Chapter 5

CEMENT
Definition:
Natural cement is obtained by burning and crushing the
stones containing clay, carbonate of lime and some amount of
carbonate of magnesia. Clay content in such stones is about
20 to 40 pe r cen t. Na tur al c em en t is brow n in colou r an d
its best variety is known as Roman Cement. Natural cement \
resembles very closely eminent hydraulic lime. It sets very
quickly after addition of water. It is not so strong as artificial
cement and hence, it has limited use in practice.
Artificial cement is obtained by burning at a very high
t e mp e r a t u r e a m i x t u r e o f c a l c a r e o u s a n d a r g i l l a c e o u s
materials. Mixture of ingredients should be intimate and
they should be in correct proportion. Calcined product is
known as clinker. A small quantity of gypsum is added to
clinker and it is then pulverised into very fine powder
which is known as cement. Common variety of artificial
cement is known as normal setting cement or ordinary cement.
This cement was invented by a mason Joseph Aspdin of Leeds
in Eng land in 1824. Af te r set ting, this ce me nt c los ely
resembles a variety of sandstone which is found in abundance
in Portland in England. It is, therefore, sometimes referred
to as Portland cement.
Various varieties of artificial cements are available in
the market at present. We will first concentrate our attention
on the study of normal setting or ordinary or Portland cement.
Other varieties of artificial cement will be described
subsequently.

Cement and lime:

Following points of' differences may be noted between
ordinary cement and lime:
(1) Cement can be used under conditions and circum-
stances which are not favourable for lime.
 CEMENT 121

(2)Cement, when converted into a paste form, sets

quickly.
(3)Colours of cement and lime are different.
(4)When water is added to cement, no heat is produced and
there is no slaking action.

Co m p os i t i o n o f o r d i na r y c e m e n t :
Ordinary cement contains two basic ingredients, namely,
argillaceous and calcareous. In argillaceous materials, clay
predominates and in calcareous materials, calcium carbonate
predominates. A typical chemical analysis of a good ordi -
nary cement is as follows :
Ingredient Per cent
Lime (GaO) ..................62
Silica (Si02)......................22
Alumina (Al203)...................... 5
Calcium sulphate (CaSO 4 )................... 4
Iron oxide (Fe 2 0 3 ) ...................3
Magnesia (Mg0)..................... 2
Sulphur (S) ........................... 1
Alkalies .................................................. 1
Total 100

Functions of cement ingredients:

Ingredients of ordinary cement, as mentioned above,
perform the following functions :

(I) Lime (CaO):

This is the important ingredient of cement and its
proportion is to be carefully maintained. Lime in excess
makes the cement unsound and causes the cement to expand
and disintegrate. On the other hand, if lime is in deficiency,
strength of cement is decreased and it causes cement to set
quickly. '

(2) Silica (5i0 2 ):

This is also an important ingredient of cement and it
gives or imparts strength to cement.
122 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

(3) Alumina (Al203):

This ingredient imparts quick setting property to cement.
Alumina in excess weakens the cement.
(4) Calcium sulphate (CaSO4):
This ingredient is in the form of gypsum and its function
is to increase the initial setting time of cement.
(5) Iron oxide (Fe203):
This ingredient imparts colour, hardness and strength
to cement.
(6) Magnesia (MgO):
This ingredient, if present in small amount, imparts
hardness and colour to cement.
(7) Sulphur (5):
A very small amount of sulphur is useful in making sound
cement. If it is in excess, it causes cement to become unsound.
(8)Alkalies:
Most of the alkalies present in raw materials are carried
away by the flue gases during heating and cement contains
only a small amount of alkalies. If they are in excess in
cement, efflorescence is caused.

Harmful constituents of cement:

The presence of the following two oxides adversely affects
the quality of cement:
(1)Alkali oxides K20 and Na20
(2)Magnesium oxide MgO.
If the amount of alkali oxides exceeds 1 per cent, it leads
to the failure of concrete made from that cement. Similarly,
if the content of magnesium oxide exceeds 5 per cent, it causes
cracks after mortar or concrete hardens. It is due to the fact
that magnesium oxide, burned at a temperature of about
1500° C, slakes very slowly, when mixed with water.
 CEMENT 123

S e t t i n g ac t i o n of c e m e n t :
When water is added to cement, ingredients of cement
react chemically with water and form various complicated
chemical compounds. Formation of these compounds is
not simultaneous. But setting action of cement continues
for a long time. It is found that ordinary cement achieves
about 70% of its final strength in 28 days and about 90%
of its final strength in one year or so. Following are the
important compounds formed during the setting action of
cement:
(I) Tricalciu m aluminate (3CaO, Al 2 0 3 ):
This compound is formed within about 24 hours after
addition of water to cement.
(2) Tetra calcium alumino ferrite (4CaO,Al 2 0 3 ,Fe 2 0 3 ): This
- -

compound is also formed within about 24 hours after

addition of water to cement.
(3) Tricalcium silicate (3CaO, S70 2 ):
This compound is formed within a week or so after
addition of water to cement and it is mainly responsible for
imparting strength to cement in early period of setting.
(4) Dicalcium silicate (2CaO, S702):
This compound is formed very slowly and hence, it is
responsible for giving progressive strength to cement.
The above four principle minerals in ordinary portland
cement are designated in short as C 3A, C4AF, C3 S and C 2 S
respectively and their relative proportions, expressed as per-
centages, are as follows:
C 3 A ......................... 4 to 141
(celit)
C4AF .........................10 to 18
C3S 45 to 65 (alit)
C2S ...........................15 to 35 (beljt)
When water is added to cement, the quickest to react
with water is C 3 A and in order of decreasing rate are C 4 AF,
C 3 S and C 2 S. During the initial period of hardening, the
gain in strength of C 2S is small and it is about 15 per cent of
that of C3S. After 28 days, the hydration of C 3S comes practi-
cally to an end and the hydration of C 2 S only really begins
124 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

