Synchronous optical

networking

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Synchronous optical networking (SONET)

and synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH)
are standardized protocols that transfer
multiple digital bit streams synchronously
over optical fiber using lasers or highly
coherent light from light-emitting diodes
(LEDs). At low transmission rates data can
also be transferred via an electrical
interface. The method was developed to
replace the plesiochronous digital
hierarchy (PDH) system for transporting
large amounts of telephone calls and data
traffic over the same fiber without the
problems of synchronization.

SONET and SDH, which are essentially the

same, were originally designed to
transport circuit mode communications
(e.g., DS1, DS3) from a variety of different
sources, but they were primarily designed
to support real-time, uncompressed,
circuit-switched voice encoded in PCM
format.[1] The primary difficulty in doing
this prior to SONET/SDH was that the
synchronization sources of these various
circuits were different. This meant that
each circuit was actually operating at a
slightly different rate and with different
phase. SONET/SDH allowed for the
simultaneous transport of many different
circuits of differing origin within a single
framing protocol. SONET/SDH is not a
complete communications protocol in
itself, but a transport protocol (not a
‘transport’ in the OSI Model sense).

Due to SONET/SDH's essential protocol

neutrality and transport-oriented features,
SONET/SDH was the obvious choice for
transporting the fixed length
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
frames also known as cells. It quickly
evolved mapping structures and
concatenated payload containers to
transport ATM connections. In other
words, for ATM (and eventually other
protocols such as Ethernet), the internal
complex structure previously used to
transport circuit-oriented connections was
removed and replaced with a large and
concatenated frame (such as STS-3c) into
which ATM cells, IP packets, or Ethernet
frames are placed.
Racks of Alcatel STM-16 SDH add-drop multiplexers

Both SDH and SONET are widely used

today: SONET in the United States and
Canada, and SDH in the rest of the world.
Although the SONET standards were
developed before SDH, it is considered a
variation of SDH because of SDH's greater
worldwide market penetration. SONET is
subdivided into four sublayer with some
factor such as the path, line, section and
physical layer.

The SDH standard was originally defined

by the European Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI), and is
formalised as International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) standards
G.707,[2] G.783,[3] G.784,[4] and G.803.[5][6]
The SONET standard was defined by
Telcordia[7] and American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) standard
T1.105.[6][8] which define the set of
transmission formats and transmission
rates in the range above 51.840 Mbit/s.
Difference from PDH
SDH differs from Plesiochronous Digital
Hierarchy (PDH) in that the exact rates
that are used to transport the data on
SONET/SDH are tightly synchronized
across the entire network, using atomic
clocks. This synchronization system
allows entire inter-country networks to
operate synchronously, greatly reducing
the amount of buffering required between
elements in the network. Both SONET and
SDH can be used to encapsulate earlier
digital transmission standards, such as
the PDH standard, or they can be used to
directly support either Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM) or so-called packet
over SONET/SDH (POS) networking.
Therefore, it is inaccurate to think of SDH
or SONET as communications protocols in
and of themselves; they are generic, all-
purpose transport containers for moving
both voice and data. The basic format of a
SONET/SDH signal allows it to carry many
different services in its virtual container
(VC), because it is bandwidth-flexible.

Protocol overview
SONET and SDH often use different terms
to describe identical features or functions.
This can cause confusion and exaggerate
their differences. With a few exceptions,
SDH can be thought of as a superset of
SONET.

SONET is a set of transport containers

that allow for delivery of a variety of
protocols, including traditional telephony,
ATM, Ethernet, and TCP/IP traffic. SONET
therefore is not in itself a native
communications protocol and should not
be confused as being necessarily
connection-oriented in the way that term is
usually used.

The protocol is a heavily multiplexed

structure, with the header interleaved
between the data in a complex way. This
permits the encapsulated data to have its
own frame rate and be able to "float
around" relative to the SDH/SONET frame
structure and rate. This interleaving
permits a very low latency for the
encapsulated data. Data passing through
equipment can be delayed by at most
32 microseconds (μs), compared to a
frame rate of 125 μs; many competing
protocols buffer the data during such
transits for at least one frame or packet
before sending it on. Extra padding is
allowed for the multiplexed data to move
within the overall framing, as the data is
clocked at a different rate than the frame
rate. The protocol is made more complex
by the decision to permit this padding at
most levels of the multiplexing structure,
but it improves all-around performance.

