101 BASICS SERIES LEARNING MODULE 4:

TRANSFORMERS

Cutler-Hammer
 TRANSFORMERS

WELCOME Welcome to Module 4, which is about the transformer.

In this module you will begin to appreciate how the topics discussed in previous
modules form the critical foundation for new topics. Topics from Modules 2 and 3 –
such as electromagnetism, power, utility systems, and electrical distribution – all
contribute to a more solid understanding of transformers.

FIGURE 1: INDUSTRIAL TRANSFORMERS

Like the other modules in this series, this one presents small, manageable sections
of new material followed by a series of questions about that material. Study the
material carefully then answer the questions without referring back to what you’ve
just read. You are the best judge of how well you grasp the material. Review
material as often as you think necessary. The most important thing is establishing a
solid foundation to build on as you move from topic to topic and module to module.

A Note on Font Key points are in bold.

Styles
Glossary items are italicized and underlined the first time they appear.

Viewing the You may view definitions of glossary items by clicking on terms and words that are
Glossary underlined and italicized in the text. You may also browse the Glossary by clicking
on the Glossary bookmark in the left-hand margin.

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WHAT YOU We will step through each of these topics in detail:

WILL LEARN Section Title Page Number

• Introduction 4
• What Is a Transformer? 5
• Input Connections 6
• Output Connections 6
• Windings 6
• Core 7
• How Does a Transformer Work? 8
• Induced Voltage 8
• Eddy Currents 9
• Turns Ratio 10
• Step-Up vs. Step-Down 11
• Is There Something for Nothing? 11
• Voltage Taps 12
• Review 1 13
• Transformer Configurations 14
• Configuration for Single Phase Power 14
• Configuration for Three Phase Power 16
• Delta and Wye Defined 17
• Configurations for a Three Phase Transformer 18
• Types of Transformers 21
• Power Transformer 21
• Distribution Transformer 22
• Autotransformer 23
• Isolation Transformer 24
• Instrument Transformer 25
• Current Transformer 25
• Potential Transformer 26
• Review 2 27

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WHAT YOU Section Title Page Number

WILL LEARN • Principles of Operation and Terminology 28

(CONTINUED)
• Coupling Coefficient 28
• Transformer Ratings 29
• Frequency 29
• Basic Impulse Level (BIL) 30
• Sound 30
• Altitude 30
• Transformer Losses and Efficiency 31
• Copper Loss 32
• Heat Dissipation (Cooling) 32
• Methods of Dissipating Heat 33
• Liquid-Filled Transformers 33
• Dry Type Ventilated Transformers 34
• Dry Type Specialty Transformers 35
• Helping the Customer 36
• Review 3 37
• Glossary 38
• Review Answers 42

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INTRO- Transformers are all around you. They come in a wide range of shapes, sizes and
DUCTION application purposes. To get a general idea of where transformers are used, let’s
look at a simple electrical utility system.

FIGURE 2: SIMPLE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Once electricity is generated, the voltage is increased by transformers. It is then

transported to substations, where transformers decrease the voltage to usable
levels for industrial plants, shopping centers and homes. These large amounts of
electricity are moved at high voltages for a number of reasons, such as lower losses
of power and overall efficiency. The bottom line is: it costs less.

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 TRANSFORMERS

WHAT IS A A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one electric
TRANS- circuit to another, without changing the frequency, by the principles of
electromagnetic induction. The energy transfer usually takes place with a change
FORMER?
of voltage. It either increases (steps up) or decreases (steps down) AC voltage.

A transformer does not generate electrical power. It transfers electrical power

from one AC circuit to another through magnetic coupling. This method is when one
circuit is linked to another circuit by a common magnetic field. Magnetic coupling is
used to transfer electrical energy from one coil to another. The transformer core is
used to provide a controlled path for the magnetic flux generated in the transformer
by the current flowing through the windings (also called coils).

In order to understand the advantage and use of a transformer, let’s first look at the
basic transformer. There are four basic parts:

• Input connections

• Output connections

• Windings or coils

• Core

FIGURE 3: PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER

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 TRANSFORMERS

Input The input side is called the primary side of the transformer, because this is where
Connections the main electrical power to be changed is connected.

Output The output side is called the secondary side of the transformer. This is where the
Connections electrical power is sent to the load. Depending upon the requirement of the load,
the incoming electric power is either increased or decreased.

Windings The transformer has two windings, called the primary winding and the secondary
winding, wound around an iron core. The primary winding is the coil that draws
power from the source. The secondary winding is the coil that delivers the
energy at a transformed or changed voltage to the load.

The primary and secondary windings of practically all transformers are subdivided
into several coils. This is to reduce the creation of flux that does not link both
primary and secondary. The transformer action can only exist when flux (mutual
flux) couples both primary and secondary. Flux that does not do so is in effect
leakage flux.

They are also subdivided to reduce the voltage per coil. This is important in high
voltage transformers, in which insulation thicknesses make up a considerable part
of the construction. In practice it is customary to subdivide a winding so that the
voltage across each coil does not exceed about 5,000 volts.

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Core The transformer core is used to provide a controlled path for the magnetic flux
generated in the transformer. The core is not a solid bar of steel, but is
constructed of many layers (laminations) of thin sheet steel. It is laminated to help
reduce heating, which creates power losses. Since the two circuits are not
electrically connected, the core serves the very important part of transferring
electrical power into the secondary winding through magnetic action. The core
usually takes the shape of a square or a ring.

