Earthquake Resistant Construction Handbook

1. 0 INTRODUCTION
Uganda has experienced a series of earthquakes of varying magnitude during the past century; the major ones being three
which occurred on 18th. May, 1945 of magnitude 6.0 that left 5 deaths, 8 injuries, and some houses destroyed; the second one
struck on 20th. March 1966 leaving 157 deaths, 1323 injuries and 6752 huts and houses damaged or destroyed; the damage
was estimated at £1 million. The most recent one occured on 5th.February 1994 which left 8 deaths, 2693 buildings demaged
or destroyed; damage was estimated at $60 millions.

After the 1994 earthquake, Government commissioned a team of consultants to assess the damage and recommend measures
to mitigate effects of future earthquake disaster. These consultants recommended among others the need to develop
guidelines for construction of earthquake resistant buildings in earthquake prone areas. Accordingly, a National Task Force
(NTF) was set up to execute this task. The NTF conducted investigations and concluded that in order to reduce or avoid
structural damage and increase safety of the population in earthquake prone areas, special attention should be given to:
selection and preparation of the site and building position; selection of building materials and design of the building, use of
special techniques for reinforcing foundations, floors, walls and roofs, quality of workmanship, maintenance of buildings and
addressing non-structural hazards.

The findings from the investigations provided an essential input into the preparation of guidelines for earthquake resistant
building construction. This Handbook is structured to give an overview about earthquakes, mitigation of structural and non-
structural hazards, and earthquake disaster preparedness. There has been an attempt for the first time in Uganda to
incorporate earthquake considerations in the Seismic Code of Practice for Structural Designs, which is expected to be
adopted as part of the Building Code.

There is however little attention that has been paid to address the non-structural aspects that are equally important in
inflicting injury and damage to lives and property during earthquake tremors. This Handbook has therefore been prepared to
guide the construction of earthquake resistant buildings and enhance seismic safety against both structural and non-structural
hazards.

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 Earthquake Resistant Construction Handbook
1. 1 FACTS ABOUT EARTHQUAKES
An earthquake is the motion or trembling
of the ground due to sudden displacement
of rock in the earth’s crust. It may be
caused by the movement of large
continental plates, which collide, move
apart or rub against each other, building
up immense tension within the rock
formations, which at a certain point
readjust themselves with a sudden
motion, sending out the accumulated Horizontal movements Torsional (twisting) movements
energy in form of seismic waves in all
directions. Other causes include: volcanic
eruptions and construction of dams to
mention but a few.
Seismic waves comprise horizontal,
vertical and torsional (twisting)
movements acting simultaneously. Weak,
non-elastic components break apart or
disintegrate; elastic materials vibrate and
absorb energy released by the tremors;
while tough and rigid materials can remain
unaffected. Destruction of buildings
mainly begins with walls falling apart; the
The resulting tension causes cracks in
ceilings and roofs, lacking support, follow areas of weakness in the walls. Some walls collapse as a result.
suit, burying the dwellers and property
beneath them.

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 Earthquake Resistant Construction Handbook
A series of smaller earthquakes follow
a major earthquakes and can lead to
further collapse of buildings, greatly
complicating rescue work. Other
effects of earthquakes include: ground
failures (landslides, liquefaction,
lateral spreads, differential
settlements & ground cracks), surface
faulting (horizontal or vertical
movement of the earth’s surface),
tectonic uplift, subsidence and Weak joints especially in corners lead The building may subsequently
tsunamis (huge waves in the ocean / to cracks collapse like the above classroom
sea resulting from earth tremors. block in Bundibugyo.
1.2 Categories of Damage Extent of damage Suggested post earthquake
actions
Slight non-structural damage Thin cracks in plaster, falling of Building should not be vacated.
plaster in limited areas Only masonry repairs are needed.

Slight structural damage Small cracks in walls, falling of plaster Building should not be vacated.
in large areas, damage to non- masonry repairs needed to achieve
structural parts like chimneys. The durability.
load carrying capacity is not reduced
appreciably.

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 Earthquake Resistant Construction Handbook
Categories of Damage Extent of damage Suggested post earthquake
actions
Moderate structural damage Large and deep cracks in walls; Building should be vacated, to be
widespread cracking of walls, columns, re-occupied after strengthening.
piers; tilting or falling of chimneys; Structural restoration and seismic
the load carrying capacity of strengthening are necessary
structure is partially reduced. before masonry repairs.

