. Finding a Pattern...................................................................................... 22
6. Guessing and Checking............................................................................ 24
7. Experimenting........................................................................................... 26
8. Acting Out The Problem.......................................................................... 28
9. Working Backwards................................................................................. 29
10. Writing an Equation................................................................................. 31
11. Changing Your Point of View................................................................. 33
12. Miscellanea............................................................................................... 35

PART C. SOME TOPICS IN PROBLEM SOLVING............................. 37

1. Number Patterns....................................................................................... 38
2. Factors And Multiples.............................................................................. 52
3. Divisibility.................................................................................................... 65
4. Fractions.................................................................................................... 77
5. Geometry and Measurement.................................................................... 84
6. Trains, Books, Clocks, and Things....................................................... 103
7. Logic.......................................................................................................... 115­

iii
Creative Problem Solving in School Mathematics

SOLUTIONS

PART D. SOLUTIONS TO PART A PROBLEMS.............................. 132

SOLUTIONS TO PART B PROBLEMS.............................. 134
1. Drawing a Picture or a Diagram........................................................ 134
2. Making an Organised List.................................................................... 135
3. Making a Table....................................................................................... 137
4. Solving a Simpler Related Problem.................................................. 139
5. Finding a Pattern.................................................................................. 139
6. Guessing and Checking........................................................................ 141
7. Experimenting....................................................................................... 142
8. Acting Out the Problem...................................................................... 142
9. Working Backwards ........................................................................... 143
10. Writing an Equation............................................................................. 144
11. Changing Your Point of View............................................................. 145
12. Miscellanea........................................................................................... 146

PART E. SOLUTIONS TO PART C PROBLEMS............................... 150

1. Number Problems................................................................................. 150
2. Factors and Multiples......................................................................... 160
3. Divisibility.............................................................................................. 166
4. Fractions............................................................................................... 176
5. Geometry and Measurement............................................................... 183
6. Trains, Books, Clocks, and Things.................................................... 200
7. Logic....................................................................................................... 209

PART F. APPENDICES.................................................................... 221

Appendix 1: Basic Information.................................................................. 222
Appendix 2: Angles in Polygons............................................................... 227
Appendix 3: Pythagoras’ Theorem........................................................... 238
Appendix 4: Working With Exponents...................................................... 249
Appendix 5: Justifying Some Divisibility Rules....................................... 257
Appendix 6: Sequences and Series........................................................... 264

PART G. INDEX................................................................................ 278

iv
Creative Problem Solving in School Mathematics

Preface to Australian Edition

Australasian Problem Solving Mathematical Olympiads (APSMO) Inc has been offering
Mathematical Olympiads based on Dr Lenchner’s model to schools throughout Australia, New
Zealand and surrounding countries since 1987. The annual interschool Olympiads are held
five times a year between May and September.

We take this opportunity to thank Dr Lenchner for his permission to reprint this revised and
expanded version of his excellent text with modifications specific to Australian education.

This text is identical to Dr Lenchner’s original text with the following modifications:
• Australian spelling.
• Changes in nomenclature such as imperial to decimal measurements, American coinage
to Australian coinage. (Note : We have continued to use 1c and 2c coins although they
are no longer in use in Australia).
• The sample questions remain true to the original, however, in certain situations they
have been modified to reflect Australian standards. All care has been taken to ensure
that the purpose and solution methods remain unchanged.

Thank you to Dr Anne Prescott, senior lecturer in primary and secondary mathematics
education at the University of Technology, Sydney, for her valuable assistance in reviewing
the alterations and ensuring that the text is correct and suitable for Australian students.

Jonathan Phegan
Executive Director
Australasian Problem Solving Mathematical Olympiads (APSMO) Inc

vi
Teaching
Problem
A

Solving
Part A
1. What is Problem Solving?