There are two general types of cores: core type, and shell type. They are
distinguished from each other by the manner in which the primary and secondary
coils are placed around the laminated steel core. They are:

Core type Shell type

In this type, the windings surround the In this type, the core surrounds the
laminated iron core. Figure 4 is a picture windings. Figure 5 is a picture of a
of an assembled core type transformer. partially assembled shell type.

The primary and secondary coils are All primary and secondary coils are
wrapped around the core side, with the assembled insulated from each other
low-voltage coil leads at the top and the after which the entire coil assembly is
high-voltage leads at the bottom. In dipped in an insulating varnish and
practice, the primary winding is divided baked.
into an even number of separate coils,
with half of them places around one leg This type is typically used in very large
and the other half around the other leg. transformers with high voltages. If a core
The same arrangement is used for the transformer was used, a relatively large
secondary winding. In some amount of the flux produced by the
constructions the primary and secondary primary windings would fail to link the
coils for each leg are assembled secondary windings, and a large
together to form a single unit, after leakage flux would result.
which the assembly is dipped in
insulating varnish and baked. This type
is typically used with distribution
transformers.

FIGURE 4 CORE-TYPE TRANSFORMER FIGURE 5 SHELL-TYPE TRANSFORMER

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 TRANSFORMERS

HOW DOES A Now that you know the main parts of a transformer, let’s look at how a basic
TRANS- transformer works.
FORMER When an input voltage is applied to the primary winding, alternating current starts to
WORK? flow in the primary winding. As the current flows, a changing magnetic field is set up
Induced Voltage in the transformer core. As this magnetic field cuts across the secondary winding,
alternating voltage is produced in the secondary winding. In short, a voltage is
being induced on the secondary winding.

FIGURE 6: HOW INDUCTION WORKS IN A TRANSFORMER

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Eddy Currents As a magnetic field expands and collapses about the windings of the iron-core
transformer, its flux lines cut across both the turns of the winding and the core. As a
result, voltages are induced in the core itself. These voltages in the core create
eddy currents. These currents move through the core in circular paths. Since eddy
currents create heat in the core and do not aid the induction process, they are a
waste of energy, referred to as an eddy-current loss.

Core designs have been created in an attempt to minimize these losses. For
example, basic transformers use a laminated core made up of insulated layers,
rather than a solid core.

FIGURE 7: REDUCING EDDY CURRENTS BY USING A LAMINATED CORE

Because the sheets are insulated from one another, the resistance across the core
is high. Eddy currents are reduced.

IN THE WORKPLACE
Transformers are often
subjected to abnormally high
voltage stresses caused by
abnormal operating
conditions, such as lightning
and switching. This is
especially true of high-
voltage transformers, like this
one, in use at a power relay
station.
The end turns are the ones
subjected to abnormal
voltages, often high enough
to break down the insulation.
If this were to happen,
current could arc between the
turns.
As a protective measure, the
turns on the top and bottom
of this coil are more widely FIGURE 8: END TURNS ARE MORE WIDELY SPACED
spaced. They are also more
heavily insulated.

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Turns Ratio The ratio between the number of actual turns of wire in each coil is the key in
determining the type of transformer and what the output voltage will be. The ratio
between output voltage and input voltage is the same as the ratio of the
number of turns between the two windings.

Voltage (input) = Number of Primary Turns

Voltage (output) Number of Secondary Turns

The relationship between the number of turns in the secondary and the number of
turns in the primary is commonly called the turns ratio or voltage ratio.

It is common practice to write the turns ratio with the primary (input) number first,
followed by the secondary (output) number. The two numbers are often separated
by a colon.

Consider this example:

Transformer Primary Voltage: 480 volts

Transformer Secondary Voltage: 120 volts

480 volts 4 (4 primary turns)

120 volts = 1 (1 secondary turn)

This transformer has four primary turns for

every one secondary turn.
Turns ratio is written as 4 to 1, or 4:1. FIGURE 9: TURNS RATIO EXAMPLE

A transformer’s output voltage is greater than the input voltage if the secondary
winding has more turns of wire than the primary winding. The output voltage is
stepped up, and we have a step-up transformer. If the secondary winding has fewer
turns than the primary winding, the output voltage is lower. This is a step-down
transformer.

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 TRANSFORMERS

Step-Up vs. Step-Up Transformer Step-Down Transformer

Step-Down The primary winding of a step-up The primary winding of a step-down
transformer has fewer turns than the transformer has more turns than the
secondary winding, with the resultant secondary winding, so the secondary
secondary voltage being higher than the voltage is lower than the primary.
primary.

FIGURE 10: STEP-UP TRANSFORMER FIGURE 11: STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER

Is There In Figure 10, the step-up transformer has a 1 to 2 ratio. As a result, the output
Something for voltage is doubled. At first, this might seem like we are gaining or multiplying
Nothing? voltage without sacrificing anything. Of course, this is not the case. Ignoring small
losses, the amount of power transferred in the transformer is equal on both the
primary and secondary sides.

Power is equal to Voltage multiplied by Current. This is expressed by the

formula:

P=VxI

Power is also always equal on both sides of the transformer, meaning both
sides of the equation must have the same value. This means we cannot change
the voltage without changing the current also.

In Figure 10, we can see that when voltage is stepped down from 240 V to 120 V in
a 2 to 1 ratio, the current is increased from 1 to 2 amps, keeping the power equal
on each side of the transformer. In contrast, in Figure 11, when the voltage is
stepped up from 120 V to 240 V in a 1 to 2 ratio, the current is reduced from 2 to 1
amp to maintain the power balance.

In other words, voltage and current may be changed for particular reasons, but
power is merely transferred from one point to another.