Severe structural damage Very large and deep cracks. Gaps Building has to be vacated. Either
occur in walls; inner and outer walls the building has to be demolished
collapse; approximately 50% of the or extensive restoration and
main structural elements fail. The strengthening work has to be
building takes a dangerous state. carried out before re-occupation.

Collapse A large part of the building or the Clear the site, carefully remove
entire building collapses. damaged building elements and
carry out reconstruction work.

1.3 Seismic Source Zones

Earthquakes in Rwenzori Region are associated with movements along rift valley faults but it is not possible to
associate an individual earthquake with the causative fault. The following assumptions were used in the zoning of
the area:
 each source has reasonably uniform Seismicity. Poisson model assumes that each point within a source zone
has the same probability of being the epicentre of a future earthquake, and
 the zoning is consistent with the regional geology and tectonics.

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 Earthquake Resistant Construction Handbook
Based on the available seismological and geological information the study region is modeled by four seismic source
zones shown in Figure 3.a. The zones, numbered from 1 to 4, have been defined as polygons to satisfy the input
requirements to the hazard computer program. Superimposed on the zone map are earthquakes of m4.5, after
removing aftershocks, used in the delineation of the source zones. In order to include earthquakes that may have
some influence on the seismic hazard of Rwenzori Region the zones go beyond the region by at least two degrees.
Zone 1 consists of Albert, George and Semliki basins and Rwenzori mountain block. A node between NNE-SSW
trending Lake Albert basin, N-S trending Nile rift and the E-W trending river Nile defines the northern boundary.
A line connecting Bunyaruguru and Kikorongo-Katwe volcanic fields marks southern boundary. Western and eastern
boundaries are marked by rift valley border faults.
Zone 2 contains Edward basin. Its southern boundary is marked by Virunga volcanic field, which is aligned along a
fracture zone transverse to the rift axis. The western and eastern boundaries are marked by rift valley border
faults. The northern boundary is the same as the southern boundary of zone 1.
Zone 3 is part of rift valley but with less seismic activity than zones 1 and 2. Zone 4 is characterised by splay
faults. The predicted ground motion in the figure 3.b. below depends on three crucial variables:
 the relation used to predict ground acceleration expected at a given distance;
 assumed maximum magnitude on Richter scale (mu) and
 recurrence interval of largest earthquakes (activity rates).
Seismic waves travel at different speeds in different types of rock. Passing from rock to soil, the waves slow down
but get bigger. A soft, loose soil will shake more intensely than hard rock at the same distance from the same
earthquake (that is certain soils greatly amplify the shaking in an earthquake). The looser and thicker the soil is,
the greater the amplification will be. It has not been possible to include site condition (site effects) parameter in
the determination of PGA since soils (soil type, thickness, and their seismic velocity) in the region are not properly
mapped. In addition, there are no accelerograms recorded in the study area. Thus amplification factors for
different sites are not also determined. Consequently the estimated PGA values in Figure 3.b. apply only to firm-
rock sites.

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1.5
3.0

2.0

1.0
1.0 1

0.0 D.R.Congo

-1.0 2 0.5

4 Fort Portal
-2.0
3

28.0 29.0 30.0 31.0 32.0 33.0 0.0

Figure 3.a Map Showing Seismic Source

Zones and Seismicity of Western Uganda
Symbols : -0.5
29.5 30.0 30.5 31.0
 Open diamond : Magnitude = 4.5-5.9,
 Solid circle : Magnitude  6.0 Figure 3.b. Probabilistic seismic map for peak horizontal
acceleration on firm-rock site conditions and 10%
probability of being exceeded in 50 years. Contours
indicate peak acceleration in %g units.

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2. EARTHQUAKE DISASTER MITIGATION - STRUCTURAL ASPECTS

In order to reduce the danger of structural damage and to increase the safety of a building & its occupants, serious
attention should be paid to ensure that the following aspects are adequately addressed:
 The selection and preparation of the site and the building position;
 The selection of building materials and design of the structure;
 The use of special techniques for reinforcing foundations, floors, walls, & roofs; and
 The quality of workmanship and frequency of maintenance of structures.

2.1 Site Selection & Preparation

 The construction site should be as far

as possible from the fault-line

 Avoid sites found in filled ditches and

water courses;

 Avoid sites located in a

waterlogged area
Flat terrain is the best.