The basic unit of

transmission
The basic unit of framing in SDH is a STM-
1 (Synchronous Transport Module, level 1),
which operates at 155.520 megabits per
second (Mbit/s). SONET refers to this
basic unit as an STS-3c (Synchronous
Transport Signal 3, concatenated). When
the STS-3c is carried over OC-3, it is often
colloquially referred to as OC-3c, but this is
not an official designation within the
SONET standard as there is no physical
layer (i.e. optical) difference between an
STS-3c and 3 STS-1s carried within an OC-
3.

SONET offers an additional basic unit of

transmission, the STS-1 (Synchronous
Transport Signal 1) or OC-1, operating at
51.84 Mbit/s—exactly one third of an STM-
1/STS-3c/OC-3c carrier. This speed is
dictated by the bandwidth requirements
for PCM-encoded telephonic voice signals:
at this rate, an STS-1/OC-1 circuit can
carry the bandwidth equivalent of a
standard DS-3 channel, which can carry
672 64-kbit/s voice channels.[1] In SONET,
the STS-3c signal is composed of three
multiplexed STS-1 signals; the STS-3c may
be carried on an OC-3 signal. Some
manufacturers also support the SDH
equivalent of the STS-1/OC-1, known as
STM-0.

Framing …

In packet-oriented data transmission, such

as Ethernet, a packet frame usually
consists of a header and a payload. The
header is transmitted first, followed by the
payload (and possibly a trailer, such as a
CRC). In synchronous optical networking,
this is modified slightly. The header is
termed the overhead, and instead of being
transmitted before the payload, is
interleaved with it during transmission.
Part of the overhead is transmitted, then
part of the payload, then the next part of
the overhead, then the next part of the
payload, until the entire frame has been
transmitted.

In the case of an STS-1, the frame is 810

octets in size, while the STM-1/STS-3c
frame is 2,430 octets in size. For STS-1,
the frame is transmitted as three octets of
overhead, followed by 87 octets of
payload. This is repeated nine times, until
810 octets have been transmitted, taking
125 μs. In the case of an STS-3c/STM-1,
which operates three times faster than an
STS-1, nine octets of overhead are
transmitted, followed by 261 octets of
payload. This is also repeated nine times
until 2,430 octets have been transmitted,
also taking 125 μs. For both SONET and
SDH, this is often represented by
displaying the frame graphically: as a
block of 90 columns and nine rows for
STS-1, and 270 columns and nine rows for
STM1/STS-3c. This representation aligns
all the overhead columns, so the overhead
appears as a contiguous block, as does
the payload.
The internal structure of the overhead and
payload within the frame differs slightly
between SONET and SDH, and different
terms are used in the standards to
describe these structures. Their standards
are extremely similar in implementation,
making it easy to interoperate between
SDH and SONET at any given bandwidth.

In practice, the terms STS-1 and OC-1 are

sometimes used interchangeably, though
the OC designation refers to the signal in
its optical form. It is therefore incorrect to
say that an OC-3 contains 3 OC-1s: an OC-
3 can be said to contain 3 STS-1s.
SDH frame …

An STM-1 frame. The first nine columns contain the

overhead and the pointers. For the sake of simplicity,
the frame is shown as a rectangular structure of 270
columns and nine rows but the protocol does not
transmit the bytes in this order.
For the sake of simplicity, the frame is shown as a
rectangular structure of 270 columns and nine rows.
The first three rows and nine columns contain
regenerator section overhead (RSOH) and the last five
rows and nine columns contain multiplex section

overhead (MSOH). The fourth row from the top

contains pointers.