One big advantage of increasing the voltage and reducing the current is that
power can be transmitted through smaller gauge wire. Think about how much
wire is used by a utility company to get electricity to where it is used. For this
reason, the generated voltages are stepped up very high for distribution across
large distances, then stepped back down to meet consumer needs.

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Voltage Taps As you know, the turns ratio determines the voltage transformation that takes place.
There are times that the actual incoming voltage is different than the expected
normal incoming voltage. When this happens, it could be advantageous to be
able to change the turns ratio in order to get the desired (rated) output voltage.
You might view this as fine tuning the input voltage to get the desired output.
Voltage taps, designed into the transformer’s primary winding, deliver this desired
flexibility.

Suppose a transformer has a 4 to 1 turns ratio. Remember, that means the primary
has 4 times as many turns as the secondary, which tells you the transformer is a
step-down transformer. If the input voltage is 480 volts, the output would be 120
volts.

What if the input delivered to the transformer primary is less than the expected
normal of 480 volts, say 456 volts for this example? This could be significant if
getting 120 volts from the secondary is critical. Tapping the primary in a number
of different spots helps to eliminate the problem by providing a means to
adjust the turns ratio, and fine-tune the secondary output voltage.

FIGURE 12: MULTI-TAPPED SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMER

This transformer has taps at 2 1/2% and 5% below the normal voltage of 480 volts.
In the industry, this would be referred to as having two 2 1/2% full capacity below
normal taps (FCBN). These two taps provide a 5% voltage range below the normal
480 volts.

When taps are provided above the normal as illustrated, they are called full capacity
above normal taps (FCAN).

For standardization purposes, taps are in 2 1/2% or 5% steps. The tap

arrangement used on many transformers is two-2 1/2% FCAN and four-2 1/2%
FCBN, which provides a 15% total range of tap voltage adjustments.

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REVIEW 1 Answer the following questions without referring to the material just presented.
Begin the next section when you are confident that you understand what you’ve
already read.

1. In your own words, state the definition of a transformer.

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

2. In your own words, state the purpose of the transformer core.

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

3. If the turns ratio of a transformer is 5:1, and the primary has 100 turns, then
there must be __________ turns are on the secondary?

4. The transformer in question 3 is a step-up transformer.

TRUE FALSE

5. A step-up transformer steps the voltage from 120 volts to 360 volts. The current
on the input side is 6 amps. The current on the output side is _______ amps.

6. If the incoming voltage is not reliably exact at all times, ________ ________ can
be added to the primary winding to make sure the output voltage remains
constant.

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TRANS- Transformers are built in both single-phase and three-phase power. Up to this point,
FORMER we have focused on single-phase power. You will recall from earlier modules that
single-phase means two power lines as an input source. This means that a
CONFIGUR- voltage transformation is accomplished with one primary and one secondary
ATIONS winding.

You also know from previous modules that most power distributed today is three-
phase AC. Since power companies distribute generated power on three lines
as three-phase power, three-phase transformers with three windings are
integral to the electrical power system. The three windings of the three-phase
transformer are connected in the proper sequence to match the utility’s incoming
power.

FIGURE 13: THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CORE AND COILS

Configuration There are different configurations for both single-phase and three-phase systems.
For Single Phase Let's look at single-phase first.
Power
Single-phase transformers are often used to supply power for residential lighting,
receptacle, air-conditioning, and heating needs.

A transformer with a 120 volt AC

secondary can take care of the
lighting and receptacles. But, a
transformer with a 240 volt AC
secondary could handle all the
residential needs mentioned. A
240 volt AC secondary could
handle the heavier 240 volt
power requirements of air
conditioning and heating. The
same 240 volt AC secondary
could handle the 120 volt AC FIGURE 14: 120 VS 240 VOLT SECONDARY
needs by tapping the secondary
in the center.

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Configuration Single phase transformers can be made even more versatile by having both
For Single Phase the primary winding and secondary winding made in two equal parts. The two
Power parts of either winding can then be reconnected in series or parallel configurations.
(continued)

SERIES CONFIGURATION PARALLEL CONFIGURATION

FIGURE 15: SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMER WITH SECONDARY DIVIDED INTO SECTIONS

Single-phase transformers usually have their windings divided into two or more
sections. When the two secondary windings are connected in series, their voltage is
added. When the secondary windings are connected in parallel, their currents are
added.

For example, assume each secondary winding is rated at 120 volts and 100 amps.
When series-connected, it would be 240 volts at 100 amps, or 24KVA. When
parallel-connected, it would be 120 volts at 200, amps or 24KVA.

In series connections, care must be taken to connect the coils so that their voltages
add. If the reverse happens, a short-circuit current would flow in the secondary,
causing the primary to draw a short circuit from the source. This would damage the
transformer, as well as the source.

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Configuration Power may be supplied through a three-phase circuit containing transformers in

For Three Phase which a set of three single-phase transformers is used, or one three-phase
Power transformer is used.

Using three single-phase transformers to accomplish the task is cumbersome, but it

can be done. When used in this way, the arrangement is called a transformer bank.

FIGURE 16: THREE SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS USED FOR THREE-PHASE POWER

When a considerable amount of power is involved in the transformation of

three-phase power, it is more economical to use a three-phase transformer.
The unique arrangement of the windings and core saves a lot of iron.

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Delta and Wye There are two connection configurations for three-phase power: Delta and Wye.
Defined
Delta and wye are Greek letters that represent the way the conductors on the
transformers are configured. In a delta connection, the three conductors are
connected end to end in a triangle or delta shape. For a wye, all the conductors
radiate from the center, meaning they are connected at one common point.