 Provide sufficient distance from the neighbouring structures:

 The minimum distance between 1-storey structures should be equal to their height.
 If a new building must be built less than the minimum distance, any separation is better than none.
 Never interconnect the walls of two buildings.

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 Earthquake Resistant Construction Handbook
H=L

H Safer
Safe
L
Dangerous
 Align the building so that its length is
parallel to the nearest fault line. This House aligned with fault line
will help the structure go “with” and
Fault
not “against” the earthquake waves.
House alignment line

2.2 Construction along a slope

 The house should not be cut into
the slope as adjacent walls might
collapse due to the horizontal
forces of the earth.
 Allow a minimum distance of 3 m
from the adjacent wall as shown in Dangerous
the illustration.
Safe

 Avoid stepped foundations along

slopes, which result into unequal
heights of the walls. Level the site
and build level foundation with
equal wall height. Dangerous Dangerous

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 The building should not be erected
on the fill section of the slope as it
might easily slip down or even very
close to the steep slope as it might
be destroyed by falling rocks or
landslide
Dangerous Safe

 It is recommended that massive

heavy buildings be built on rocky
soils and/or piles, whereas light
flexible structures can stand on
softy sandy soils.
Heavy Structure on
firm ground Light Structure
 Multi-storeyed structures should Build on rocky ground with
on soft ground
be avoided in earthquake prone appropriate reinforcement or
avoid completely
areas. If they have to be built then
seek professional advice of
registered Structural Engineers.

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2.3 Design for Responsiveness to Seismic Forces

According to the findings based on the baseline surveys of the Task Force, the horizontal Peak Ground Acceleration
(PGA) values applicable to the firm-rock site conditions at 10% probability of a 50 year exceedance for Rwenzori
Region varies from 0.1 g to 0.34g. The engineering design coefficients for the net translational force as a function
of the height and floor area of the building are derived from the above PGA values for the firm-rock ground site
conditions in the region.

In deriving the net translational force for lifeline buildings (hospitals, schools, places of worship, public offices,
police stations, and public halls) the PGA value applied is 0.3g while for other buildings a PGA value of 0.2g has been
adopted. The value of net translational force is a product of mass and PGA (kg m s-2). Practically the net
translational force operates on the impacted surface of the building in a manner similar to the wind forces. The
table below presents some net translational force values applicable to a single and double storey building.

Summary of the Net Translational Force Values for buildings in Rwenzori Earthquake zone.
(Kilo Newtons- Kn)
Category Institutional Others Remarks

Floor Area (M2) 20 50 100 200 20 50 100 200 The larger the surface area,
Single Storey 0.44 1.47 5.69 11.77 0.29 0.981 39.24 78.48 the bigger is the net
translational force.
Double Storey:
Ground Floor 58.85 118 118 39.24 78.5 78.5 Greater force is exerted on
First Floor 117.72 235 235 78.48 157 157 first floor where the centre
Second Floor 58.86 118 118 39.24 78.5 78.5 of gravity is.

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2.3.1 Shapes

The shape of the plan of the house influences its stability to a great extent; the following basic considerations
must be borne in mind:
 The more compact a plan, the better the stability.
 The Building and its super structure should be simple, symmetric and regular in plan and elevation to prevent
significant torsional forces,
 Avoid large height : width ratio and large plan area.

 The circle is better than a square,

which is also better than a W
rectangular shape.

L
Ideal L = W
Better

 The Rectangle is less stable and is Improve with appropriate

badly affected by torsional forces reinforcements;
which lead to collapse of the walls.
W The length L should not exceed
3W.
Unsafe L L  3W

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 L – Shaped plans are less stable

 The best solution therefore is to

separate the elements as shown.

Safe
Bad

2.3.2. General Structural Design Principles for Earthquake Resistant Structure

 The foundation, walls and roof are well interconnected and so rigid that no deformation occurs during the
earthquake

 Walls are flexible enough allowing the deformation to absorb kinetic energy of the earthquake. Use ring beam to
take bending forces and the joints between wall & ring beam and ring beam and roof must be strong enough.

 Fix the roof to the columns that are separated from the wall, so that both structural systems can move
independently since they have different frequencies.