at that time. Hence when a high-strength concrete is required

within a short period of time, cement is made with a high
content of C 3 S. On the other hand, if a high-strength concrete
is required at a later stage, as in case of hydraulic engineering
constructions, cement is made with a high content of C 2 S.
The hardening of concrete is greatly speeded by up C 3 A and
hence, this property of C 3 A is utilised for producing quick-
hardening portland cement.
Depending upon the mineralogical composition Of
clinker in percentage, portland cement can be subdivideg
conventionally as follows:
Alit, containing C 3 S more than 50 to 60%.
Aluminate, containing C 3 A more than 12%.
Alumoferrite, containing C 3 A less than 2% and
C 4 AF more than 18%.
Belit, containing C 2 S more than 35%.
High-alit, containing C 3 S more than 60%.
S i t e f o r c e m e n t fa c t o r y :
Location of cement factory should be decided carefully.
Following are the guiding factors which are to be paid atten -
tion to while making selection for site of a proposed cement
factory:
(1) Climatic conditions:
Site for cement factory should be selected in such a
way that its climatic conditions are favourable for the manu -
facturing process of cement.
(2)Labour:
Site should be such that it is possible to procure the
required labour easily and economically.
(3)Market:
Site for cement factory should be, as -far as possible,
near to the market of sale. This will decrease the cost of'
transport and minimise the chances of spoiling the cement
during transport.
(4)Power:
Availability of power and fuel at economic rates should
also be considered.
 CEMENT 125

(5)Raw materials:
These should be available easily and continuously
around the area of site under consideration.
(6) Transport facilities:
Site for a cement factory should be such that transport
facilities are available for raw materials and finished products.
(7) Miscellaneous:
It is necessary to have parks, gardens, recreation centres,
etc. near the site for a cement factory. Such arrangements
would be helpful for giving relaxation to officers and workers
of the factory.
It may be mentioned that the above conditions are meant
for an ideal site for cement factory. It is difficult, if not
impossible, to obtain such a site in practice. It, therefore,
becomes necessary to select a site which satisfies most of the
conditions mentioned above.
Manufacture of ordinary cement:
Following three distinct operations are involved in the
manufacture of normal setting or ordinary or portland cement:
(1)Mixing of raw materials
(2)Burning
(3)Grinding.
(1) Mixing of raw materials:
Raw materials such as limestone or chalk and shale
or clay may be mixed either in dry condition or in wet condi -
tion. Process is accordingly known as dry process or wet
process of mixing.
Dry process :
In this process, the raw materials are first reduced in
size of about 25 mm in crushers. A current of dry air is
then passed over these dried materials. These dried materials
are then pulverised into fine powder in ball mills and tube
mi ll s. Al l th es e op er at ions ar e done sep ar at el y f or e ac h
raw material and they are stored in hoppers. They are
then mixed in correct proportions and made ready for the
feed of rotary kiln. This finely ground powder of raw
126 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

materials is known as raw mix and it is stored in storage tank.

Fig. 5-1 shows the flow diagram of mixing of raw materials
by dry process:
Fine
Calcareous Material
Argillaceous Material
Limestone
Clay

I
Crushing
t
*
Crushing
t
Grinding in Ball Mills
Fine Grinding in Ball Mills
and Tube Mills
and Tube Mills

t
Storage
t

Mixing in Correct Proportion

Storage Tank for Raw Mix

Flow diagram of dry process

FIG. 5-1
Dry process is adopted when raw materials are hard.
But the process is slow and it proves to be costly. Further,
cement produced is of inferior quality to that produced by
wet process. Hence this process has been practically re -
placed at present by wet process of mixing of raw materials.
However, the dry process possesses the following advantages :
(1)It increases the productivity of labour.
(2)The capital required for the manufacture of tonne of
cement is less.
(3)The fuel consumption is reduced.
Wet process:
In this process, calcareous materials such as limestone
are crushed and stored in silos or storage tanks. Argillaceous
material such as clay is thoroughly mixed with water in a
container known as wash mill. This washed clay is stored in
bas ins. Now , c rush ed li me ston e fr om s ilos and we t cl ay
from basins are allowed to fall in a channel in correct propor-
 CEMENT 127

tions. This channel leads the materials to grinding mills

where they are brought into intimate contact to form what is
known as slurry. Grinding is carried out either in ball mill
or tube mill or both. The slurry is led to correcting basin
where it is constantly stirred. At this stage, the chemical
composition is adjusted as necessary. The corrected slurry
is stored in storage tanks and kept ready to serve as feed for
rotary kiln. Fig. 5-2 shows the flow diagram of mixing of
raw materials by wet process.

Calcareous Material Argillaceous Material

Clay
1
'
Crushing Washin
g t

I Storage in Silos I Storage in

4 Basini
,
Chann
el
4 ,
Grinding. Mill I

Formation of Slurry

ICorrecting Basin

1torage alhlis
Flow diagram of wet process
Flo. 5 2 -

It is thus seen that in case of mixing of raw materials by

dry process, raw mix is formed and in case of mixing of raw
materials by wet process, slurry is formed. The remaining
two operations, namely, burning and grinding, are the same
for both the processes.
(2) Burning:
Burning is carried out in a rotary kiln as shown in fig. 5-3.
A rotary kiln is formed of steel tubes. Its diameter varies
128 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

from 250 cm to 300 cm. Its length varies from 90 m to 120 m.