Both the primary and secondary can have either of these configurations. The four
possible connection configurations are:

Primary Secondary
Wye Wye
Wye Delta
Delta Wye
Delta Delta

They can be used with either three single-phase transformers or one three-phase
transformer. Figure 16 shows three single-phase transformers in a wye-to-wye
configuration. Figures 17 and 18 show three-phase transformers, in a wye-to-delta
configuration, and a delta-to-delta configuration respectively.

FIGURE 17: CORE-TYPE WYE-TO-DELTA FIGURE 18: SHELL-TYPE DELTA-TO-DELTA

Recalling the electrical symbol for a transformer from Module 3, Fundamentals of

Electrical Distribution, the delta and the wye symbols are often used to indicate the
primary and secondary winding connections in a one-line diagram.

FIGURE 19: TRANSFORMER ELECTRIC SYMBOL

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 TRANSFORMERS

Delta and Wye IN THE WORKPLACE

Defined
Many high schools use
(continued)
a wye-to-wye step-
down transformer bank,
as shown here. The
versatility of the power
is the key to its
popularity.

The system provides

three-phase, 208-volt
power for three-phase
motor loads, such as
heavy equipment in the
Industrial Education
department. It also
provides single-phase,
208-volt power for
small single-phase
motor loads, such as
science lab equipment.

Of course, it can also

produce single-phase,
120-volt power for
lighting loads, used
throughout the building. FIGURE 20: WYE-TO-WYE STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER BANK
(THREE SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS)

Configurations Three-phase transformers have six windings; three primary and three
for a Three- secondary. The six windings are connected by the manufacturer as either delta or
Phase wye. As previously stated, the primary windings and secondary windings may each
Transformer be connected in a delta or wye configuration. They do not have to be connected in
the same configuration in the same transformer. The actual connection
configurations used depend upon the application.

In a three-phase transformer, there is a three-legged iron core. Each leg has

one primary and one secondary winding. Figure 20 shows graphically what the
delta and wye winding connections look like for a three-phase transformer.

FIGURE 21: DELTA AND WYE WINDING CONNECTIONS

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Configurations The delta-connected winding in a three-phase transformer is a lot like three

for a Three- single-phase windings connected together.
Phase
Transformer A delta-connected secondary is illustrated here, with the primary not shown for
(continued) simplicity. All the illustrated voltages are secondary voltages available to the load.

∆ ) CONNECTED WINDING
FIGURE 22: DELTA (∆

There are equal voltages across each winding. Each of the voltages represents
one phase of a three-phase system. The voltage is always the same between any
two wires.

One of the phases, between X1 and X2 for example, can be used to supply
single-phase loads. All three phases together supply three-phase loads. Notice
in the illustration that X1, X2 and X3 are used to designate connection points. An
“X” indicates a low voltage connection, and an “H” indicates a high voltage
connection. This type of connection is referred to as a three-phase, three-wire
connection.

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Configurations The wye-connected winding is often called a “star connection.”

for a Three-
Phase Wye connections provide two voltages because of the neutral connection. These
Transformer are shown below. In other words, the wye has four leads, three phase leads and
(continued) a neutral lead. This is also known as three-phase, four-wire connection.

FIGURE 23: WYE (Y) CONNECTED WINDING

Any line-to-neutral voltage (voltage across a phase) is always less than the line-to-
line voltage.

If one voltage is known, the other can be calculated. The line-to-line voltage is
1.732 times the line-to-neutral voltage. You can prove this calculation for yourself
using the voltages provided in the illustrations.

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TYPES OF If we look at an entire electrical utility system, we find that transformers are used to
TRANS- meet a wide variety of needs.
FORMERS Some transformers can be several stories high. This type might be found at a
generating station. Other transformers are small enough to hold in your hand. This
type might be used with the charging cradle for a video camera. No matter what the
shape or size, the purpose remains the same: transforming electrical power from
one type to another, such as stepping up or down the power.

Let’s take a closer look at several transformer types in use today.

Power The power transformer is used primarily to couple electrical energy from a
Transformer power supply line to a circuit system, or to one or more components of the
system.

In one type of power transformer, there are three separate secondary windings,
each designed for a different current and voltage output. All of the windings are
identified by color-coded insulation on the wire leads.

FIGURE 24: COLOR-CODED POWER TRANSFORMER LEADS

A power transformer used with solid state circuits is called a rectifier transformer.

A power transformer’s rating is given in terms of the secondaries’ maximum

voltage and current-delivering capacity. For example, a power transformer that is
to be operated from a 60-hertz, 120-volt power line may read:

600 V. CT @ 90 ma, 6.3 V @ 3 amp, 5 V. @ 2 amp

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Power The efficiency of a power transformer with a power rating between 50 and 400
Transformer watts can range from 82 to 94 percent.
(continued)
Transformers with higher power ratings are usually more efficient because of
the larger wire gauge used in the windings, and the larger cross-sectional area of
the core.

Distribution A pole-type distribution transformer is used to supply relatively small amounts of

Transformer power to residences. It is used at the end of the electrical utility’s delivery system.
Let’s trace the path of this power from the generating station to a house.

Power transformers are used at generating stations to step up the generated

voltage to high levels (115 to 765 kV) for transmission. Transmission voltages are
stepped down (34 or 69 kV) by transformers at substations for local distribution.

From this point, the electrical power is fed to a distribution substation or even
directly to a factory. At the factory, transformers once again step the voltage down
to usable levels. For home use, the voltage is stepped down in a number of steps,
with the last step handled by the local pole-type or pad-mounted (mounted on the
ground) distribution transformer.

FIGURE 25: TYPICAL POLE TYPE FIGURE 26: CUTAWAY OF POLE TYPE
DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER

After all these steps, the homeowner has access to 240 and 120 volts for running
appliances and lighting.

