TOLEDO MAT SYMOUNE B.

EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES

EXPLORATION
-It is the process of gathering data about the deposits of minerals, coal, oil or gas(petroleum).
Information gathered is used to identify the location size and quality of the deposit to determine if it can
be recovered in economically feasible way. Exploration is first done over wide areas and becomes more
focused where potential resources are identified. Exploration does not guarantee mining will occur in an
area.

EXPLORATION ACTIVITIES
-The purpose of exploration is to search for a significant deposit of minerals or petroleum that is
of worthwhile value to extract, process and sell. Before any resource exploration can be done by any
explorer or company, they must have an approved exploration license in place from Mining, Exploration
and Geoscience (MEG).
Exploration license conditions can vary depending on the type of resource and include conditions to
minimize impacts caused. A security deposit is required to be paid by the company before any exploration
activities take place. All mining and petroleum projects and most exploration activities in NSW require
environmental assessment under the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979 (NSW) (EP&A
Act). All areas disturbed by exploration must be rehabilitated once activities have finished.

EXPLORATION METHODS/TECHNIQUES
-Exploration generally starts with low impact activities, including desktop research and field
inspections, to determine whether signs of minerals or petroleum are present. This is done before
progressing to more intense and costly techniques like geochemical sampling, drilling and geophysical
surveys.

1. GEOLOGICAL MAPPING
-Geological mapping locates and identifies rock types and geological structures relative to the
landforms and topography. It is often the first exploration method done on the ground, and can take place
at a local detailed scale or a regional scale. Geological mapping typically involves a visit to the area of
interest by a geologist to look at rock outcrops, and to observe the location, orientation and characteristics
of the rocks or sediments visible at the surface. It may involve light vehicle access to a property,
recording measurements and gathering small samples from rock outcrops, soils, or streams for chemical
analysis. This information can then be used to prepare a geological map of the exploration area, recording
the distribution of rock types and structures.

2. DESKTOP SURVEYS
-Desktop surveys include researching the available geological information for an area of interest. This
may include researching and analyzing previous company exploration reports, exploration data, and
published geological information. This process allows an exploration company or prospector to make an
informed decision before applying for a license or starting any actual field work
3. GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS
-Geophysical surveys can help identify resources without the need for sampling and are usually done with
minimal surface disturbance. Different types of geophysical surveys measure various physical properties
of the Earth and have different applications and equipment. Geophysical surveys can be conducted from
the air (airborne geophysical surveys) or on the ground (ground based geophysical surveys).

3-A. AIRBORNE GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY

-Airborne geophysical surveys may include magnetic, radiometric, gravity, or electromagnetic surveys.
These surveys are typically conducted from low-flying helicopters or light aircraft, which fly in a grid
pattern, with measurement instruments either mounted on the aircraft or towed underneath or behind.
 3-B. GROUND BASED SURVEYS
-Ground based geophysical surveys may include seismic, magnetic, radiometric, gravity or
electromagnetic surveys. Depending on the type of survey being done, a survey may consist of a single
geophysicist or team of geophysicists and technicians walking the survey area, to the use of quadbikes,
light vehicles, or seismic trucks.

3-C. MAGNETIC GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS

-Magnetic surveys measure the variations of the Earth's magnetic field due to the presence of magnetic
minerals. These surveys are sensitive enough to detect subtle variations in the amount of magnetic
minerals. They are used to interpret rock types and geological structures and can assist in identifying
resources. These surveys are typically undertaken from a low altitude aircraft or helicopter survey or by a
geophysical technician on foot carrying a magnetometer and a sensor on a pole. They are most often used
in metallic mineral exploration.
 3-D. RADIOMETRIC GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS
- Radiometric surveys measure gamma rays, which are continuously being emitted from the Earth by the
decomposition of some common naturally occurring radiogenic minerals. Generally, most gamma rays
come from the top 30 centimeters of rock or soil, which can be detected by airborne surveys, or on
surface rocks using a hand-held spectrometer (a device that measures gamma rays). The surveys focus on
recording the amounts of isotopes of potassium, thorium, and uranium. These surveys are most often used
in metallic and industrial mineral exploration. Airborne radiometric data is usually gathered at the same
time an airborne magnetic survey is done.
 3-E. GRAVITY SURVEYS
- A gravimeter measures the gravity field to determine changes in rock density in the Earth's crust. These
surveys are sensitive enough to detect small changes in the field, and can interpret and map the locations
of different rocks or geological formations which have different densities. Ground-based gravity surveys
need a geophysical technician to take gravity measurements at set intervals of distance and record the
precise height at each location. Access to the recording sites can be by vehicle or helicopter, depending
upon remoteness. Sometimes gravity is measured from the air by a special gravimeter housed in an
aircraft. They are used in both mineral and energy exploration.