It is laid at a gradient of about 1 in 25 to 1 in 30. The kiln
is supported at intervals by columns of masonry or concrete.
Refractory lining is provided on the inside surface of rotary
kiln. It is so arranged that the kiln rotates once in every
minute about its longitudinal axis.

i---FromStorage Tank

.4111•••

Refractory Lining

Support-4-

Rotary kiln
Flo. 5-3
The corrected slurry is injected at the upper end of kiln
as shown in fig. 5-3. Hot gases or flames arc forced through
t h e l o w e r e nd of ki ln . P o r t i on o f t h e k il n n e a r i t s u pp e r
end is known as dry zone and in this zone, water of slurry is
evaporated. As the slurry gradually descends, there is rise
in temperature and in the next section of kiln, carbon dioxide
from slurry is evaporated. Small lumps, known as nodules,
are formed at this stage. These nodules then reach to the
burning zone where temperature is about 1500°C to 1700°C.
In burning zone, calcined product is formed and nodules
are converted into small hard stones which are known as
c l i n k e r s . .
The size of clinkers varies from 5 mm to 10 mm and they
are very hot when they come out of burning zone of kiln. A
rotary kiln of small size is provided to cool down the hot
clinkers. It is laid in opposite direction as shown in fig. 5-3
and the cooled clinkers are collected in containers of suit -
able sizes.
 CEMENT 129

(3) Grinding:
Clinkers as obtained from the rotary kiln are finely
g round in ba ll mi ll s and tub e m il ls . Du ri ng g rind ing, a
small quantity, about 3 to 4 per cent, of gypsum is added.
G y p s u m c o n t r o l s t h e i n i t i a l s e t t i n g t i me o f c e me n t . I f
gypsum is not added, cement would set as soon as water is
added. Gypsum acts as a retarder and it delays the setting
action of cement. It thus permits cement to be mixed with
th e agg re ga tes and to be pl ac ed in posit ion. Th e f ine ly
ground cement is stored in silos. It is then weighed and
packed in bags by automatic machine. Each bag of cement
contains 50 kg or about 0.035 m 3 of cement. These bags
are carefully stored in a dry place. Fig. 5-4 shows the flow
diagram of burning and grinding operations.

IFrom Storage Tanks

*
Coal Dust

Rotary Kiln

Formation of Clinkers

Gypsum
*
Coolers

Grinding of Clinkers in
Ball Mills and Tube Mills
*
Storage in Silos
ji
I Weighing and Packing in Bags

Distribution

Flow diagram of burning and grinding operations of cement

FIG. 5-4
Ball mills and tube mills:
These mills are used to carry out grinding of raw materials
or mixture of raw materials or clinkers. Ball mills are used
130 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

to have preliminary grinding and tube mills arc used to carry

out final grinding.

Perforated Curved Plates +—Inlet for Feeding

Outer Casing
Steel Shaft
Steel Balls

Suppo Suppo
rt

Outlet
Vertical section of a ball mill
FIG. 5-5

Fig. 5-5 shows the vertical section of a typical ball mill.

It is in the form of steel cylinder of diameter about 200 cm to
250 cm and of length about 180 cm to 200 cm. The cylinder
is placed in a horizontal position and it rotates around a steel
shaft. On the inside of cylinder, perforated curved plates
are fixed. Ends of these plates overlap each other. The
cylinder is filled partly with steel balls of size varying from
50 mm to 120 mm. The action of ball mill is very simple. The
material to be ground is fed from the top. When the mill
is rotated about its horizontal axis, the steel balls strike
against the perforated curved plates and in doing so, they
crush the material. This crushed material passes through an
inner sieve plate and then through an outer sieve plate.
 GEMENT 131

It is collected from an outlet at the bottom of outer casing

of mill.
Fig. 5-6 shows the longitudinal section of a typical tube
mill. It is in the form of a long horizontal steel cylinder of
diameter about 150 cm and of length about 7 m to 10 m. The
cylinder is filled partly with steel balls of size varying from
20 mm to 25 mm. The action of tube mill is similar to that of
ball mill. But fine grinding is achieved due to steel balls
of smaller size. A worm is provided to feed the material to
the mill. The pulverised material is collected at the outlet
funnel. In case of large scale production, air separators may
be employed to separate finely ground particles. In this
arrangement, current of air is used to carry away the finely
pulverised particles.
Inlet for Feeding
Outlet Funnel
Wormforfeeding

Sieue->- ____

cootte.°01,c'e ,T4:::erecSteel Bally°43.F.,4-0 .....

O e O O o - g r , 0 ,
- -
4 e p.