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Auto- The autotransformer is a special type of power transformer. It consists of a single,

Transformer continuous winding that is tapped on one side to provide either a step-up or
step-down function.

FIGURE 27: STEP-UP AUTOTRANSFORMER FIGURE 28: STEP-DOWN AUTOTRANSFORMER

This is different from a conventional two-winding transformer, which has the primary
and secondary completely insulted from each other, but magnetically linked by a
common core. The autotransformer’s windings are both electrically and
magnetically interconnected.

An autotransformer is initially cheaper that a similarly-rated two-winding

transformer. It also has better regulation (smaller voltage drops), and greater
efficiency. Furthermore, it can be used to obtain the neutral wire of a three-wire
240/120-volt service, just like the secondary of a two-winding transformer.

It is commonly used to transform between two high-voltage circuits, say one at

22,000 volts and the other at 13,800 volts. But, the autotransformer is considered
unsafe for use on ordinary distribution circuits. This is because the high-voltage
primary circuits connected directly to the low-voltage secondary circuit.

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Isolation An isolation transformer is a very unique transformer. It has a 1:1 turns ratio.
Transformer Therefore, it does not step voltage up or down. Instead, it serves as a safety
device. It is used to isolate the grounded conductor of a power line from a chassis
or any portion of a circuit load.

FIGURE 29: HOW AN ISOLATION TRANSFORMER IS USED

Using an isolation transformer does not reduce the danger of shock if contact
is made across the transformer’s secondary winding.

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Instrument For measuring high values of current or voltage, it is desirable to use standard low-
Transformer range measuring instruments together with specially-constructed instrument
transformers, also called accurate ratio transformers.

An accurate ratio transformer does just as the name suggests. It transforms at

an accurate ratio to allow an attached instrument to gauge the current or
voltage without actually running full power through the instrument. It is
required to transform relatively small amounts of power because its only load, called
a burden, is the delicate moving elements of an ammeter, voltmeter or wattmeter.

There are two types of instrument transformers:

• Current – Used with an ammeter to measure current in AC voltages.

• Potential – Used with a voltmeter to measure voltage (potential difference) in

AC.

Current A current transformer has a primary coil of one or more turns of heavy wire. It is
Transformer always connected in series in the circuit in which current is to be measured. The
secondary coil is made up of many turns of fine wire, which must always be
connected across the ammeter terminals.

The secondary of a current transformer must never be open-circuited. This is

because the primary is not connected to a constant source. There is a wide range
of possible primary voltages, because the device can be connected to many types
conductors. The secondary must always be available (closed-circuited) to react
with the primary, to prevent the core from becoming completely magnetized. If
this happens, the instrument will no longer read accurately.

A clamp-on ammeter works in a similar way. By opening the clamp and placing it
around a current carrying conductor, the conductor itself acts as a single turn
primary. The secondary and the ammeter are conveniently mounted in the handle
of the device. The dial allows a number of current ranges to be gauged accurately.

FIGURE 30: CLAMP-ON AMMETER FIGURE 31: WIRING DIAGRAM OF A CLAMP-ON AMMETER

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Potential A potential transformer is a carefully designed, extremely accurate step-down

Transformer transformer. It is normally used with a standard 120-volt voltmeter. By multiplying
the reading on the voltmeter (called the deflection) by the ratio of
transformation, the user can determine the voltage on the high side. Common
transformation ratios are 10:1, 20:1, 40:1, 80:1, 100:1, 120:1, and even higher.

FIGURE 32: WIRING DIAGRAM OF A POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER

In general, a potential transformer is very similar to a standard two-winding

transformer, except that it handles a very small amount of power. Transformers for
this service are always the shell type, because this construction has been proven
to provide better accuracy.

For safety, the secondary circuit is extremely well-insulated from the high-voltage
primary. It is also grounded. This protects the operator from a shock hazard, in case
of accidental contact with the wiring.

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REVIEW 2 Answer the following questions without referring to the material just presented.
Begin the next section when you are confident that you understand what you’ve
already read.

1. List 3 advantages that three-phase power has over single-phase power

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

2. A delta-connected secondary has equal voltages across each winding.

TRUE FALSE

3. In your own words, explain why transformers with higher power ratings are
usually more efficient.

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

4. A step-up autotransformer is tapped on the _____________ winding.

5. The two main types of instrument transformers are:

________________________

________________________

27
 TRANSFORMERS

PRINCIPLES This is a good time to introduce several additional principles and common terms
OF associated with transformers. This material will be especially helpful from a practical
standpoint by helping to clarify concepts. In addition, a number of the terms are
OPERATION commonly used in the electrical industry. Being familiar with the nomenclature will
AND TERMIN- simplify transformer discussions and selections at your work location
OLOGY
Magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary windings of a
Coupling
transformer was introduced earlier. Maximum coupling occurs when all
Coefficient
the lines of flux from the primary coil cut through the secondary coil.

FIGURE 33: COUPLING OF FLUX LINES

Although maximum coupling is desirable for efficiency of operation reasons,

it is not always achievable. The amount of coupling that takes place
between the two windings is the coefficient of coupling. Winding both coils
on an iron core helps to maximize the coupling coefficient by providing
a good, confined path for the lines of flux.

28
 TRANSFORMERS

Transformer Transformers are frequently rated in kilovoltamperes (kVA), although there are
Ratings other rating designations. Very large transformers are often rated in
megavoltamperes (MVA), while very small transformers can be rated in voltamperes
(VA). The rating tells you the maximum current that a transformer can deliver
to a load without overheating.