The Synchronous Transport Module, level

1 (STM-1) frame is the basic transmission
format for SDH—the first level of the
synchronous digital hierarchy. The STM-1
frame is transmitted in exactly 125 μs,
therefore, there are 8,000 frames per
second on a 155.52 Mbit/s OC-3 fiber-
optic circuit.[nb 1] The STM-1 frame
consists of overhead and pointers plus
information payload. The first nine
columns of each frame make up the
section overhead and administrative unit
pointers, and the last 261 columns make
up the information payload. The pointers
(H1, H2, H3 bytes) identify administrative
units (AU) within the information payload.
Thus, an OC-3 circuit can carry
150.336 Mbit/s of payload, after
accounting for the overhead.[nb 2]
Carried within the information payload,
which has its own frame structure of nine
rows and 261 columns, are administrative
units identified by pointers. Also within the
administrative unit are one or more virtual
containers (VCs). VCs contain path
overhead and VC payload. The first
column is for path overhead; it is followed
by the payload container, which can itself
carry other containers. Administrative
units can have any phase alignment within
the STM frame, and this alignment is
indicated by the pointer in row four.

The section overhead (SOH) of a STM-1

signal is divided into two parts: the
regenerator section overhead (RSOH) and
the multiplex section overhead (MSOH).
The overheads contain information from
the transmission system itself, which is
used for a wide range of management
functions, such as monitoring
transmission quality, detecting failures,
managing alarms, data communication
channels, service channels, etc.

The STM frame is continuous and is

transmitted in a serial fashion: byte-by-
byte, row-by-row.

Transport overhead …
The transport overhead is used for
signaling and measuring transmission
error rates, and is composed as follows:

Section overhead
Called regenerator section overhead
(RSOH) in SDH terminology: 27 octets
containing information about the
frame structure required by the
terminal equipment.
Line overhead
Called multiplex section overhead
(MSOH) in SDH: 45 octets containing
information about error correction and
Automatic Protection Switching
messages (e.g., alarms and
 maintenance messages) as may be
required within the network. The error
correction is included for STM-16 and
above.[9]
Administrative unit (AU) pointer
Points to the location of the J1 byte in
the payload (the first byte in the virtual
container).[10]
Path virtual envelope …

Data transmitted from end to end is

referred to as path data. It is composed of
two components:

Payload overhead (POH)

 9 octets used for end-to-end signaling
and error measurement.
Payload
User data (774 bytes for STM-0/STS-
1, or 2,430 octets for STM-1/STS-3c)

For STS-1, the payload is referred to as the

synchronous payload envelope (SPE),
which in turn has 18 stuffing bytes, leading
to the STS-1 payload capacity of 756
bytes.[11]

The STS-1 payload is designed to carry a

full PDH DS3 frame. When the DS3 enters
a SONET network, path overhead is added,
and that SONET network element (NE) is
said to be a path generator and terminator.
The SONET NE is line terminating if it
processes the line overhead. Note that
wherever the line or path is terminated, the
section is terminated also. SONET
regenerators terminate the section, but not
the paths or line.

An STS-1 payload can also be subdivided

into seven virtual tributary groups (VTGs).
Each VTG can then be subdivided into four
VT1.5 signals, each of which can carry a
PDH DS1 signal. A VTG may instead be
subdivided into three VT2 signals, each of
which can carry a PDH E1 signal. The SDH
equivalent of a VTG is a TUG-2; VT1.5 is
equivalent to VC-11, and VT2 is equivalent
to VC-12.

Three STS-1 signals may be multiplexed by

time-division multiplexing to form the next
level of the SONET hierarchy, the OC-3
(STS-3), running at 155.52 Mbit/s. The
signal is multiplexed by interleaving the
bytes of the three STS-1 frames to form
the STS-3 frame, containing 2,430 bytes
and transmitted in 125 μs.

Higher-speed circuits are formed by

successively aggregating multiples of
slower circuits, their speed always being
immediately apparent from their
designation. For example, four STS-3 or
AU4 signals can be aggregated to form a
622.08 Mbit/s signal designated OC-12 or
STM-4.

The highest rate commonly deployed is

the OC-768 or STM-256 circuit, which
operates at rate of just under 38.5
Gbit/s.[12] Where fiber exhaustion is a
concern, multiple SONET signals can be
transported over multiple wavelengths on
a single fiber pair by means of wavelength-
division multiplexing, including dense
wavelength-division multiplexing (DWDM)
and coarse wavelength-division
multiplexing (CWDM). DWDM circuits are
the basis for all modern submarine
communications cable systems and other
long-haul circuits.

