Lab 3 Metallography and Hardness

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Lab 3: Metallography Specimen Preparation and Examination

Objectives
1. To learn and to gain experience in the preparation of metallographic specimens.
2. To examine and analyze the microstructures of metals and metallic alloys.
3. To learn and measure the hardness of the metallographic specimens

Abstract
Proper preparation of metallographic specimens to determine microstructure and content requires that a rigid
step-by-step process be followed. In sequence, the steps include sectioning, mounting, course grinding, fine
grinding, polishing, etching and microscopic examination. Specimens must be kept clean and preparation
procedure carefully followed in order to reveal accurate microstructures. Photographs will be taken of the
samples and the ASTM grain size number determined for each of the specimens if applicable. Also, the
hardness of the metallography specimen will be measured.

Background
Metallography consists of the study of the constitution and structure of metals and alloys. Much can be learned
through specimen examination with the naked eye, but more refined techniques require magnification and
preparation of the material's surface. Optical microscopy is sufficient for general purpose examination;
advanced examination and research laboratories often contain electron microscopes (SEM and TEM), x-ray
and electron diffractometers and possibly other scanning devices.

Incorrect techniques in preparing a sample may result in altering the true microstructure and will most likely
lead to erroneous conclusions. It necessarily follows that the microstructure should not be altered. Hot or cold
working can occur during the specimen preparation process if the metallurgist is not careful. Expertise at the
methods employed to produce high-quality metallographic samples requires training and practice. The basic
techniques can be learned through patient persistence in a matter of hours. This module takes the student
through the metallographic sample preparation process step-by-step with demonstrations and explanations of
sectioning, mounting, course & fine grinding, polishing, etching and microscopic examination.

Sectioning
Operations such as shearing produce severe cold work, which can alter the microstructure of a sample.
Abrasive cutting (sectioning) offers the best solution to eliminate these undesirable features; the resultant
surface is smooth, and the sectioning task is quickly accomplished. Low-speed cut-off wheels are utilized in
cases where the heat created by standard abrasive cutters must be avoided. Ample coolant and proper speed
control are essential in all sectioning operations.

Abrasive Cut-Off Wheels consist of abrasive grains (such as Aluminum Oxide or Silicon Carbide), bonded
together with rubber or other materials in the form of a thin wheel. Rubber bonded wheels are most extensively
used for wet operation and resin bonds for dry cutting. When sectioning a piece of metal, the abrasive grains
on the cutoff wheel become dull, therefore, the bond must be destroyed at the correct rate so that new grains
are always at the edge and are still held firmly by the bonding material. The rate at which the bond breaks
down is affected by several different factors, including:
1) The hardness of the bond.
2) The hardness and workability of the metal sample.
3) The size and speed of the wheel.
4) The power of the driving motor.
5) The type and amount of coolant and its method of application.
6) The amount of pressure by which the wheel is applied to the sample.
7) The amount of vibration in the machine.

Cutoff wheels are indexed from hard to soft and are referred to by "grade". As a rule of thumb, a hard bonded
wheel should be selected when sectioning soft stock, and a soft wheel for sectioning harder material. A
reasonable amount of wheel pressure must be applied so the abrasive grains will "bite" and remove the metal
in fine chips. An experienced operator can tell whether the wheel is cutting or merely "dragging" by the feel
of the control arm and monitoring of the power consumption of the cutting equipment.
Proper cutting procedures must be followed; abrasive cut-off wheels will crack and become
flying projectiles when used improperly.
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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi
Mounting
Small samples are generally mounted in plastic for convenience in handling and to protect the edges of the
specimen being prepared. Compression-type molding is commonly applied to encase specimens in 1 to 1.5
inch diameter plugs of a hard polymer. Compression molding materials are classified as either thermosetting
or thermoplastic:
1) Bakelite is a low cost, relatively hard thermosetting polymer that is commonly utilized.
2) Expensive Transoptic Thermoplastics are utilized when transparency is required.