If you know the voltage and the current, the rating can be calculated. If you know
the rating and the voltage, the current can be calculated. The rating of a
transformer is the same for both the primary and the secondary.

Two formulas are necessary to calculate transformer ratings; one for single-phase
loads, and one for three-phase loads.

FIGURE 34: FORMULAS FOR CALCULATING TRANSFORMER RATINGS

Frequency A transformer cannot change the frequency of the power supply. If the supply is 60
Hz, the output will also be 60 Hz.

Since transformers are designed for operation at a particular frequency, frequency

requirements must be known to make the proper transformer selection. The
frequency of the source should be determined, and the frequency of the load
should match.

Transformers used in the United States and Canada are usually designed for 60
Hz. A great deal of the rest of the world uses 50 Hz.

29
 TRANSFORMERS

Basic Impulse Outdoor electrical distribution systems are subject to lightning surges. Even if the
Level (BIL) lightning strikes the line some distance from the transformer, voltage surges can
travel down the line and into the transformer. Other electrical equipment in the
system can also cause voltage surges when they are opened and closed. These
surges can be very damaging to electrical equipment.

The basic impulse level (BIL) is a measure of the ability of the transformer’s
insulation system to withstand very high-voltage, short-time surges. The BIL is
rated on:

• the kinds of voltage surge stresses the equipment is likely to encounter

• the design of the electrical system

• the voltage protection provided

To familiarize you with BIL, some typical BIL levels are shown with corresponding
voltage classes. These do not apply uniformly for all electrical equipment.

FIGURE 35: TYPICAL BIL LEVELS

Sound Although transformers are reliable static devices with no moving parts, they do
produce a humming sound. The sound originates in the core. When the
magnetic flux passes through the laminated core, the laminations expand
and contract, generating a hum.

Transformers are designed and constructed in such a manner that the noise is
minimized, but not eliminated. The sound level of a transformer is measured in
decibels (dB), and determined by tests conducted in accordance with NEMA
standards.

Altitude Air is thinner at higher altitudes, which impacts transformer cooling.

Transformers are designed to operate with a normal temperature rise, at a
specific height in feet above sea level. If the operation is to be at a higher
altitude, the transformer’s nameplate rating must be reduced.

The amount of the reduction depends upon by how much the standard altitude
has been exceeded.

30
 TRANSFORMERS

Transformer Most of the energy provided to the primary of a transformer is transferred to the
Losses and secondary. But, some energy is lost in the form of heat. Most of this heat loss is
Efficiency experienced in the wiring or the core.

The lower the losses, the higher the efficiency of the transformer. Losses and
efficiency are very important concerns in the selection of a transformer. For
example, a transformer with a lower initial cost might not be the best purchasing
choice. Another transformer with a higher initial cost, but which is more efficient
could prove to be the best purchasing decision in the long run.

A transformer’s efficiency is defined as:

Efficiency = Output Power/Input Power

Put another way, the output power equals the input power, less the internal
losses of the transformer.

Transformer efficiency can vary by manufacturer, transformer type and transformer

size. A 20,000 kVA power transformer, for example, might have an efficiency of
99.4%, while a small 5 kVA transformer might be 94%. You can see how efficiency
is an important consideration when applying a transformer.

31
 TRANSFORMERS

Copper Loss One type of loss in transformers is copper loss. The copper windings, while a good
conductor of electricity, are not perfect conductors. Copper has a certain resistance
to current flow, as do all materials.

One of the factors influencing copper loss is heat. Resistance increases with an
increase in temperature. To minimize this problem, large electrical power
distribution transformers are often cooled by circulation of water, forced air, or oil.
Cooling also helps to prevent heat damage to winding insulation. We will discuss
heat issues later in this module.

FIGURE 36: HEAT EXCHANGERS USED TO COOL POWER DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS

Heat Dissipation Heat generated by losses must be removed to prevent deterioration of the
(Cooling) transformer’s insulation system, and the actual magnetic properties of the core.

The insulation system is made up of the materials wound around the primary and
secondary winding coils. A transformer’s insulation system temperature
classification states the maximum temperature permitted in the hottest spot in the
winding, at a specified ambient temperature, usually 40°C.

32
 TRANSFORMERS

METHODS OF As we briefly mentioned earlier, transformers can use a number of methods to

DISSIPATING dissipate heat.
HEAT The method used depends primarily on the amount of heat that needs to be
dissipated, and the application surroundings. This includes indoor vs. outdoor
and hazardous vs. non-hazardous installations.

There are two main transformer enclosure types to deal with the problem: oil filled
and dry.

Liquid-Filled Many transformers are contained in a tightly fitted sheet-metal case or tank of
Transformers oil. Oil provides good electrical insulation, and carries heat away from the
core and windings by convection. This type of transformer is referred to as a
liquid-filled transformer.

FIGURE 37: LIQUID-FILLER TRANSFORMER WITH FIGURE 38: LIQUID-FILLER TRANSFORMER WITH
BANKS OF COOLING FANS RADIATORS

Small transformers might be cooled sufficiently by just allowing the oil to

circulate inside the tank. Larger transformers might use fans or radiators to
cool the oil. Fans for additional cooling and oil pumps for circulation could be
required on even larger transformers.

In addition to oil, other cooling liquids are used, such as silicone. Silicone might
be used in an application where oil is not suitable, such as where flammability
is an issue.

Sealing the transformer case or tank is important, especially in the case of an oil-
filled unit. Any penetrating moisture can reduce the insulating quality of the oil. Also,
oxygen can cause oil decomposition, resulting in sludge.