3-F. ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) SURVEYS

- Electromagnetic (EM) surveys create an electromagnetic field and measure the three-dimensional
changes in conductivity within the near-surface soil and rock. The variations in conductivity can be
studied to locate metallic minerals and to understand groundwater and salinity. Ground readings are taken
by a small crew using transmission and receiver cables. Airborne EM surveys can also be undertaken by
aircraft fitted with highly specialized sensors. They are most often used in metallic mineral exploration
and are also very useful for groundwater, soil or salinity studies.
 3-G. SEISMIC SURVEYS
- Seismic surveys measure vibration as it passes through the Earth. Ground-based seismic surveys use the
principles of seismology (earthquakes) to create a picture of the geology beneath the surface. Seismic
surveys can provide information about rocks down to many kilometers in depth and are particularly suited
to flat-lying sedimentary basins. They are most often used in petroleum and coal exploration.

Seismic surveys use an energy source to create high-frequency vibrations, which can either be truck-
mounted vibrating weights or small explosives depending on the scale of the survey. This gives
information about the properties of the rocks, often down to depths of several kilometers. At the surface,
small sensors, or geophones, are linked by long cables and placed on either side of the energy source to
detect the arrival times of these vibrations as they return to the surface. Sophisticated mathematical
equations and computer software are used to 'process' these arrival times into a 'seismic picture' (seismic
section) of the sub-surface. These seismic pictures are then interpreted by geologists and geophysicists as
to what the geology or resource potential of the area is likely to be.
 3-H. INDUCED POLARISATION (IP) SURVEYS
- Induced Polarization (IP) surveys create an electric field in the ground and measure the chargeability
and resistivity of the area below the Earth's surface. The technique can identify differences in resistivity
arising from aquifers, metallic minerals and different rock types. Readings are taken by a small field crew
using transmission and receiver cables. They are most often used in metallic mineral exploration.

3-I. DRILLHOLE SURVEYS

- Drill hole (or down hole) surveys involve lowering a variety of scientific instruments (sondes) down
exploration drill holes or boreholes on a thin wire rope. These sondes can measure magnetic, radiometric
or electrical information from the rocks within the borehole and measure rock properties including
density, porosity and rock strength. This type of survey is usually carried out in petroleum and coal
exploration.
Drill holes can also be 'surveyed' by downhole depth and angle measuring instruments - these are used to
measure the downhole direction and inclination of the drill hole at specific hole depths so that the drill
cores can be accurately interpreted or mapped by geologists.
4. GEOCHEMICAL SURVEYS
- Geochemical surveys are used to target areas for further exploration. The surveys usually involve the
collection of soil, rock and/or sediment samples. These samples are sent for laboratory analysis to identify
areas of potential mineralization. The surveys may comprise:

4-A. SOIL SAMPLING

Hand-held tools such as shovels, picks, and hand augers are used to collect samples of soil and subsoil.
Samples are typically collected on a regular grid pattern and involve collection of small samples of soil.
Power augers, either hand operated or vehicle-mounted, may also be used. Holes excavated during the
program are typically back-filled and vegetation replaced immediately following sampling.

4-B. STREAM SEDIMENT SAMPLING

Approximately two-kilogram samples of sediment are collected within drainage lines. Three samples are
usually taken where two creeks join: one downstream of where they join and two upstream of where they
join (in each of the merging drainage lines). Samples are typically taken using hand tools and may be
sieved during collection.
 4-C. ROCK CHIP SAMPLING
Up to a few kilograms of rock material from outcrops are collected using hand-held tools. Rock chip
samples will usually be collected during geological mapping programs.