SONET/SDH and relationship

to 10 Gigabit Ethernet
Another type of high-speed data
networking circuit is 10 Gigabit Ethernet
(10GbE). The Gigabit Ethernet Alliance
created two 10 Gigabit Ethernet variants: a
local area variant (LAN PHY) with a line
rate of 10.3125 Gbit/s, and a wide area
variant (WAN PHY) with the same line rate
as OC-192/STM-64 (9,953,280 kbit/s).[13]
The WAN PHY variant encapsulates
Ethernet data using a lightweight
SDH/SONET frame, so as to be compatible
at a low level with equipment designed to
carry SDH/SONET signals, whereas the
LAN PHY variant encapsulates Ethernet
data using 64B/66B line coding.

However, 10 Gigabit Ethernet does not

explicitly provide any interoperability at the
bitstream level with other SDH/SONET
systems. This differs from WDM system
transponders, including both coarse and
dense wavelength-division multiplexing
systems (CWDM and DWDM) that
currently support OC-192 SONET signals,
which can normally support thin-SONET–
framed 10 Gigabit Ethernet.

SONET/SDH data rates

SONET/SDH Designations and bandwidths
SDH
SONET
SONET level Payload
Optical Line
frame and bandwidth[nb 3]
Carrier (kb
format frame (kbit/s)
level
format

OC-1 STS-1 STM-0 50,112 5

OC-3 STS-3 STM-1 150,336 15

OC-12 STS-12 STM-4 601,344 62

OC-24 STS-24 – 1,202,688 1,24

STM-
OC-48 STS-48 2,405,376 2,48
16

OC- STS- STM-

9,621,504 9,95
192 192 64

OC- STS- STM- 38,486,016 39,81

768 768 256

User throughput must not deduct path

overhead from the payload bandwidth, but
path-overhead bandwidth is variable based
on the types of cross-connects built
across the optical system.

Note that the data-rate progression starts

at 155 Mbit/s and increases by multiples
of four. The only exception is OC-24, which
is standardized in ANSI T1.105, but not a
SDH standard rate in ITU-T G.707.[2][8]
Other rates, such as OC-9, OC-18, OC-36,
OC-96, and OC-1536, are defined but not
commonly deployed; most are considered
orphaned rates.[1][14][15]

Physical layer
The physical layer refers to the first layer in
the OSI networking model.[16] The ATM
and SDH layers are the regenerator section
level, digital line level, transmission path
level, virtual path level, and virtual channel
level.[17] The physical layer is modeled on
three major entities: transmission path,
digital line and the regenerator section.[18]
The regenerator section refers to the
section and photonic layers. The photonic
layer is the lowest SONET layer and it is
responsible for transmitting the bits to the
physical medium. The section layer is
responsible for generating the proper STS-
N frames which are to be transmitted
across the physical medium. It deals with
issues such as proper framing, error
monitoring, section maintenance, and
orderwire. The line layer ensures reliable
transport of the payload and overhead
generated by the path layer. It provides
synchronization and multiplexing for
multiple paths. It modifies overhead bits
relating to quality control. The path layer is
SONET's highest level layer. It takes data
to be transmitted and transforms them
into signals required by the line layer, and
adds or modifies the path overhead bits
for performance monitoring and protection
switching.[19][20]

SONET/SDH network
management protocols
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Overall functionality …

Network management systems are used

to configure and monitor SDH and SONET
equipment either locally or remotely.

The systems consist of three essential

parts, covered later in more detail:
1. Software running on a 'network
management system terminal' e.g.
workstation, dumb terminal or laptop
housed in an exchange/ central
office.
2. Transport of network management
data between the 'network
management system terminal' and
the SONET/ SDH equipment e.g.
using TL1/ Q3 protocols.
3. Transport of network management
data between SDH/ SONET
equipment using 'dedicated
embedded data communication
 channels' (DCCs) within the section
and line overhead.