33
 TRANSFORMERS

Dry Type A transformer designed to operate in air is called a dry type transformer. The
Ventilated design does not require the assistance of a liquid to dissipate excess heat.
Transformers Natural or fan-assisted circulation through ventilation openings is all that
is required to meet temperature classification requirements.

FIGURE 39: DRY TYPE TRANSFORMER

Since a liquid is not used, a tank is not required. However, dry type
transformers are contained in some type of an enclosure.

You may hear the phrase core and coils when dealing with dry type
transformers. This refers to the inside parts of a dry type transformer, primarily
the core and windings, mounted on a base as one unit, without an enclosure.
A core and coils unit could be considered by a customer intending to include it
as part of an assembled enclosure being supplied by the customer.

34
 TRANSFORMERS

Dry Type A variety of specialty dry type transformers exist. Typically not ventilated, this
Specialty type of transformer usually has a small rating, and is capable of moving
Transformers excessive heat away from the core and coils naturally, without the need for
ventilation openings or other heat dissipation means.

In most designs, this is accomplished by surrounding the core and coils with
special material mixtures which absorbs the heat and provide a solid seal. This
type transformer is ideal for hazardous locations, and is usually referred to as
an encapsulated transformer.

FIGURE 40: SMALL SPECIAL APPLICATION ENCAPSULATED DRY TYPE TRANSFORMER

35
 TRANSFORMERS

HELPING THE We have covered a wide range of transformer fundamentals in this module. This
CUSTOMER information will help you in matching a transformer to an application.

Conduct a short interview with the customer to determine their needs. This list of
questions is not all-inclusive for every transformer, but it will certainly get you
started in the right direction.

• What is the intended use of the transformer?

With this question, you can usually select a transformer type from those covered
in this module.
• Power – supplies power to distribution systems
• Distribution - supplies low voltage power to homes, offices and facilities
• Autotransformer - transform between two high-voltage circuits
• Isolation - isolate the grounded conductor of a power line from the chassis
• Instrument – steps down high values of current or voltage to lower levels for
meter reading
• Current – measuring current
• Potential – measuring voltage

• Do you need the transformer to step up or step down the voltage?

• What is the incoming power?

• What is the required outgoing power?

• What turns ratio is required?

• What rating (VA, kVA, MVA) is required?

• Will the transformer be used with single-phase or three-phase power?

• For three-phase, delta or wye connection in the primary? In the secondary?

• What is the frequency of the electrical system?

• What, if any, voltage taps will be needed?

• In what sort of environment will the transformer be placed?

With this question and some follow-up questions, you can usually choose an
enclosure type for the transformer.
• High voltage? Usually an oil-filled
• Low voltage? Usually a dry type
• Indoor or outdoor environment? Could be oil filled
• Caustic? Maybe an encapsulated dry type
• Is flammability an issue? Maybe dry or silicone filled

Armed with this information, you should be able to consult your product catalog and
make a good product recommendation.

36
 TRANSFORMERS

REVIEW 3 Answer the following questions without referring to the material just presented.

1. Calculate the rating of a single-phase transformer’s primary. The primary has a

voltage of 1200 volts and a current of 10 amps.

________ kVA

2. A transformer cannot change the frequency of the power supply. If the supply is
60 Hz, the output will also be 60 Hz.

TRUE FALSE

3. In your own words, define the term “basic impulse level.”

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

4. Calculate the efficiency of a transformer which takes in 20 kVA at the primary

and puts out 19 kVA at the secondary.

_________ %

5. In your own words, explain why sealing the tank of an oil-filled transformer is
important.

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

37
 TRANSFORMERS

GLOSSARY Accurate Ratio A small transformer which transforms at an accurate ratio to

Transformer allow an attached instrument to gauge the current or voltage
without actually running full power through the instrument.

Ammeter An instrument used to measure current.

Autotransformer A special type of power transformer, consisting of a single,

continuous winding that is tapped on one side to provide
either a step-up or step-down function.

Basic Impulse A measure of the ability of a transformer’s insulation system

Level to withstand very high-voltage, short-time surges

Burden Term applied to the tiny load that an instrument’s delicate

moving elements places on an accurate-ratio transformer.

Coefficient of The amount of coupling that takes place between the two
Coupling windings in a transformer. This amount should ideally be
100%, but this is not achievable in the real world.

Coils See “Winding.”

Copper Loss The energy wasted as heat in the copper windings, as

copper is not a perfect conductor of electricity.

Core A component of a transformer. The iron or steel core

provides a controlled path for the magnetic flux generated in
the transformer by the current flowing through the windings

Core and Coils A non-enclosed, dry type transformer, mounted on a base as

one unit.

Core Type A type of core where the windings surround the laminated
iron core.

Current A type of instrument transformer used to measure current.

Transformer

Deflection Literally, the amount of movement the indicator of an

instrument makes when sensing. Also called the reading of
the instrument.

Distribution A transformer used to supply relatively small amounts of

Transformer power to residences. It is used at the end of the electrical
utility’s delivery system. Often mounted on a pole.

38
 TRANSFORMERS

Delta A three-phase transformer connection where the phases are

connected in a manner which resembles the Greek letter
Delta, “@.”

Dry Type A transformer designed to operate in air. The design does

Transformer not require the assistance of a liquid to dissipate excess
heat. Natural or fan-assisted circulation through ventilation
openings is all that is required to meet temperature
classification requirements.

Eddy Current Induced voltage in the core as a result of transformer

operation. The currents move through the core in circular
paths.

Eddy-Current The energy wasted by eddy currents creating heat in the

Loss core, as this does not aid in the induction process.

