Worksheet 1

Differences

Remember:
The difference of a sequence un is:

∆un = un+1 − un

The falling factorial (power), n to the k falling, when k > 0, is:

nk = n(n − 1) . . . (n − k + 1),
n0 = 1,
1
n−k = .
(n + 1)(n + 2) . . . (n + k)

Please complete the following table:

Sequence Difference
un ∆un
c

n2

n2

nk

n−1

n−k

cn

1
 Worksheet 2
Indefinite Sums

Remember:
To evaluate the sum:
X
un
n

we search for a sequence U such that un = ∆Un .

The falling factorial (power), n to the k falling, when k > 0, is:

nk = n(n − 1) . . . (n − k + 1),
n0 = 1,
1
n−k = .
(n + 1)(n + 2) . . . (n + k)

Please complete the following table:

Sequence Sum
X
un un
n
c

n2

nk

n−1

n−k

cn

1
 Worksheet 3
Definite Sums

Remember the fundamental theorem of sum calculus (the method of differ-

ences): If ur = ∆Ur then
b
X b+1
ur = Ur  = Ub+1 − Ua

a
r=a

Evaluate the following sums using the fundamental theorem of sum calculus.
When possible use the table of indefinite sums of Worksheet 2.
1.
n
X
(2r + 1)
r=0

2.
b
X
cr
r=a

3.
b  
X r
r=a
k−1
Hint: Define
 
r
Ur =
k
and use Pascal’s rule:
     
r r r+1
+ =
k−1 k k
4.
n
X
r1
r=0

5.
n
X
r2
r=0

6.
n
X
rk
r=0

1
 Worksheet 4
Sums of powers

Remember, we used:
n
X (n + 1)k+1
rk =
r=0
k+1

to compute the sum of squares this way:

n n
X X (n + 1)3 (n + 1)2
r2 = (r2 + r1 ) = +
r=0 r=0
3 2
(n + 1)n(n − 1) (n + 1)n n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= + =
3 2 6
1. Using this technique compute the sum of cubes:
n
X
r3 = ?
r=0

Hint: start writing r3 in terms of powers and then write r3 in terms of

falling factorial powers.

1
 Worksheet 5
Sum by parts

Remember, the sum by parts formula for definite sums is:

b
X b
X
ur ∆vr = ub+1 vb+1 − ua va − vr+1 ∆ur
r=a r=a

1. Evaluate this sum by parts:

n
X
r2r
r=0

1
 Worksheet 6
Linear difference equations with constant coefficients

Remember: Assume un = mn and m 6= 0. If the auxiliary equation has

distinct roots α and β then the general solution is:

un = Aαn + Bβ n .

If the roots are the same, α, then the general solution is:

un = (An + B)αn .

1. Find the general solution of this difference equation:

un+2 = 6un+1 − 8un

2. Solve this difference equation:

un+2 = 8un+1 − 15un , u0 = 2, u1 = 8

3. Find a closed formula for this constant-recursive sequence:

un+2 = 4un+1 − 4un , u0 = 2, u1 = 6

4. Solve this recurrence relation:

un+2 = un+1 + un , u0 = 0, u1 = 1

1
 Answers - Worksheet 1
Differences

Remember: The difference of a sequence un is:

∆un = un+1 − un

The falling factorial (power), n to the k falling, when k > 0, is:

nk = n(n − 1) . . . (n − k + 1),
n0 = 1,
1
n−k = .
(n + 1)(n + 2) . . . (n + k)

Please complete the following table:

Sequence Difference
un ∆un
c 0

n 1

n2 2n + 1

n2 2n

nk knk−1

n−1 −n−2

n−k −kn−k−1

cn cn (c − 1)

1
 Answers - Worksheet 2
Indefinite Sums

Remember, to evaluate the sum:

X
un
n

we search for a sequence U such that un = ∆Un .

Please complete the following table:

Sequence Sum
X
un un
n
c cn

n2
n
2

n3
n2
3

nk+1
nk
k+1

n
X 1
n−1 Harmonic number Hn = ,
r=1
r
Z x
1
the discrete version of ln(x) = dr
1 r

n−k+1
n−k
−k + 1

cn
cn
c−1

2
 Answers - Worksheet 3
Definite sums

Remember the fundamental theorem of sum calculus (the method of differ-

ences): If ur = ∆Ur then
b
X b+1
ur = Ur  = Ub+1 − Ua

a
r=a

Evaluate the following sums using the fundamental theorem of sum calculus.
When possible use the table of indefinite sums of Worksheet 2.
1.
n
X
(2r + 1)
r=0

We need to find Ur such that ∆Ur = 2r + 1:

Ur = r2 =⇒ ∆Ur = (r + 1)2 − r2 = 2r + 1
n
X n+1
∴ (2r + 1) = r2  = (n + 1)2 − 02 = (n + 1)2