Outer Casing-7(

-4-Support Support÷-

Longitudinal section of a tube mill

F IG . 5-6

To combine preliminary and final grinding, compart -

ment mill or multiple chamber mill may be adopted. Such
a mill has different chambers or sections in which steel balls
of different sizes are placed. The material to be ground is
allowed to pass through chambers in succession. Chambers
with steel balls of bigger size are placed first and they are
followed by chambers having steel balls of smaller size. It
is thus seen that a compartment mill combines the actions of
ball mill and tube mill. It results in saving of floor space
and it simplifies the grinding process. Cost of grinding also
works out to be less by the installation of such a mill.
 132 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

F i e l d t e s t s fo r c e m e n t :
Following field tests may be carried out to ascertain
roughly the quality of cement:
(1)Colour
(2)Physical properties
(3)Presence of lumps
(4)Strength.
(1)Colour:
The colour of cement should he uniform. It should be
typical cement colour, i.e., grey colour with a light greenish
shade.
(2) Physical properties:
Cement should feel smooth when touched or rubbed in
between fingers. If it is felt rough, it indicates adulteration
with sand. If hand is inserted in a bag or heap of cement,
it should feel cool. If a small quantity of cement is thrown
in a bucket of water, it should sink and should not float on
the surface.
(3) Presence of lumps:
Ce me nt should be fr ee fr om any ha rd lu mps . Such
lumps are formed by the absorption of moisture from the
atmosphere. Any bag of cement containing such lumps
should be rejected.
(4) Strength:
Strength of cement can roughly be ascertained by mak -
ing b riqu et tes w ith a le an or we ak mo rt ar . The si ze o f
briquette may be about 75 mm x 25 mm x 12 mm.
Proportion of cement and sand may be 1:6. The briquettes
are immersed in water for a period of 3 days. If cement is
of sound quality, such briquettes will not be broken easily
and it will be difficult to convert them into powder form.

La bo r a t o ry t e s t s f o r c e m e n t :
Exhaustive tests are carried out in laboratory to decide
precisely the quality of cement. Following are the standard
tests for cement:
 CEMENT 133

(1)Chemical composition
(2)Fineness
( 3 ) Co m p r e s s iv e s t r e n g t h
(4)Tensile strength
(5)Consistency.
(6)Setting times
(7)Soundness.
A brief description of each test is given below:

(1) Chemical composition:

Various tests arc carried out to determine the chemical
constituents of cement. Following are the chemical require -
ments of ordinary cement.
(i)Ratio of percentage of alumina to that of iron oxide : This
ratio should not be less than 0-66.
(ii)Ratio of percentage of lime to those of alumina, iron
oxide and silica : This ratio should not be less than 0.66 ,and
it should not be greater than 1.02.
(iii)Total loss on ignition : This should not be greater
than 4 per cent.
(iv)Total sulphur content: Sulphur content is calculated as
SO 3 and it should not be greater than 2.75 per cent.
(v)Weight of insoluble residue : This should not be greater
than 1.50 per cent.
(vi)Weight of magnesia: This should not exceed 5 per
cent.
(2) Fineness:
This test is carried out to check proper grinding of
cement. Fineness of cement particles may be determined
either by sieve test or by permeability apparatus test.
In sieve test, cement weighing 100 gm is taken and it
is continuously passed for 15 minutes through standard
IS sieve No. 9. The residue is then weighed and this weight
should not be more than 10 per cent of original weight.
In permeability apparatus test, specific surface area
of cement particles is calculated. This test is better than
sieve test and it gives an idea of uniformity of fineness.
134 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Specific surface acts as a measure of the frequency of particles

of average size. Specific surface of cement should not be
less than 2250 cm 2 /gm.

(3) C ompr ess ive s tr en gth :

This test is carried out to determine the compressive
strength of cement. Following procedure is adopted :
(i)Mortar of cement and sand is prepared. Propor tion
is 1:3 which means that x gm of cement is mixed with i 3x
gm of sand.
(ii)Water is added to the mortar. Water cement ratio is
kept as 04 which means that 04x gm of water is added to
dry mortar.
(iii)The mortar is placed in moulds. Test specimens
are in the form of cubes with side as 70.6 mm or 76 mm.
Moulds are of metal and they are constructed in such a way
that specimens can be easily taken out without being damaged.
For 70.6 mm and 76 mm cubes, cement required is 185 gm
and 235 gm respectively.
(iv)The mortar, after being placed in the moulds, is
compacted in vibrating machine for 2 minutes.
(v)The moulds are placed in a damp cabin for 24 hours.
(vi)The specimens are removed from the moulds and
they are submerged in clean water for curing.
(vii)The cubes are then tested in compression testing
machine at the end of 3 days and 7 days. Testing of cubes
is carried out on their three sides without packing. Thus
three cubes are tested each time to find out the compressive
strength at the end of 3 days and 7 days. Average value is
then worked out. During the test, load is to be applied
uniformly at the rate of 350 kg/cm 2 .
(viii)Compressive strength at the end of_3 days should not
be less than 115 kg/cm 2 and that at the end of 7 days should
not be less than 175 kg/cm 2 .

(4) Tensile strength:

This test was formerly used to have an indirect indica -
tion of compressive strength of cement. It is at present
 CEMENT 135

generally used for rapid hardening cement. Following

procedure is adopted:
(i)Mortar of cement and sand is prepared. Proportion
is 1:3 which means that x gm of cement is mixed with 3x
gm of sand.
(ii)Water is added to the mortar. Quantity of water is
8 per cent by weight of cement and sand.