The main functions of network

management thereby include:

Network and network-element

provisioning
In order to allocate bandwidth
throughout a network, each network
element must be configured. Although
this can be done locally, through a craft
interface, it is normally done through a
network management system (sitting at
a higher layer) that in turn operates
through the SONET/SDH network
management network.
Software upgrade
Network-element software upgrades are
done mostly through the SONET/SDH
management network in modern
equipment.
Performance management
Network elements have a very large set
of standards for performance
management. The performance-
management criteria allow not only
monitoring the health of individual
network elements, but isolating and
identifying most network defects or
outages. Higher-layer network
monitoring and management software
allows the proper filtering and
 troubleshooting of network-wide
performance management, so that
defects and outages can be quickly
identified and resolved.

Consider the three parts defined above:

Network management system

terminal
…

Local Craft interface

Local "craftspersons" (telephone
network engineers) can access a SDH/
SONET network element on a "craft port"
and issue commands through a dumb
terminal or terminal emulation program
running on a laptop. This interface can
 also be attached to a console server,
allowing for remote out-of-band
management and logging.
Network management system (sitting
at a higher layer)

This will often consist of software running

on a Workstation covering a number of
SDH/SONET network elements

TL1/ Q3 Protocols …

TL1

SONET equipment is often managed with

the TL1 protocol. TL1 is an telecom
language for managing and reconfiguring
SONET network elements. The command
language used by a SONET network
element, such as TL1, must be carried by
other management protocols, such as
SNMP, CORBA, or XML.

Q3

SDH has been mainly managed using the

Q3 interface protocol suite defined in ITU
recommendations Q.811 and Q.812. With
the convergence of SONET and SDH on
switching matrix and network elements
architecture, newer implementations have
also offered TL1.
Most SONET NEs have a limited number of
management interfaces defined:

TL1 Electrical interface

The electrical interface, often a 50-ohm
coaxial cable, sends SONET TL1
commands from a local management
network physically housed in the central
office where the SONET network
element is located. This is for local
management of that network element
and, possibly, remote management of
other SONET network elements.

Dedicated embedded data

communication channels (DCCs)
…
SONET and SDH have dedicated data
communication channels (DCCs) within
the section and line overhead for
management traffic. Generally, section
overhead (regenerator section in SDH) is
used. According to ITU-T G.7712, there
are three modes used for
management:[21]
IP-only stack, using PPP as data-link
OSI-only stack, using LAP-D as data-
link
Dual (IP+OSI) stack using PPP or LAP-
D with tunneling functions to
communicate between stacks.
To handle all of the possible management
channels and signals, most modern
network elements contain a router for the
network commands and underlying (data)
protocols.

Equipment
With advances in SONET and SDH
chipsets, the traditional categories of
network elements are no longer distinct.
Nevertheless, as network architectures
have remained relatively constant, even
newer equipment (including multi-service
provisioning platforms) can be examined
in light of the architectures they will
support. Thus, there is value in viewing
new, as well as traditional, equipment in
terms of the older categories.

Regenerator …

Traditional regenerators terminate the

section overhead, but not the line or path.
Regenerators extend long-haul routes in a
way similar to most regenerators, by
converting an optical signal that has
already traveled a long distance into
electrical format and then retransmitting a
regenerated high-power signal.
Since the late 1990s, regenerators have
been largely replaced by optical amplifiers.
Also, some of the functionality of
regenerators has been absorbed by the
transponders of wavelength-division
multiplexing systems.

STS multiplexer and demultiplexer …

STS multiplexer and demultiplexer provide

the interface between an electrical
tributary network and the optical network.

Add-drop multiplexer …
Add-drop multiplexers (ADMs) are the
most common type of network elements.
Traditional ADMs were designed to
support one of the network architectures,
though new generation systems can often
support several architectures, sometimes
simultaneously. ADMs traditionally have a
high-speed side (where the full line rate
signal is supported), and a low-speed side,
which can consist of electrical as well as
optical interfaces. The low-speed side
takes in low-speed signals, which are
multiplexed by the network element and
sent out from the high-speed side, or vice
versa.
Digital cross connect system …

Recent digital cross connect systems

(DCSs or DXCs) support numerous high-
speed signals, and allow for cross-
connection of DS1s, DS3s and even STS-
3s/12c and so on, from any input to any
output. Advanced DCSs can support
numerous subtending rings
simultaneously.