2. Using a Four-Step Method

3. Choosing Problems

4. Evaluating Problems

5. Presenting Problems

6. Helping Students

7. Using Calculators and Computers

1
 Creative Problem Solving in School Mathematics

Teaching Problem Solving

1. What is Problem Solving?

A It seems that everyone concerned with mathematics education today talks about problem
solving. Professional organisations recommend that problem solving becomes the focus of
school mathematics; curriculum guides list problem solving skills as key objectives at all levels;
and it is difficult to find a meeting of educators that doesn’t have at least one problem solving
session on its agenda. However, we should be careful not to think of this interest in problem
solving as just another “bandwagon.” The ultimate goal of school mathematics at all times is
to develop in our students the ability to solve problems.
Some teachers believe that the ability to solve problems develops automatically from
mastery of computational skills. This is not necessarily true. Problem solving is itself a skill
that needs to be taught, and mathematics teachers must make a special effort to do so.
Since we will be using the word “problem” repeatedly, let’s begin by agreeing on its
meaning. Any mathematical task can be classified as either an exercise or a problem. An
exercise is a task for which a procedure for solving is already known; frequently an exercise
can be solved by the direct application of one or more computational procedures. A problem
is more complex because the strategy for solving may not be immediately apparent; solving
a problem requires some degree of creativity or originality on the part of the problem solver.
Let’s look at an example: Suppose you are talking with your class about a collection
of coins that consists of three 5c coins, two 10c coins, and one 20c coin. Before continuing,
pause a moment to jot down some questions you might ask. Did you list any of the following?
1. How many coins are in the collection?
2. What is the total value of the collection in cents? in dollars?
3. Which of the sets of different types of coins has the greatest value? the least value?
4. How many different amounts of money can be made using one or more coins from
this collection?
5. How many different combinations of one or more coins can be made using the coins
in this collection?
6. How many other combinations of 5c, 10c, and 20c coins have the same value as the
given collection?
(Solutions are on page 132.)
Notice that the first three questions listed have a quality different from the last three in that
they can be solved by simple inspection or by using a computational algorithm. We consider
the first three to be exercises. For the last three, no routine process of solving is applicable; the
person faced with these questions must determine an appropriate strategy for solving before
actually proceeding to solve. We classify these questions as problems.

2 1. What is Problem Solving?

 Creative Problem Solving in School Mathematics

Solutions to Part B Problems

If an answer and solution are given together, the answer itself is boldfaced, as in number 1 below.

1. Drawing a Picture or Diagram

Pages 14-15
1. 4.
ROUND 1
ROUND 2
ROUND 3

ROUND 4

D
Champion

The championship team will have to play four tournament games.

2. 11 cm
1 cm
2 cm 9 cm

5 cm 7 cm

12 cm

3. 20. To obtain 4 pieces, the lumberjack needs to make only 3 cuts.

Since 3 cuts take 12 minutes, each cut takes 12 ÷ 3 = 4 minutes.

To obtain 6 pieces, the lumberjack will have to make 5 cuts. Since

each cut takes 4 minutes, 5 cuts will take 5 × 4 = 20 minutes.

134 Some Problem Solving Strategies - Solutions

 Solutions to Parts A and B

4. (1) Fill the 9L container with water. Then empty

as much of this water as possible into the 5L
container, leaving 4 litres in the 9L container.

(2) Fill the 3L container from the 5L container,

leaving 2 litres in the 5L container.

(3) Empty the 3 litres of water in the 3L container

into the 9L container for a total of 3 + 4 = 7
litres.

5. 9. The least number of tacks you need is 9, as shown

at the right.

6. 4. Refer to the layout of the tournament. For easy

reference, competitors are numbered from 1 to 9.
ROUND 1 ROUND 2 ROUND 3 ROUND 4
1
2 BYE
D
3
4
5 BYE Champion
6
7
8
BYE
9
Either player #7 or #8 would be the champion in this case. If any other player were the
champion, that player would have played just 3 games. The maximum that a champion
would have to play is 4 games.

2. Making an Organised List

Pages 16-17
1. 7. 3 Darts Hit 2 Darts Hit 1 Dart Hit 0 Darts Hit
Bull’s Eye Bull’s Eye Bull’s Eye Bull’s Eye

7 + 7 + 7 = 21 7 + 7 + 5 = 19 7 + 5 + 5 = 17 5 + 5 + 5 = 15
7 + 7 + 3 = 17 7 + 5 + 3 = 15 5 + 5 + 3 = 13
7 + 3 + 3 = 13 5 + 3 + 3 = 11

3+3+3=9

Seven different point totals are possible: 21, 19, 17, 15, 13, 11, and 9.

2. Making an Organised List 135

 Creative Problem Solving in School Mathematics

Index
Boldfaced italicised listings indicate definitions.