Elevation
14-
38.10 mm >i.< 38.10 mm

50.80
12.70m"--rn-t mm ti

-12.70 mm
bi. 76.20 mm . ________" I
Plan
Standard briquette
FIG. 5-7

(iii)The mortar is placed in briquette moulds. A typical

briquette is shown in fig. 5-7. Mould is filled with mortar
and then a small heap of mortar is formed at its top. It is
beaten down by a standard spatula till water appears on the
surface. Same procedure is repeated for the other face of
briquette. Twelve such standard briquettes are prepared.
Quantity of cement may be 600 gm for 12 briquettes.
(iv)The briquettes are kept in a damp cabin for 24
hours.
(v)The briquettes are carefully removed from the
moulds and they are submerged in clean water for curing.
136 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

(vi)The briquettes are tested in testing machine at

the end of 3 days and 7 days. Six briquettes are tested in
each test and average is found out. During the test, load is
to be applied uniformly at the rate of 35 kg/cm 2 .
(vii)It may be noted that cross-sectional area of
briquette at its least section is 645 cm 2 . Hence, ultimate
tensile stress of cement paste is obtained from the following
relation:
Ultimate tensile stress
failing load
6.45
(viii)Tensile stress at the end of 3 clays should not be less
than 20 kg/cm 2 and that at the end of 7 days should not be
less than 25 kg/cm 2 .
( 5) Consistency:
The purpose of this test is to determine the percentage
of water required for preparing cement pastes for other tests.
Following procedure is adopted:
(i) Take 300 gm of cement and add 30 per cent by
weight or 90 gm of water to it.
(ii)Mix water and cement on a non-porous surface.
Mixing should be done thoroughly.
(iii)Fill the mould of Vicat apparatus. The interval
between the addition of water to the commencement of
filling the mould is known as time of gauging and it should
be 3/ to 41 minutes.
(iv)Vicat apparatus is shown in fig. 5 -8. It consists of
a frame to which is attached a movable rod. An indicator is
a t t a c h ed to t h e m o v ab l e r o d. Th i s i nd i c a t o r mo v e s on a
vertical scale and it gives the penetration. Vicat mould is
in the form of a cylinder and it can be split into two halves.
Vicat mould is placed on a non-porous plate. There are
three attachments—square needle, plunger and_ needle with
annular collar. Square needle is used for initial setting time
test, plunger is used for consistency test and needle with
annular collar is used for final setting time test.
(v)Plunger is attached to the movable rod of Vicat
apparatus. The plunger is gently lowered on the paste in
the mould.
 CEMENT 137
(vi) The settlement of plunger is noted. If the pene -
tration is between 5 mm to 7 mm from the bottom of mould,
water added is correct. If penetration is not proper, process
is repeated with different percentages of water till the desired
penetration is obtained.
,
x --Cap

I
3.30 mm
MovableRod

I mm Square ±
T
Indicator > E
E
Air V ent-\
0.50mm---z:r--
f H-5mm4-I
Needle for
-÷41 4- Final Setting
- --7---10mm
Dia. Plunger
-(--Frame
Needle I mm Square-3-
1 /-80mm Non-porous Plate
n
1-(---- P---).-1
.

n
V• I
0
E Cylindrical :1
Mould____1 ,,
f'
\--
Seat

V ic a t ap p a ra tu s
FIG. .541

(6) getting times:

This test is used to detect the deterioration of cement due
to storage. It may however be noted that this is purely a
conventional type of test and, it has no relation with the
setting or hardening of actual concrete. Test is carried out
to find out initial setting time and final setting time.
Initial setting time :
Following procedure is adopted:
138 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

(i)Cement weighing 300 gm is taken and it is mixed

with percentage of water as determined in consistency test.
(ii)Cement paste is filled in Vicat mould.
(iii)Square needle of cross-section 1 mm x 1 mm is
attached to the moving rod of Vicat apparatus.
(iv)The needle is quickly released and it is allowed to
penetrate the cement paste. In the beginning, the needle
pene tr at es com pl et ely. It is th en tak en out and dropp ed
at a fresh place. The procedure is repeated at regular inter-.
vals till the needle does not penetrate completely. The
needle should penetrate upto about 5 mm measured from
bottom.
(v)Initial setting time is the interval between the
addition of water to cement and the stage when needle ceases
to p ene tr at e com pl et ely. Th is ti me shou ld be abou t 30
minutes for ordinary cement.
Final setting time :
Following procedure is adopted:
(i)Cement paste is prepared as above and it is filled in
Vicat mould.
(ii) Needle with annular collar is attached to the
moving rod of Vicat apparatus. This needle has a sharp
point projecting in the centre with annular collar as shown
in fig. 5-8.
(iii)The needle is gently released. The time at which the
needle makes an impression on test block and the collar fails
to do so is noted.
(iv)Final setting time is the difference between the t i me
a t w h i c h w a t e r w a s a d d e d t o c e me n t a n d t i me a s
recorded in (iii). This time should be about 10 hours for
ordinary cement.
(7) Soundness:
The purpose of this test is to detect the presence of
uncombined lime in cement. This test is performed with
the he lp o f L e Cha te li er app ar at us as shown in fig . 5 -9.
It consists of a brass mould of diameter 30 mm and height
30 mm. There is a split in mould and it does not exceed
 CEMENT 139

0.50 mm. On either side of split, there are two indicators

with pointed ends. Thickness of mould cylinder is 0.50 mm.
Glass Plate —\A,

1
4
.
EC
t E
0 x---Glass Plate
___I T Eleuation
.- BrassMould
Thickness 0.50mm

Indicators with Pointed Ends --Split Not More

Than 0.50 mm
A
165mm Plan _I

Le Chatelier apparatus
no. 5-9

Following procedure is adopted:

(i)Cement paste is prepared. Percentage of water is
taken as determined in consistency test.
(ii)The mould is placed on a glass plate and it is filled by
cement paste.
(iii)It is covered at top by another glass plate. A
small weight is placed at top and the whole assembly is
submerged in water for 24 hours. Temperature of water
should be between 24°C to 35°C.
(iv)The distance between the points of indicator is
noted. The mould is again placed in water and heat is
applied in such a way that boiling point of water is reached
in about 30 minutes. Boiling of water is continued for one
hour.
(v)The mould is removed from water and it is allowed to
cool down.
(vi)The distance between the points of indicator is
again measured. The difference between the two readings
indicates the expansion of cement and it should not exceed
10 mm.
140 , ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Storage of cement:
Cement should be stored carefully. Otherwise it may
absorb moisture from the atmosphere and may become useless
for structural work. Following precautions are to be taken
for storage of cement:
(1)Moisture:
If moisture is kept away from cement, it is found that
cement will maintain its quality for indefinite period. An
absorption of one to two per cent of moisture has no appr6-
ciable effect on quality of cement. But if moisture absorpA
tion exceeds 5 per cent, cement becomes totally useless.\
Hence, when cement is to be stored for a long period, it \,
should be stored in air-tight containers.
(2)Period of storage:
Loose cement may be stored indefinitely in air-tight
containers. But it is advisable to avoid storing of cement
in jut e bags fo r a p er iod long er than 3 months. If it is
unavoidable, cement should be tested to ascertain its
properties.
(3)Piles:
Cement bags are stacked in piles. It is economical to
form a pile of 10 bags of cement. A distance of about 30 cm
should be kept between the piles of cement bags and exterior
walls of building. Passages of width about 90 cm should be
p ro v id e d be t w e e n t h e p il e s . F o r l on g s to r a g e , t op a nd
bottom of piles should be covered with tarpaulins or water -
proof paper.

(4)Quality of cement:
Cement which is finely ground is more active and conse-
quently, it absorbs moisture rapidly from the atmosphere.
Hence extraordinary precautions should be taken to store
finely ground cement.
(5)Removal of cement:
When cement bags arc to be removed from piles of suffi-
cient height, steps should be formed by taking out two or
 CEMENT 141

three bags from front piles. It is also advisable to remove

cement in order of its storage period, i.e., cement which is
stored previously should be taken out first. In other words,
rule of first in, first out should be followed.

(6) Storage sheds:

For storing cement for a sufficiently long period, storage
sheds of special design should be constructed. Walls, roof
and floor of such sheds should be of water-proof construction.
Few small windows should be provided and they should be
kept tightly shut. Floor should be above ground. If
ne c e s s a r y , d r a in a g e s ho ul d b e p ro v id e d t o d r a in w a t e r
collected in vicinity of such shed. For determining the size
of storage shed, it is found that 20 bags or 1 tonne of cement
will require about 1 m 3 of space.

Uses of cement:
At present, cement is widely used in the construction
of various engineering structures. It has proved to be one
of the leading engineering material of modern times and
has no rivals in production and applications. Following are
various possible uses of cement:
(1)Cement mortar for masonry work , plaster, pointing,
etc.
(2)Concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing
lintels, beams, weather sheds, stairs, pillars, etc.
(3)Construction of important engineering structures such
as bridges, culverts, darns, tunnels, storage
reservoirs, light houses, docks, etc.
(4)Construction of water tanks, wells, tennis courts,
septic tanks, lamp posts, roads, telephone cabins,
etc.
(5)Making joints for drains, pipes, etc.
(6)Manufacture of precast pipes, piles, garden seats,
artistically designed urns, flower pots, etc., dust
bins, fencing posts, etc.
(7)Preparation of foundations , watertight floors,
footpaths, etc.
142 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Varieties of cement:
In addition to ordinary cement, following are the other
varieties of cement:
Acid-resistant cement
Blast furnace cement
Coloured cement
Expanding cement High
alumina cement
Hydrophobic cement
Low heat cement
Pozzuolana cement
Quick setting cement
Rapid hardening cement
Sulphate resisting cement
White cement.

Each variety of cement will now be discussed

in brief. ( I ) A c i d - r e s i s t a n t c e m e n t :

An acid-resistant cement is composed of the following:

(1)acid-resistant aggregates such as quartz, quartzites, etc.;
(2)additive such as sodium fluosilicate Na t SiF 6 ; and
(3)aqueous solution of sodium silicate or soluble glass.
The addition of additive sodium fluosilicate accelerates
the hardening process of soluble glass and it also increases
the resistance of cement to acid and water.
The binding material of acid-resistant cement is soluble
glass which is a water solution of sodium silicate, Na 2 0•nSi0 2 o r
po t a ss i u m s il i c a t e , K 2 0 •n S i0 2 , w h e r e n i s th e g l as s
modulus. The term glass modulus is used to indicate the ratio
of the number of silica molecules to that of alkali oxide mole -
cules and its value in soluble glass varies from 2.50 to 3.50.
The acid-resistant cement is used for acid-resistant and
heat-resistant coatings of installations of chemical industry.
 CEMENT 143