Network architectures
SONET and SDH have a limited number of
architectures defined. These architectures
allow for efficient bandwidth usage as well
as protection (i.e. the ability to transmit
traffic even when part of the network has
failed), and are fundamental to the
worldwide deployment of SONET and SDH
for moving digital traffic. Every
SDH/SONET connection on the optical
physical layer uses two optical fibers,
regardless of the transmission speed.

Linear Automatic Protection

Switching
…

Linear Automatic Protection Switching

(APS), also known as 1+1, involves four
fibers: two working fibers (one in each
direction), and two protection fibers.
Switching is based on the line state, and
may be unidirectional (with each direction
switching independently), or bidirectional
(where the network elements at each end
negotiate so that both directions are
generally carried on the same pair of
fibers).

Unidirectional path-switched ring …

In unidirectional path-switched rings

(UPSRs), two redundant (path-level) copies
of protected traffic are sent in either
direction around a ring. A selector at the
egress node determines which copy has
the highest quality, and uses that copy,
thus coping if one copy deteriorates due to
a broken fiber or other failure. UPSRs tend
to sit nearer to the edge of a network, and
as such are sometimes called collector
rings. Because the same data is sent
around the ring in both directions, the total
capacity of a UPSR is equal to the line rate
N of the OC-N ring.[22] For example, in an
OC-3 ring with 3 STS-1s used to transport
3 DS-3s from ingress node A to the egress
node D, 100 percent of the ring bandwidth
(N=3) would be consumed by nodes A and
D. Any other nodes on the ring could only
act as pass-through nodes. The SDH
equivalent of UPSR is subnetwork
connection protection (SNCP); SNCP does
not impose a ring topology, but may also
be used in mesh topologies.

Bidirectional line-switched ring …

Bidirectional line-switched ring (BLSR)

comes in two varieties: two-fiber BLSR and
four-fiber BLSR. BLSRs switch at the line
layer. Unlike UPSR, BLSR does not send
redundant copies from ingress to egress.
Rather, the ring nodes adjacent to the
failure reroute the traffic "the long way"
around the ring on the protection fibers.
BLSRs trade cost and complexity for
bandwidth efficiency, as well as the ability
to support "extra traffic" that can be pre-
empted when a protection switching event
occurs. In four-fiber ring, either single node
failures, or multiple line failures can be
supported, since a failure or maintenance
action on one line causes the protection
fiber connecting two nodes to be used
rather than looping it around the ring.

BLSRs can operate within a metropolitan

region or, often, will move traffic between
municipalities. Because a BLSR does not
send redundant copies from ingress to
egress, the total bandwidth that a BLSR
can support is not limited to the line rate N
of the OC-N ring, and can actually be larger
than N depending upon the traffic pattern
on the ring.[23] In the best case, all traffic is
between adjacent nodes. The worst case
is when all traffic on the ring egresses
from a single node, i.e., the BLSR is serving
as a collector ring. In this case, the
bandwidth that the ring can support is
equal to the line rate N of the OC-N ring.
This is why BLSRs are seldom, if ever,
deployed in collector rings, but often
deployed in inter-office rings. The SDH
equivalent of BLSR is called Multiplex
Section-Shared Protection Ring (MS-
SPRING).

Synchronization
Clock sources used for synchronization in
telecommunications networks are rated by
quality, commonly called a stratum.[24]
Typically, a network element uses the
highest quality stratum available to it,
which can be determined by monitoring
the synchronization status messages
(SSM) of selected clock sources.

Synchronization sources available to a

network element are:

Local external timing

This is generated by an atomic cesium
clock or a satellite-derived clock by a
device in the same central office as the
network element. The interface is often
a DS1, with sync-status messages
supplied by the clock and placed into
the DS1 overhead.
Line-derived timing
A network element can choose (or be
configured) to derive its timing from the
line-level, by monitoring the S1 sync-
status bytes to ensure quality.
Holdover
As a last resort, in the absence of higher
quality timing, a network element can go
into a holdover mode until higher-quality
external timing becomes available
again. In this mode, the network element
 uses its own timing circuits as a
reference.