Efficiency A rating of the percentage of input power transmitted

through the transformer. This number will never be 100% in
the real world due to copper losses, eddy-current losses and
other inefficiencies.

Encapsulated A specialty dry type transformer, sealed in an enclosure. It is

Transformer capable of moving excessive heat away from the core and
coils without ventilation openings or other heat dissipation
means.

Full Capacity A special voltage tap used to account for voltage fluctuations
Above Normal Tap on the input side. Allows for fine-tuning the output voltage
when the input voltage is higher than expected.

Full Capacity A special voltage tap used to account for voltage fluctuations
Below Normal Tap on the input side. Allows for fine-tuning the output voltage
when the input voltage is lower than expected.

Input The voltage source coming into the transformer through the
primary winding.

Instrument A small transformer which transforms at an accurate ratio to

Transformer allow an attached instrument to gauge the current or voltage
without actually running full power through the instrument.

Insulation System A statement of the maximum temperature permitted in the

Temperature hottest spot in the winding, at a specified ambient
Classification temperature, usually 40°C. Exceeding this figure will likely
result in an insulation failure.

39
 TRANSFORMERS

Isolation A transformer with a 1:1 turns ratio. It does not step voltage
Transformer up or down. It serves as a safety device, isolating the
grounded conductor of a power line from a chassis or any
portion of a circuit load.

Liquid-Filled A type of transformer cooled by mounting it in a sealed tank

Transformer filled with liquid. The liquid is normally oil, but silicone and
other liquids may also be used.

Magnetic The method by which one circuit is linked to another circuit

Coupling by a common magnetic field.

Magnetic Flux Lines of magnetic force surrounding a magnet or

electromagnet.

NEMA Abbreviation for National Electrical Manufacturers

Association. An organization of manufacturers of electrical
products

Output The transformed voltage exiting the transformer through the

secondary winding, and going out to the load.

Potential A type of instrument transformer used to measure voltage.

Transformer

Power A transformer used primarily to couple electrical energy from

Transformer a power supply line to a circuit system.

Primary Side The side of the transformer where the power to be changed
comes from.

Primary Winding Turns of wire on the core, used to connect the input to the
core.

Rectifier A type of power transformer used with solid state circuits.

Transformer

Secondary Side The side of the transformer where the power is sent to the
equipment it needs to power. Depending upon the
requirement of the load, the power was either increased or
decreased from the primary voltage.

Secondary Turns of wire on the core, used to connect the output to the
Winding core.

Shell Type A type of core where the core the windings.

40
 TRANSFORMERS

Step-Up A transformer in which the output voltage is higher than the

Transformer input voltage. The secondary winding has more turns of wire
than the primary winding.

Step-Down A transformer in which the output voltage is lower than the

Transformer input voltage. The secondary winding has fewer turns of wire
than the primary winding.

Three-Phase A transformer used to transform power provided by a three-

Transformer phase power system.

Transformer A device that transfers electrical energy from one electric

circuit to another, without changing the frequency, by the
principles of electromagnetic induction. The energy transfer
usually takes place with a change of voltage.

Transformer Bank An arrangement of three single-phase transformers,

configured to transform three-phase power.

Turns The number of times the wire of a winding actually goes

around the core.

Turns Ratio A comparison of the number of turns in the primary versus

the number of turns in the secondary. Directly related to the
voltage ratio.

Voltage Ratio A comparison of the voltage entering the primary versus the
voltage exiting the secondary. Directly related to the turns
ratio.

Voltage Tap An additional connection to a winding, which permits use of

only a specific part of the winding. This allows the same
winding to handle multiple voltage levels.

Voltmeter An instrument used to measure voltage.

Wattmeter An instrument used to measure wattage.

Winding Turns of wire around the core of the transformer. Connects

the core to either the input, in the case of the primary
winding, or the output, in the case of the secondary winding.

Wye A three-phase transformer connection where the phases are

connected in a manner which resembles the letter “Y.” Often
called a “star connection.”

41
 TRANSFORMERS

REVIEW 1 1. Answer should basically say, “A transformer is a device that transfers electrical
ANSWERS energy from one electric circuit to another, without changing the frequency, by
the principles of electromagnetic induction. The energy transfer usually takes
place with a change of voltage.”

2. Answer should basically say, “The transformer core is used to provide a

controlled path for the magnetic flux generated in the transformer.”

3. 20

4. False

5. 2

6. Voltage taps

REVIEW 2 1. Any three of the following:

ANSWERS -Powers large industrial loads more efficiently than single-phase.
–Single-phase electricity is available from a three-phase system.
–Three conductors of a three-phase system can provide significantly more
power than the two conductors of a single-phase system.
–Allows heavy industrial equipment to operate more smoothly and efficiently.
–Can be transmitted over long distances with smaller conductor sizes.

2. True

3. Answer should basically say, “Because of the larger wire gauge used in the
windings, and the larger cross-sectional area of the core.”

4. Primary

5. Current, potential

REVIEW 3 1. 12
ANSWERS 2. True

3. Answer should basically say, “The basic impulse level (BIL) is a measure of the
ability of the transformer’s insulation system to withstand very high-voltage,
short-time surges.”

4. 95%

5. Answer should basically say, “Any penetrating moisture can reduce the
insulating quality of the oil. Also, oxygen can cause oil decomposition, resulting
in sludge.”

42
Cutler-Hammer
Milwaukee, Wisconsin U.S.A.

Publication No. TR.36.01.T.E

February 1999
Printed in U.S.A. (GSP)

101 Basics Series and 201 Advanced Series are trademarks of Cutler-Hammer University, Cutler-Hammer and Eaton Corp.
©1999, Eaton Corp.