circumference 225, 94-96

A
regions 90-91
Acting out the problem 28-29
Clock Problems 109-110
Addition patterns 38-41
Coin problems 2, 19, 33, 36
Age problems 33, 54
Combinatorics and Probability 118, 16-19, 36
Algebra, use of 31-33, 92-94, 212-216, 237,
Combined divisibility tests 74-76
240, 248, 249, 258-260, 265-272
Completely factored 224, 54-62
Alphametrics see Cryptarithms
Composite numbers 224
Angles 227-237
Complex fractions 223, 79-81
exterior 229-230, 233, 236-237
Congruent figures 225
in pentagons 228
Consecutive numbers 33, 56, 65, 69
in polygons 228-229, 237
Consecutive unit fractions 78-79
in quadrilaterals 227-228
Counterfeit Coin Problem, the 36
in star-figures 233
Creating problems 7
in triangles 227, 228
Cryptarithms 115-118
Area 225
formulae 225 D
of circles 98-100, 225 Definitions, basic 222-226
of rectangles and squares 96-100, 225 Diagonals and chords 230, 22-23, 34, 112-114,
Arithmetic 230-231, 237
sequence 39, 264, 38-41, 264-265 Diagrams
series 266, 22-23, 49-51, 266-268 drawing 14-15
Average 224 tree 17, 55, 58, 62, 112
Venn 120, 120-123
B
Dice problems 18-19, 36
Backwards, working 29-31
Digit problems 222, 65, 69-75, 105-107, 115-
Basic information 222-226
118
Book problems see Digit problems
Divisibility 65, 224, 65-76, 257-263
C combined 74-76
Calculators, use of 11 principles 67-68, 75-76, 257
G Calendar problems 23, 41, 67
Card Trick Problem, the 52-56
tests of divisibility
for 2 65-66, 69, 74-75, 257
Carrying out the plan 3, 4-5 for 3 70-71, 74, 259
Certainty problems 118-120 for 4 69, 74, 257
Census Taker Problem, the 54 for 5 65-66, 74, 257
Chalkboard, use of 9 for 7, 11, and 13 75-76
Characteristics of good problems 8 for 8 68-69, 75, 257
Chessboard Problem, the 84-86, 114 for 9 70-71, 74-75, 258-259
Chicken-Cow Problem, the 18-19 for 10 65-66
Choosing problems 7 for 11 71-76, 259
Circles for 16 68-69
area 225, 98-100 for 100 65-66
for powers of 2 68-69, 257

278 Index
 for powers of 10 66 Geometric sequence 265, 42-44, 265-266
Divisions producing same remainder 58-60, terms of a 39, 42-44, 265-266, 268-270
252-253, 260-261 Geometric series 266, 268-272
Dominoes 17, 101-102 Goldbach’s conjectures 57
Drawing a picture or diagram 14-15 Guess and check 24-25
Duplicated sheets, use of 10 H
E Handshake Problem, the 111-113
Elapsed time 109-110 Hexagonal numbers 46
Ellipsis, Use of 222 Highest Common Factor (HCF) 57, 224, 57-60,
Equation, writing a 31-33, 92-94, 121-123, 64
237, 240, 248, 249, 258-260, 265-272 How to Solve It 3
Euclid’s algorithm 58-60 I
Evaluating problems 8 Indirect proof 237
Even numbers 66
Even-place digits 73, 259 L
Exercise vs. problem 2 Language of a problem 3
Experimenting 26-27 Lead-digit of a number 222
Exponents 249, see Powers List, make a 16-17, 57-58, 61, 88, 106,
Exponential form 249 111-114, 118
Extended finite fractions 81-82 Logic problems 36, 124-129
Extending problems 8 Looking back 5-6
Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) 61, 225,
F 60-64
Factorial 56
Factor 52, 224, 52-64 M
completely 224, 58-62 Magic square 25
highest common (HCF) 57, 224, 57-60, Mathematical cryptagrams
64 see Cryptarithms
prime 54, 54-56, 58, 76, 224 Motion problems 103-105
tree 17, 55, 58, 62, 112 Multiples 224, 60-64
Farmer’s Will Problem, the 83 common 61
Fermat’s “Little” Theorem 252-253 lowest common (LCM) 61, 225, 60-64
Fibonnaci sequence 47-48 Multiplication patterns 42-44
Figurate numbers 44-46 N
Finding a pattern 22-23 Nets 35
Flow chart 30-31
Formulae, geometric 225-226
Nonroutine word problems 7
Number bracelet 49
G
Four 4s Problem, the 25 Number cubes 18, 20
Four-step method of problem solving, 3-6 Numbers
Fractional parts 82-83 even 66
Fractions 223, 77-83 Fibonnaci 47, 48
complex 79-81 figurate 44-46
extended finite 81-82 forms of 222
unit 77-79 hexagonal 46
G odd 66
Gauss, Karl Friedrich 49-50 pentagonal 46
Geometric formulae 225-226 prime 54, 224, 54-62, 76
Geometric patterns 42-44 relatively 60, 225, 61, 239