Timing loops …

A timing loop occurs when network

elements in a network are each deriving
their timing from other network elements,
without any of them being a "master"
timing source. This network loop will
eventually see its own timing "float away"
from any external networks, causing
mysterious bit errors—and ultimately, in
the worst cases, massive loss of traffic.
The source of these kinds of errors can be
hard to diagnose.[25] In general, a network
that has been properly configured should
never find itself in a timing loop, but some
classes of silent failures could
nevertheless cause this issue.

Next-generation SONET/SDH
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SONET/SDH development was originally

driven by the need to transport multiple
PDH signals—like DS1, E1, DS3, and E3—
along with other groups of multiplexed
64 kbit/s pulse-code modulated voice
traffic. The ability to transport ATM traffic
was another early application. In order to
support large ATM bandwidths,
concatenation was developed, whereby
smaller multiplexing containers (e.g., STS-
1) are inversely multiplexed to build up a
larger container (e.g., STS-3c) to support
large data-oriented pipes.

One problem with traditional

concatenation, however, is inflexibility.
Depending on the data and voice traffic
mix that must be carried, there can be a
large amount of unused bandwidth left
over, due to the fixed sizes of
concatenated containers. For example,
fitting a 100 Mbit/s Fast Ethernet
connection inside a 155 Mbit/s STS-3c
container leads to considerable waste.
More important is the need for all
intermediate network elements to support
newly introduced concatenation sizes.
This problem was overcome with the
introduction of Virtual Concatenation.

Virtual concatenation (VCAT) allows for a

more arbitrary assembly of lower-order
multiplexing containers, building larger
containers of fairly arbitrary size (e.g.,
100 Mbit/s) without the need for
intermediate network elements to support
this particular form of concatenation.
Virtual concatenation leverages the X.86
or Generic Framing Procedure (GFP)
protocols in order to map payloads of
arbitrary bandwidth into the virtually
concatenated container.

The Link Capacity Adjustment Scheme

(LCAS) allows for dynamically changing
the bandwidth via dynamic virtual
concatenation, multiplexing containers
based on the short-term bandwidth needs
in the network.

The set of next-generation SONET/SDH

protocols that enable Ethernet transport is
referred to as Ethernet over SONET/SDH
(EoS).

See also
 List of device bandwidths
Routing and wavelength assignment
Multiwavelength optical networking
Optical mesh network
Optical Transport Network
Remote error indication
G.709
Transmux

Notes
1. 2,430 octets per frame × 8 bits per
octet × 8,000 frames per second =
155.52 Mbit/s
 2. 2,349 octets of payload per frame × 8
bits per octet × 8,000 frames per
second = 150.336 Mbit/s
3. line rate minus the bandwidth of the
line and section overheads