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2.3.3 Common Structural Design Mistakes

1. Ring beam is lacking 7. The wall is too thin in relation to

2. Lintels over openings do not its height
reach deeply enough into 8. The quality of the mortar is too
masonry poor, the vertical joints are not
3. Distance between door and totally filled, and the horizontal
window is too small joints are too thick (> 15 mm)
4. Distance between openings 9. The roof is too heavy
and wall corner is too small 10. The roof is not sufficiently fixed
5. Plinth or foundation wall is to the wall.
lacking 11. Ground beam is lacking
6. The window is too wide in
proportion to its height
2.4 Setting Out
Before setting out a building, the
site has to be prepared and
leveled. The following tools are
required during the setting out:
 Pegs & profile/batter boards
 Hammer
 Building Line/String/Cord
 Tape Measure
 Mason’s Square
 Wire nails & survey equipment Width of Foundation
if available

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2.5 Building Foundation
The stability of a building depends primarily on the foundation it is built on. The construction of the foundation is in
turn dependent on the type of building and, above all, on the load-bearing capacity of the ground.
The foundations are used to:
 Securely anchor the house to the ground to prevent forces e.g. wind or earthquake from lifting the entire
building or blowing it over or pulling it down;
 Transmit the building loads to the ground to ensure stability of the structure; and
 To provide a solid level base for the foundation walls.
2.5.1.Types of Foundations
Linear or Strip Foundation:

This is the most common type of It is also used to bridge or

foundation, consisting of a cantilever over soft portions of
continuous strip, which supports a the ground, in which case, it must
load-bearing wall along its full be reinforced.
length.
Linear or Strip Foundation
Spot or Pad Foundation:
This is the common foundation
for columns or poles, and
Support
comprises a square/
rectangular/circular footing,
which is thicker than the width or Footings
diameter of the column or pole,
the length and breadth each
Spot or Pad Foundation
being at least three times the
thickness.

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 Earthquake Resistant Construction Handbook
Slab or Raft Foundation: Slabs on homogeneous ground can
do without reinforcement, but
This type of foundation is often over large areas, reinforcement is
used for small buildings or advisable, as non-uniform ground
structures with uniformly conditions lead to differential
distributed loads (eg water stresses.
tanks). However, it can also be
used for large structures as well. Slab or Raft Foundation

Pile Foundation: The piles carry a reinforced

Building on poor soils or under concrete slab or are connected at
water calls for this type of the top by beams, which act like
foundation. Holes are dug down strip foundations. Lateral stability
through the weak soil up to the is achieved by placing some of the
loadbearing layer, and filled with piles at a slant (raked piles).
stable foundation material (either
placed in situ or precast). Pile Foundation

Stepped Foundation: In earthquake prone areas,

Building on sloping ground makes a stepped foundations are less
stepped foundation necessary. It stable hence should be avoided,
is a special form of strip unless improved by reinforcement.
foundation, designed to save
material, and to provide Dangerous
horizontal surfaces at intervals
along the slope. Stepped foundation

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 Earthquake Resistant Construction Handbook
2.5.2 Excavating a Foundation
Foundation trenches should be
carefully dug to provide a hard,
level bottom surface and side
walls at right angles to it.
Rounded edges must be avoided. Incorrect Trench – Not Square
Trench : Correct – Square

Right
Wrong

Some of the excavated murram

soil should be retained for
backfilling, when the foundation
wall is ready. The backfill should
have the same characteristics
(soil type, moisture, density) as
the surrounding, undisturbed soil.
Don’t use black cotton (topsoil)
for backfilling.

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Reinforced concrete foundation
should be provided where the
ground is not firm. Make sure
that the impurities in the sand
are removed by washing and
sieving or screening. Use
appropriate sizes of aggregates
and right ratios.
Example of recommended ratios Foundation: 1: 3: 6 – gives Grade 20 Ground beam: 1: 1.5: 3 – gives Grade
for: Cement : Sand : Aggregate Columns 1: 1.5 : 3 – gives Grade 25 25
Floor Slab : 1: 2 : 4 – gives Grade 25 Ring beam 1: 2 : 4 – gives Grade 25
It may be necessary to blend
types of sand in order to get the
best mix.

Cement : Sand Ratio for bonding

and plaster work : - 1: 4 Lake sand River sand
2.6 The Plinth Wall
The thickness of the plinth wall
Plinth wall
should be at least one third of
the length of the footing. The Plinth wall
plinth wall should preferably be
Footing
thicker than the wall it supports
Footing
and high enough above ground to
The plinth should be at least 600 mm below
protect the wall from rain splash.
ground level.

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