It is not water-resistant and it fails when attacked by water

or weak acids. By adding 0.50 per cent of linseed oil or 2
per cent of ceresit, its resistance to water is increased and it is
then known as acid and water resistant cement.
(2) Blast furnace cement:
For this cement, slag as obtained from blast furnace is
used. Slag is a waste product in the manufacturing process
of pig-iron and it contains the basic elements of cement,
namely, alumina, lime and silica. Clinkers of cement arc
ground with about 60 to 65 per cent of slag.
The properties of this cement are more or less the same
as those of ordinary cement. Its strength in early days is
less and hence, it requires longer curing period. It proves
to be economical as slag which is a waste product is used
in its manufacture.
(3) Coloured cement:
Cement of desired colour may be obtained by intimately
mixing mineral pigments with ordinary cement. The amount
of colouring material may vary from 5 to 10 per cent. If
this percentage exceeds 10 per cent, the strength of cement
is affected.
Chromium oxide gives green colour. Cobalt imparts
blue colour. Iron oxide in different proportions gives brown,
red or yellow colour. Manganese dioxide is used to produce
black or brown coloured cement.
Coloured cements are widely used for finishing of floors,
external surfaces, artificial marble, window sill slabs, textured
panel faces, stair treads, etc.
(4) Expanding cement:
This type of cement is produced by adding an expand -
ing medium like sulpho-aluminate and a stabilising agent to
ordinary cement. Hence this cement expands whereas other
cements shrink.
Expanding cement is used for the construction of water
retaining structures and also for repairing the damaged
concrete surfaces.
144 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

(5) High alumina cement:

This cement is produced by grinding clinkers formed by
calcining bauxite and lime. Bauxite is an aluminium ore.
It is specified that total alumina content should not be less
than 32 per cent and the ratio by weight of alumina to lime
should be be tw een 0.85 and 1.30. Th is ce me nt is known
by the trade names of 'Cement Fondu' in England and Lumnite'
in America.
Following arc the advantages of this cement:
(i) Initial setting time of this cement is more than
h ou r s . F i n a l s e t t i ng t i m e i s a bo u t 5 ho u rs .
therefore, allows more time for mixing and placing\
operations.
(ii)It can stand high temperatures.
(iii)It evolves great heat during setting. It is , therefore,
not affected by frost.
( i v ) I t r e s i s ts t h e a c t i on o f a c id s in a be t t e r w a y .
(v)It sets quickly and attains higher ultimate strength in
a short period. Its strength after 1 day is about 400
kg/cm2 and that after 3 days is about 500 kg/cm 2.
(vi)Its setting action mainly depends on the chemical
reactions and hence, it is not necessary to grind it
to fine powder.
Following are the disadvantages of this cement:
(i)Extreme care is to be taken to see that it does not come
in contact with even traces of lime or ordinary cement.
(ii)It cannot be used in mass construction as it evolves
great heat and as it sets soon.
(iii) It is costly.

(6) Hydrophobic cement:

This type of cement contains admixtures which decrease
the wetting ability of cement grains. The usual hydrophobic
admixtures are acidol, naphthenesoap, oxidised petrolatum,
etc. These substances form a thin film around cement grains.
When water is added to hydrophobic cement, the absorption
 CEMENT 145

films are torn off the surface and they do not in any way,
prevent the normal hardening of cement. However, in initial
stages, the gain in strength is less as hydrophobic films on cement
grains prevent the interaction with water. However, its
strength after 28 days is equal to that of ordinary portland
cement.
When hydrophobic cement is used, the fine pores in
concrete are uniformly distributed and thus the frost resistance
and water resistance of such concrete are considerably
increased.

(7) Low heat cement:

Considerable heat is produced during the setting action
of cement. In order to reduce the amount of heat, this type
of cement is used. It contains lower percentage of tri -
calcium aluminate C 3 A and higher percentage of dicalcium
silicate C2S.
This cement possesses less compressive strength. Initial
setting time is about one hour and final setting time is about
10 hours. It is mainly used for mass concrete work.

(8) Pozzuolana cement:

Pozzuolana is a volcanic powder. It is found in Italy
near Vesuvius. It resembles surkhi which is prepared by
burning bricks made from ordinary soils. It can also be
processed from shales and certain types of clays. The per -
centage of pozzuolana material should be between 10 to 30.
Following are the advantages of this cement:
(i) It attains compressive strength with age.
(ii)It can resist action of sulphates.
(iii)It evolves less heat during setting.
(iv)It imparts higher degree of watertightness.
(v)It imparts plasticity and workability to mortar and
concrete prepared from it.
(vi)It is cheap.
(vii) It offers great resistance to expansion.
( v ii i ) I t po s s es s e s h ig h e r t e n s i l e s t r e ng t h .
146 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Following are the disadvantages of this cement:

(i)Its compressive strength in early days is less.
(ii)It possesses less resistance to erosion and weathering
action.
This cement is used to prepare mass concrete of lean mix
and for marine structures. It is also used in sewage w orks
and for laying conc,ete under water.
(9) Quick setting cement:
This cement is produced by adding a small percentage of
a l u m i n i u m s u l p h a t e a n d b y f i n e l y g r i n d i n g t h e c e me n t \
Percentage of gypsum or retarder for setting action is also \
greatly reduced. Addition of aluminium sulphate and
fineness of grinding are responsible for accelerating the
setting action of cement. The setting action of cement starts
within five minutes after addition of water and it becomes hard
like stone in less than 30 minutes or so.
Extreme care is to be taken when this cement is used as
mixing and placing of concrete are to be completed in a very
short period. This cement is used to lay concrete under
static water or running water.
(10)Rapid hardening cement:
Initial and final setting times of this cement arc the same
as tho se o f ord ina ry c em en t. Bu t it a tt ain s high st re ngth
in early days. This is due to the following facts:
(i)burning at high temperatures,
(ii)increased lime content in cement composition , and
(iii)very fine grinding.
This cement is slightly costlier than ordinary cement,
but it offers the following advantages :
(i) As it sets rapidly, construction work may be carried out
speedily.
(ii) Formwork of concrete can be removed earlier and it
can therefore be used frequently.
(iii)It obtains strength in a short period. Compressive
strength at the end of one day is about 115 kg/cm 2
and that at the end of 3 days is about 210 kg/cm2.
 CEMENT 147

Similarly, tensile strength at the end of one day is

about 20 kg/cm 2 and that at the end of 3 days is
about 30 kg/cm 2 .
(iv)It is light in weight.
(v)It is not damaged easily.
(vi)Structural members constructed with this cement
may be loaded earlier.
(vii) This cement requires short period of curing.
(viii)Use of this cement allows higher permissible
stresses in the design. It therefore results in
economic design.