References
1. Horak, Ray (2007).
Telecommunications and Data
Communications Handbook. Wiley-
Interscience. p. 476. ISBN 978-0-470-
04141-3.
2. ITU-T Rec. G.707/Y.1322, Network
node interface for the synchronous
digital hierarchy (SDH). , Geneva:
 International Telecommunications
Union, January 2007, retrieved
3 November 2010
3. ITU-T Rec. G.783, Characteristics of
synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH)
equipment functional blocks. , Geneva:
International Telecommunications
Union, March 2006, retrieved
3 November 2010
4. ITU-T Rec. G.784, Management
aspects of the synchronous digital
hierarchy (SDH) transport network
element. , Geneva: International
Telecommunications Union, March
2008, retrieved 3 November 2010
5. ITU-T Rec. G.803, Architecture of
transport networks based on the
synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH). ,
Geneva: International
Telecommunications Union, March
2000, retrieved 3 November 2010
6. "SONET/SDH Technical Summary" .
TechFest. TechFest.com. 2002.
Archived from the original on 27
January 1999. Retrieved 13 November
2010.
7. Telcordia GR-253-CORE , Synchronous
Optical Network (SONET) Transport
Systems: Common Generic Criteria
(October 2009). Issue 5.
 8. ANSI T1.105.07-1996 (R2005),
Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET) – Sub-STS-1 Interface Rates
and Formats Specification. , New York:
American National Standards Institute,
1996, archived from the original on 6
March 2012
9. "Forward error correction in optical
networks" (PDF). Conexant Systems,
Inc. Archived from the original (PDF)
on 10 December 2014. Retrieved
10 December 2014.
10. "Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
Graphical Overview" . Cisco. San Jose,
California: Cisco indiA Systems. 1
 October 2006. Retrieved 14 November
2010.
11. "Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET)" . Web ProForums.
International Engineering Consortium.
2007. Archived from the original on 7
April 2008. Retrieved 21 April 2007.
12. "OC 768 Internet Connection" . GCG.
Global Communications Group. 2009.
Archived from the original on 20
September 2010. Retrieved
14 November 2010.
13. IEEE Std 802.3bv-2017
14. Tozer, Edwin Paul J. (2004). "1.8.11
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)".
 Broadcast Engineer's Reference Book.
Focal Press. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-240-
51908-1.
15. Elbert, Bruce R. (2008). Introduction to
Satellite Communication. Artech
House space applications series (3rd
ed.). Artech House. p. 73. ISBN 978-1-
59693-210-4.
16. Tyson, Jeff. "How OSI Works"
HowStuffWorks.com.
<http://computer.howstuffworks.com/
osi.htm > 2 December 2011.
17. Black, Uyless D. Emerging
Communications Technologies.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PTR Prentice
 Hall, 1994. 298-99. Print.
18. Hassan, Rosilah, James Irvine, and Ian
Glover. "Design and Analysis of Virtual
Bus Transport Using Synchronous
Digital Hierarchy/Synchronous Optical
Networking." Journal of Computer
Science 4.12 (2008): 1003-011. Print.
19. "SONET: How Does SONET Work?"
Capybara.Org. Web. 2 December 2011.
<[1] >.
20. "Introduction to SONET." Networking -
Computer and Wireless Networking
Basics - Home Networks Tutorials.
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<http://compnetworking.about.com/o
 d/hardwarenetworkgear/l/aa092800a
.htm >.
21. ITU-T Rec. G.7712/Y.1703,
Architecture and Specification of Data
Communication Network. , Geneva:
International Telecommunications
Union, 30 March 2007
22. "Understanding SONET UPSRs" .
SONET Homepage. Retrieved
14 November 2010.
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SONET Homepage. Retrieved
14 November 2010.
24. Matthew Gast (August 2001). "Chapter
5: Timing, Clocking, and
 Synchronization in the T-carrier
System" . T1: A Survival Guide. ISBN 0-
596-00127-4. Archived from the
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28 September 2012.
25. "Why is a timing loop so bad, and why
is it so difficult to fix?" . Optical
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Retrieved 28 September 2012.

External links
Understanding SONET/SDH
The Queen's University of Belfast
SDH/SONET Primer
SDH Pocket Handbook from
Acterna/JDSU
SONET Pocket Handbook from
Acterna/JDSU
The Sonet Homepage
SONET Interoperability Form (SIF)
Network Connection Speeds Reference
Next-generation SDH: the future looks
bright
The Future of SONET/SDH (pdf)
Telcordia GR-253-CORE, SONET
Transport Systems: Common Generic
Criteria
Telcordia GR-499-CORE, Transport
Systems Generic Requirements (TSGR):
Common Requirements
ANSI T1.105: SONET - Basic Description
including Multiplex Structure, Rates and
Formats
ANSI T1.119/ATIS PP 0900119.01.2006:
SONET - Operations, Administration,
Maintenance, and Provisioning
(OAM&P) - Communications
ITU-T recommendation G.707: Network
Node Interface for the Synchronous
Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
 ITU-T recommendation G.783:
Characteristics of synchronous digital
hierarchy (SDH) equipment functional
blocks
ITU-T recommendation G.803:
Architecture of Transport Networks
Based on the Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy (SDH)

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