Transoptic materials remain molten at maximum temperature and become transparent with an increase in
pressure and a decrease in temperature. By definition, thermosetting materials require heat and pressure during
the molding cycle. During mounting, the pressure and molding temperature are generally held constant thus
time is the only variable. The metal sample is placed in the mounting cylinder which is then encased in a pre-
measured amount of powdered polymers. The mounting cylinder is then sealed, pressurized and heated to
complete the polymerization process necessary to solidly encase the metal sample.

Although inferior in quality to compression-type molding, cold molding (room temperature) is often used with
epoxy to mount samples by simply mixing the epoxy and pouring it over a sample that is positioned face-down
in a cold-mounting ring. When the epoxy cures the specimen can be prepared. Caution must be exercised when
cold mounting due to relatively poor adhesion between the specimen edges and the epoxy plug; gaps often
form which can degrade the quality of the specimen.

Coarse Grinding
In view of the perfection required in an ideally prepared metallographic sample, it is essential that each
preparation stage be carefully performed. The specimen must:
1. Be free from scratches, stains and others imperfections which tend to mark the surface.
2. Retain non-metallic inclusions.
3. Reveal no evidence of chipping due to brittle intermetallic compounds and phases.
4. Be free from all traces of disturbed metal.

The purpose of the coarse grinding stage is to generate the initial flat surface necessary for the subsequent
grinding and polishing steps. As a result of sectioning and grinding, the material may get cold worked to a
considerable depth with a resultant transition zone of deformed material between the surface and the
undistorted metal. Course grinding can be accomplished either wet or dry using 80 to 180 grit electrically
powered disks or belts, but care must be taken to avoid significant heating of the sample. The final objective
is to obtain a flat surface free from all previous tool marks and cold working due to specimen cutting.

An important factor throughout the Coarse Grinding and Fine Grinding Stages is that the scratches be uniform
in size and parallel to each other in any one grinding stage. Proper grinding involves rotation of the sample by
90o between stages while the grinding angle must be held constant during the grinding at any one stage.
The sample MUST be washed thoroughly before proceeding from one grinding stage to
the next ! ! !

Failure to follow this basic rule will result in transferring abrasive particles between stages and will cause time-
consuming, frustrating problems in removing unwanted scratches.

Medium and Fine Grinding


Medium and Fine Grinding of metallurgical samples are closely allied with the Coarse Grinding which
precedes them. Each stage of metallographic sample preparation must be carefully performed; the entire
process is designed to produce a scratch free surface by employing a series of successively finer abrasives.
Failure to be careful in any stage will result in an unsatisfactory sample.

The idea is to carefully move from one stage to the next where the abrasives become finer at each successive
stage. Movement from one stage to the next should only proceed when all of the scratches from the preceding
stage are completely removed. In general, successive steps are 240, 320, 400 and 600 grit SiC and the grinding
rate should steadily decrease from one stage to the next. Proper grinding involves the rotation of the sample
between stages while the grinding angle must be held constant during the grinding at any on stage.

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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi
Wet grinding is generally applied in medium and fine grinding to avoid possible side affects due to heating
such as tempering, transformation, aging, incipient melting, etc. Wet grinding also provides a flushing action
for loose particles and keeps sharp edges of the grinding medium exposed at all times.
Repeated for Emphasis: Proper grinding involves the rotation of the sample between stages while the
grinding angle must be held constant during the grinding at any on stage.

Mechanical Polishing
Polishing involves the use of abrasives, suspended in a water solution, on a cloth-covered electrically powered
wheel. Diamond abrasives provide the best, and most expensive, compounds utilized in polishing; standard
sized aluminum oxide powders are applied for general use purposes. Following the final 600 grit fine-grinding
stage, the sample MUST be washed and carefully dried before proceeding to the first polishing stage! At the
polishing stages, even hard dust particles in the air which settles on the polishing cloth can cause unwanted
scratching of the specimen! Careful washing of the specimen and the operator's hands must be carried out prior
to each stage of polishing! Beginning with 25-micron suspended aluminum oxide particles (suspended in
water) on a Nylon-cloth, the final fine-grinding surface layer resulting from the previous grinding procedure
should be completely removed with a rotation rate of 150-200 rpm.