4-D. CHANNEL SAMPLING

A series of samples of soil or rock are collected along the face of the excavation. This may be a road
cutting, the face of an existing open cut or underground mine, a trench or similar.
 4-E. COSTEANING (OR TRENCH SAMPLING)
Costeaning (also called trench sampling) is a form of geochemical sampling where a shallow trench is
dug and the exposed rock mapped, analyzed, and sampled. It involves digging a 'costean' or trench, using
a backhoe or similar equipment. The trench may range from 20cm wide to more than a meter wide and
from a few centimeters deep (where hard rock is near the surface) to meters deep. The edges of the trench
are typically geologically mapped and channel samples collected for laboratory analysis.
Costeaning is only used in exploration for some minerals, including gold and lead, and is rarely used in
NSW. Strict regulations apply to costeaning and environmental safeguards ensure all sites are
rehabilitated.
 4-F. BULK SAMPLING
The bulk sampling method is used in very advanced exploration programs. In 2011, there were only two
bulk sampling approvals in NSW.
Before deciding to apply to develop a mine, an explorer may extract a bulk sample of the material to be
mined to allow further metallurgical or chemical testing and refinement of the proposed mining
procedures. Extraction of a bulk sample typically involves excavation of a small open cut type of mine or
development of a small underground operation. The level of disturbance associated with a bulk sample
depends on the nature and location of the mineral deposit to be sampled.

5. DRILLING METHODS
Drilling is often done as part of an exploration program to get more detailed information about the rock
below the ground surface. The aim of most drilling is to retrieve a sample which can be chemically
analyzed for a particular resource and used to identify the type of rock material that occurs at a given
depth below the surface.
The drilling method used depends on the type of information sought, the budget set by the exploration
company, and the rock type involved. The degree of ground disturbance around a borehole varies with
each drilling method. Strict environmental safeguards ensure all boreholes and drill sites are rehabilitated
at the end of the title within which they were drilled.
Drill rigs are usually mounted on either a small vehicle or large trucks, depending on the technique and
drill type. Sometimes subsurface conditions make sample recovery difficult and special drilling
techniques or equipment are required. If access to the drilling site is difficult, significant site preparation
and rehabilitation are required.