Index 279
 Creative Problem Solving in School Mathematics

Numbers (cont.) relatively 60, 225, 61, 239

rectangular 46 Prime Power Factorisation 54, 224, 54-62
square see Perfect squares Probability and combinatorics 16-19, 36
triangular 45, 44-45, 111-114 Problems 2
O age 33, 54
Odd-place digits 73, 259 book 105-107
Oral presentation, use of 10 calendar 23, 41, 67
Order of a term of a sequence 39 certainty 118-120
Order of a Pythagorean Triple 242, 239-245 characteristics of good 8
Order of operations 81, 223 choosing 7
Organised list, making an 16-17, 57-58, 61, chords and diagonals 22-23, 34, 112-114
88, 106, 111-114, 118 clock 109-110
Overhead projector, use of 9-10 coin 2, 19, 33, 36
P creating 7
Parts, fractional 82-83 evaluating 8
Pascal’s Triangle 48 extending 5-6, 8
Patterns language of 3
addition 38-41 logic 36, 124-129
and sums 49-51 motion 103-105
finding 22-23 nonroutine 7
multiplication 42-44 presenting 9-10
unusual 46-49 routine word 7
Pentagonal Numbers 46 understanding 3
Pentominoes 102 vs. exercises 2
Perfect squares 53, 22, 45-47, 86, 238, 244, work 107-109
245, 248, 249 Problems, well-known
Perimeter 225, 92-94 Card Trick, the 52-56
Picture, drawing a 14-15 Census Taker, the 54
Plan, carrying out a 3, 4-5 Chessboard, the 84-86, 114
Planning how to solve a problem 4 Chicken and Cow, 18-19
Point of view, changing your 33-34 Counterfeit Coin, the 36
Polya, George 3 Farmer’s Will, the 83
four step method 3-6 Four 4s, the 25
Polygon Handshake, the 111-113
angle measure of a 227-237 Magic Square, the 25
G diagonals of a 230, 230-231, 237 Pascal’s Town 48
Pythagorean
exterior angles of a 229-230, 233, 237
regular 225, 229, 237 Theorem 238-248
Powers 249, 249-256 triples 239, 239-245
dividing 250 generating 240, 243-244
multiplying 249 infinitude of 244-245
powers of 251 nonprimitive 241-242
reading 249 Primitive 239, 239-245
zero 43, 251 order of 242-245
Presenting problems 9-10 R
Prime numbers 54, 224, 54-62, 76, 239 Reasonableness of answers 5
factors 54, 54-62, 76, 224

280 Index
Rectangles working backwards 29-31
area 225, 96-100 writing an equation 31-33, 93-94
counting regions 84-87, 114 Sum
perimeter 225, 92-94 of an arithmetic series 266, 22-23, 49-51,
Rectangular numbers 46 266-268
Regular polygons 225, 229, 237 of a geometric series 268-272
Related problems 20-23, 111-114
T
Relatively prime numbers 60, 225, 61, 239
Tangram 98
Remainders 58-60, 252-253, 260-261
Teaching techniques 9-11
Rhind papyrus 77
Term of a sequence 39, 42-44, 264-270
Routine word problems 7
order of a 264, 39
Rule for a sequence 40
Terminal zeros 54, 56
S Tests for divisibility see Divisibility tests
Sequence 39, 264, 38-51, 222 Tetrominoes 102
and series 38-51, 264-277 Textbook, using a 7
arithmetic 39, 264, 38-41, 264-265 Tree diagram 17, 55, 58, 62, 112
Fibonacci 47-48 Triangles
geometric 265, 42-44, 265-266 area of 225
order of a term 39 counting 87-89
rule for a 40 perimeter of 225, 94
term of a 39, 42-44, 264-270 Triangular numbers 45, 44-45, 111-114
Series 266 Trominoes 101-102
arithmetic 22-23, 49-51, 266-268
U
geometric 268-272
Understanding the problem 3
Sets of numbers 222
Unit fraction principle 78
Simpler related problem, solving a 20-21, 38-47
Unit fractions 223, 77-79
Square numbers see Perfect squares
consecutive 78
Squares
Unusual patterns 46-49
area 225, 96-98
Use of an ellipsis 222
counting 84-87
perimeter 225, 92-94 V
Strategies, problem solving 4-5, 8, 13-36 Variables, use of 31-33, 92-94, 121-123, 237,
acting out the problem 28-29 240, 248, 249, 258-260, 265-272
changing your point of view 33-34 Venn diagrams 120, 120-123
drawing a picture or diagram 14-15 Volume formulae 226
experimenting 26-27 W G
finding a pattern 22-23 Whodunits 124-129
guessing and checking 24-25 Word problems, routine 7
making an organised list 16-17, 57-58, 61, Work problems 107-109
88, 106, 111-114, 118 Working backwards 29-31
making a table 18-19, 22-23, 38-44, 47, 52, Writing an equation 31-33, 93-94
56, 61, 63, 65, 66, 69, 70, 84-86, 88, 90,
91, 93, 97, 113, 122, 124-129, 228, 231,
Z
Zero exponent 43, 251
233, 239, 240, 244, 245, 252,264, 265
Zeros, terminal 54, 56
miscellanea 35-36
solving a simpler problem 20-21, 38-47

Boldfaced italicised listings indicate definitions.

Index 281