(H) Sulphate resisting cement:

In this cement, percentage of tricalcium aluminate is
kept below 5 to 6 per cent and it results in the increase in
resisting power against sulphates.
This cement is used for structures which are likely to be
damaged by severe alkaline conditions such as canal linings,
culverts, syphons, etc.

(12) White cement:

This is just a variety of ordinary cement and it is pre -
pared from such raw materials which are practically free from
colouring oxides of iron, manganese or chromium. It is white
in colour and it is used for floor finish, plaster work, ornamental
work, etc. It should not set earlier than 30 minutes. It
should be carefully transported and stored in closed containers
only. It is more costly than ordinary cement because of
specific requirements imposed upon the raw materials and the
manufacturing process.

QUESTIONS

1.Explain composition of ordinary cement.

2.Explain the functions of cement ingredients.
148 ENGINEERING MATERIALS

3. How does cement set? What are the functions of four

principle minerals?
4. Differentiate between the following:
(1)Natural cement and artificial cement
(2)Cement and lime
(3)Dry process and wet process
• (4) Initial setting time and final setting time
(5)White cement and ordinary cement
(6)Acid-resistant cement and hydrophobic cement
(7)Ball mill and tube mill
(8)Clinkers and nodules
(9)Quick setting cement and rapid hardening cement.
\
5. Describe the guiding factors which are to be paid attention \
to while making selection for site of a proposed cement
factory.
6. Discuss at length the manufacturing process of ordinary
cement.

7. Write short notes on:

(1)Fineness test
(2)Compressive strength test
(3)Tensile strength test
(4)Consistency test
(5)Soundness test
(6)Quick setting cement
(7)Acid-resistant cement
(8)Clinkers
(9)White cement
(10)Hydrophobic cement.
8. Explain the functions of ball mills and tube mills.
9. Describe the field tests for cement.
10. Enumerate the laboratory tests for cement and describe
any two of them.
11. What are the precautions which are to be taken for the
storage of cement?
12. Mention the uses of cement.
13. State the advantages and disadvantages of high alumina
cement.
 CEMENT 149

14. What is rapid hardening cement? What are its advantages?

15. Enumerate the various varieties of cement in addition to
ordinary cement.
16. Give sketches of the following:
(1)Rotary kiln
(2)Le Chatelier apparatus
(3)Standard briquette
(4)Vicat apparatus
(5)Vertical section of a ball mill
(6)Longitudinal section of a tube mill.
17. What are the advantages and disadvantages of pozzuolana
cement?

18. Draw the flow diagrams for mixing of raw materials by

dry process and wet process for the manufacture of ordinary
cement.

19. What are the harmful constituents of cement?

20. Draw the -flow diagram of burn;ng and grinding opera-
tions involved in the manufacture of ordinary cement.
21. Give reasons for the following:
(1)Dry process has been practically replaced at present by wet
process of mixing of raw materials.
(2)During grinding of cement, a small quantity of gypsum is
added.
(3 ) Ce me nt s h o u l d b e s t or e d c ar e f u l l y .
(4)It is not necessary to grind high alumina cement to fine
powder.
(5)The proportion of lime in cement is to be carefully
maintained.
(6)Quick setting cement is used to lay concrete under static
water or running water.
(7)White cement is more costly than ordinary cement.
(8)Cement with a high content of CaS is used for hydraulic
engineering constructions.
Chapter 6
MORTAR
Definition:
T h e t e r m m o r t a r i s us ed t o i nd i c a t e a p as t e p r ep a r e d
by adding required quantity of water to a mixture of bind ing
material like cement or lime and fine aggregate like sand. The
above two components of mortar, namely, the binding ;
material and fine aggregate are sometimes referred to asp
matrix and adulterant respectively. The matrix binds the\
particles of the adulterant and as such, the durability, quality
and strength of mortar will mainly depend on the quantity
and quality of the matrix.
Sand:
We have studied cement and lime in previous chapters.
Sand forms an important ingredient of mortar. Its different
aspects will now, therefore, be briefly discussed.
Na t u r a l so u r c e s o f s a nd :
Sand particles consist of small grains of silica (Si0 2 ).
It is formed by the decomposition of sandstones due to various
effects of weather. According to the natural sources from
which sand is obtained, it is of the following three types:
(1)Pit sand
(2)River sand
(3)Sea sand.
(1) Pit sand:
This sand is obtained by forming pits into soils and the pit
sand is obtained from a depth of about 1 m to 2 m from
ground level. Pit sand consists of sharp angular grains which
are free from salts. For making mortar, clean pit sand should
only be used.
(2) River sand:
This sand is obtained from banks or beds of rivers.
River sand consists of fine rounded grains. Colour of river
sand is almost white. As river sand is usually available in
clean condition, it is widely used for all purposes.