5-A. AUGER DRILLING

This drilling method generally uses a hand-held auger or an auger mounted on a light vehicle. An auger is
quite similar to a posthole digger used by farmers when fencing. This drilling method is generally used
for shallow boreholes and requires little site preparation.
 5-B. AIR DRILLING
There are three main types of air drilling: rotary, percussion and air core. This type of drilling is also
commonly referred to as 'open hole' drilling. It is called 'air drilling' as it uses compressed air to assist in
returning rock fragments to the surface (as opposed to diamond drilling or rotary mud drilling which
require drilling fluids and water during the drilling process).
This type of drilling creates rock fragments (known as 'chips' or 'cuttings'), in combination with small
core samples. Chip samples are generally collected at 1-meter intervals as the drilling proceeds down
hole.
Rotary Air Blast (RAB) drilling uses a rotating drill bit to break up the rock material. Compressed air is
forced down inside the hollow drill rods and assists in blowing fragments back up the sides of the hole to
the surface. RAB drilling is one of the fastest and cheapest drilling methods used for shallow holes in the
early stages of exploration.
Air core drilling uses a rotating drill bit to cut rock material, and compressed air to circulate the drill
cuttings and core samples from the base of the drill hole through the inside of hollow drill rods back up to
the surface.
 5-C. PERCUSSION DRILLING
The two main types of percussion drilling used for deeper drill holes are open hole percussion and reverse
circulation (RC). These methods use compressed air to assist with cutting or chipping the rock and
retrieving the sample from the base of the hole by suction. Water bore drilling uses similar open hole
drilling equipment.
Percussion drilling uses compressed air to drive a rotating percussion drill bit, which operates in a similar
manner to a jack hammer. The drill bit is typically fitted with numerous hardened protrusions that crush
the rock at the bottom of the hole (hammer) or a hard-balanced bit which cuts the soil or rock material. It
produces rock chips or cuttings that are lifted to the surface inside the hollow drill rod by compressed air.
This drilling method is relatively fast, can penetrate hard rock, and is capable of drilling holes up to 300
meters deep. These methods do not usually require significant site preparation.
Truck-mounted drill rigs with one or two support vehicles, to carry drill rods and an air compressor, are
typically required. Most drill holes can be completed in a single day. The rock chips brought to the
surface are bagged and then logged by a geologist and chip samples are sent for laboratory analysis.
 5-D. DIAMOND DRILLING
Diamond drilling uses a rotating hollow industrial grade diamond-encrusted drill bit to grind or cut the
rock producing a cylindrical core sample. To assist the process, diamond drilling uses water and drilling
fluid to lubricate the drill bit. The drilling fluids are contained in either in-ground sumps or above ground
tanks.
Diamond drill rigs can be quite compact (in the case of helicopter transported or underground drill rigs) or
they can be very large and mounted on trucks or tracked vehicles. Hole depths typically range from less
than 100 meters to several kilometers deep. Each drill hole can take several days to complete, and some
programs drill 24 hours a day if practical. As drilling progresses, the rotating hollow drill bit cuts a
cylindrical stick of rock, known as 'core'. The cut core accumulates in a hollow barrel above the drill bit
until it is full. It is typically returned to the surface by an internal cable system (wireline) which pulls a
length of core up to the surface.
Core diameter sizes range from a few centimeters to tens of centimeters. Drill core gives a very useful
sample of rock, which is logged by a geologist and samples are sent away for laboratory analysis.
Depending on the time period and size of the drilling program, extra equipment such as portable shelters,
storage containers, and portable lighting plants may be required. Diamond drilling is generally the most
expensive type of mineral exploration drilling, especially in the case of larger diameter deep holes, due to
site preparation, water containment, and rehabilitation.
 5-E. ROTARY MUD DRILLING
Rotary mud drilling is most often used for deep drilling in coal, oil or gas onshore and offshore
exploration. Rotary mud drilling uses water and drilling fluids to lubricate the drill bit and return small
rock fragments to the surface. Typically, a down-hole motor is located behind the drill bit. This means
that the drilling can be steered, so this form of drilling is used for directional drilling of specific targets.
The drilling fluids are contained in either in-ground sumps above ground tanks or ponds. It is most often
used for petroleum and gas when there is a requirement to suppress gases and fluids or when dust from
drilling is to be minimized due to community or environmental reasons.
In this type of drilling, drill rigs are usually larger than those required for other methods and require more
support vehicles and site preparation. Each drill hole can take up to several weeks to several months to
complete, depending on the depth of the hole. Drilling is often done 24 hours a day, if practical.
6. REHABILITATION
Rehabilitation involves returning the land disturbed by exploration and mining to its original state and is a condition
of every exploration license. It must be done as soon as practical after the surface of the ground is disturbed by
activities. Planning for rehabilitation is done before and activities take and in consultation with the landholder. There
are different approaches to rehabilitation depending on the types of exploration.

Rehabilitation of drill holes includes casing, sealing, and capping the hole. Usually the hole is given a temporary cap
prior to the results of the laboratory analyses. The hole is then plugged below ground with a concrete and metal
plug, so it can be found with a metal detector. The surface is backfilled and left slightly mounded, to allow for
subsidence, then reseeded and fertilized as appropriate for the surrounding area.

The rehabilitation of costeaning and bulk sampling involves returning soil and rock to the excavation before the
topsoil is replaced. The surface is left slightly mounded to allow for subsidence, then reseeded and fertilized as
appropriate to the surrounding area.

7. FOSSICKING
Fossicking is the small-scale search for and collection of minerals, fossils and gemstones for recreational, tourist, or
educational purposes. Fossickers may collect material from the ground surface or by digging from the surface with
hand-held implements. Powered equipment such as 'high bankers' (a mechanical sluice) is not permitted. As a low-
level recreational activity, fossicking does not require an exploration or mining license.

Generally, fossicking can take place on any land other than within National Parks, provided that permission is
obtained from the landholder or land manager, holders of mining leases and (except within a declared Fossicking
District), mineral and petroleum exploration titleholders. Where Native Title has been determined to exist, fossickers
also need to gain the consent of the Native Title Body Corporate. Fossickers must comply with any conditions or
requirements of the landholder, including which tracks, paddocks and gates to use, as well as specified periods of
access. There are basic rules that apply under the Mining Act 1992 (NSW) including safety requirements,
restrictions on how much can be taken away and damages to land and, under the Fisheries Management Act 1994
(NSW), for the protection of waterways and aquatic habitat.

Fossicking is prohibited in National Parks. Fossicking in State Forests requires the permission from the Forestry
Corporation NSW, in the form of a special purpose permit.