0
r=0

2.
b
X
cr
r=a

cr cr+1 cr
Ur = =⇒ ∆Ur = − = cr
c−1 c−1 c−1
b
b+1
X
r cr  cb+1 − ca
∴ c = =
c − 1 c−1

r=a a

3.
b  
X r
r=a
k−1
 
r
Ur =
k
     
r+1 r r
∆Ur = − = (Pascal’s rule)
k k k−1
b+1 
b       
X r r  b+1 a
∴ = = −
k − 1 k k k

r=a

a

3
4.
n
X
r1
r=0

r2
Ur = =⇒ ∆Ur = r1
2
n+1
n 2
X r
∴ r1 = 

r=0
2
0
(n + 1)2 02
= −
2 2
(n + 1)2
=
2
5.
n
X
r2
r=0

r3
Ur = =⇒ ∆Ur = r2
3
n
n+1
X
2 r3 
∴ r = 
r=0
3
0
(n + 1)3 03
= −
3 3
(n + 1)3
=
3
6.
n
X
rk
r=0

rk+1
Ur = =⇒ ∆Ur = rk
k+1
n
n+1
X
k rk+1 
∴ r =
k + 1

r=0 0
(n + 1)k+1 0k+1
= −
k+1 k+1
(n + 1)k+1
=
k+1

4
 Answers - Worksheet 4
Sums of powers

Remember, we used:
n
X (n + 1)k+1
rk =
r=0
k+1

to compute the sum of squares this way:

n n
X X (n + 1)3 (n + 1)2
r2 = (r2 + r1 ) = +
r=0 r=0
3 2
(n + 1)n(n − 1) (n + 1)n n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
= + =
3 2 6
1. Using this technique compute the sum of cubes:
n
X
r3 = ?
r=0

Hint: start writing r3 in terms of powers and then write r3 in terms of

falling factorial powers.

r3 = r(r − 1)(r − 2) = r3 − 3r2 + 2r

r3 = r3 + 3r2 − 2r = r3 + 3(r2 + r1 ) − 2r1
∴ r3 = r3 + 3r2 + r1

n n
X X (n + 1)4 3(n + 1)3 (n + 1)2
∴ r3 = (r3 + 3r2 + r1 ) = + +
r=0 r=0
4 3 2
(n + 1)n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3(n + 1)n(n − 1) (n + 1)n
= + +
4 3 ! 2 !
2
n − 3n + 2 4n − 4 2 n2 + n
= (n + 1)n + + = (n + 1)n
4 4 4 4
n2 (n + 1)2
=
4

5
 Worksheet 5
Sum by parts

Remember, the sum by parts formula for definite sums is:

b
X b
X
ur ∆vr = ub+1 vb+1 − ua va − vr+1 ∆ur
r=a r=a

1. Evaluate this sum by parts:

n
X
r2r
r=0

We let ur = r and ∆vr = 2r , then ∆ur = 1, vr = 2r and:

n
X n
X
r2r = (n + 1)2n+1 − 0 · 20 − 2r+1 · 1
r=0 r=0
n
X
= (n + 1)2n+1 − 2 2r
r=0
= (n + 1)2n+1 − 2(2n+1 − 1)
= (n − 1)2n+1 + 2

6
 Answers - Worksheet 6
Linear difference equations with constant coefficients
1. Find the general solution of this difference equation:
un+2 = 6un+1 − 8un
Assuming un = mn and n 6= 0, we get:
mn+2 = 6mn+1 − 8mn
m2 − 6m + 8 = 0 (Auxiliary equation)
(m − 2)(m − 4) = 0
∴ α = 2, β = 4
∴ un = A 2n + B 4n (General solution)

2. Solve this difference equation:

un+2 = 8un+1 − 15un , u0 = 2, u1 = 8
n
Assuming un = m and n 6= 0, we get:
mn+2 = 8mn+1 − 15mn
m2 − 8m + 15 = 0 (Auxiliary equation)
(m − 3)(m − 5) = 0
∴ α = 3, β = 5
∴ un = A 3n + B 5n (General solution)
A+B =2 (u0 = 2)
3A + 5B = 8 (u1 = 8)
∴ A = 1, B = 1
∴ un = 3n + 5n

3. Find a closed formula for this constant-recursive sequence:

un+2 = 4un+1 − 4un , u0 = 2, u1 = 6

m2 − 4m + 4 = 0 (Auxiliary equation)
2
(m − 2) = 0
∴α=2 (Repeated root)
n
∴ un = (An + B)2 (General solution)
0
(A0 + B)2 = 2 (u0 = 2)
1
(A1 + B)2 = 6 (u1 = 6)
∴ A = 1, B = 2
∴ un = (n + 2)2n

7
4. Solve this recurrence relation:

un+2 = un+1 + un , u0 = 0, u1 = 1

Assuming un = mn and n 6= 0, we get:

mn+2 = mn+1 + mn
m2 = m + 1 (Auxiliary equation)
√ √
1+ 5 1− 5
∴α= ,β = (Golden ratio and its conjugate)
2 √ n 2  √ n

1+ 5 1− 5
∴ un = A +B (General solution)
2 2
A+B =0 (u0 = 0)
√ √
1+ 5 1− 5
A +B =1 (u1 = 1)
2 2
2
A−B = √
5
1 1
∴ A = √ , B = −√
5 5
 √ n  √ n
1 1+ 5 1 1− 5
∴ un = √ −√
5 2 5 2

This closed-form expression for the Fibonacci sequence is known as Binet’s

formula.