The specimen is initially held at one position on the wheel, without rotation, until most of the previous grinding
marks are removed. It can be rotated slowly, counter to the wheel rotation, until only scratches from the 25-
micron aluminum oxide are visible. During the initial polishing stage, moderate pressure can be applied to the
specimen and the entire stage should generally take 1 or 2 minutes!

After carefully washing the specimen, proceed to the 5-micron stage where a separate polishing wheel with 5-
micron particles; repeat the procedure outlined above using lighter pressure and a gradual rotating motion
across the polishing cloth.

The final polishing stage with 1-micron suspended aluminum oxide particles should be carried out on a
separate polishing wheel following "Careful washing of the specimen and operator's hands" at a slower speed
of 100 - 150 rpm using a napped cloth. After 1 or 2 minutes a properly polished specimen should have a mirror-
like surface free of scratches! During final polishing, minimal pressure should be applied and time should be
kept to a minimum since the napped material will conform to the specimen shape under pressure. The wetness
of the cloth used for Final Polishing has a great influence on the end result. If the cloth is too wet the sample
will show pits; if too dry, buffing and/or smearing will result. To determine the proper wetness, the sample
should be removed from the wheel and the time required for the polishing film to dry (five to eight seconds)
should be checked. A thin opaque film indicates that sufficient abrasive is present.

For precision work, extremely fine grades of diamond abrasives may often be used for the final polishing
sequence. Cerium Oxide is especially excellent for the final polishing of aluminum and other soft metals and
alloys. The best abrasive types and sizes for various metals and alloys are listed in the literature; references
should be consulted for recommended practice.

Generally, polishing can also be accomplished electrochemically, using an electrolytic cell which is similar to
the ones used for electroplating, except that the polishing cell operates in reverse. The metal atoms are thus
stripped from the specimen surface. Careful control is required for electropolishing; it is best suited to finishing
a large number of identical specimens.

The following general flow sheet is included for the various stages of steel sample preparation.

Stage Abrasive Lubricant Cloth


Fine Grinding 240, 320, 400 then
Water None
600 grits
Rough Polishing 5 to 25 m
Distilled Water Nylon
Aluminum Oxide
Final Polishing 1 m Napped
Distilled Water
Aluminum Oxide Microcloth

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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi
The ability to prepare a specimen is an art and the required skill is acquired only after significant hands-on
experience. Using automated equipment, an inexperienced technician can be taught to prepare well polished
specimens in a few hours; he/she could not, however, hand polish well without further training and experience.

Etching
Microscopic examination of a properly polished, unetched specimen will reveal only a few structural features
such as inclusions and cracks or other physical imperfections. Etching is used to highlight, and sometimes
identify, microstructural features or phases present. Even in a carefully prepared sample, a surface layer of
disturbed metal, resulting from the final polishing stage, is always present and must be removed. Etchants are
usually dilute acid or dilute alkalis in a water, alcohol or some other solvent. Etching occurs when the acid or
base is placed on the specimen surface because of the difference in rate of attack of the various phases present
and their orientation. The etching process is usually accomplished by merely applying the appropriate solution
to the specimen surface for several seconds to several minutes.

Nital, a Nitric Acid - Alcohol mixture, is the etchant commonly utilized with common irons and steels. Nital
is dripped onto the specimen using an eye-dropper or cotton swab. Ten seconds to one minute is usually
sufficient for proper etching depending on sample and nital concentration. The sample is immediately washed
under running water, rinsed with alcohol and dried in an air blast. Do not touch, wipe or swab the specimen
following etching; dry off the rinsing alcohol on the specimen with the air blast and then move on to the
microscopic examination stage!

Table 1 Materials and methods that various etchants can be used on them for microscopy studies.
Application
Materials Composition
Procedure
Iron & Steel 1 – 5 Parts Nitric Acid 100 Parts Alcohol Immerse/Swab
1 Part Ammonium Hydroxide
Swab
1 Part 3 % Hydrogen Peroxide 1 Part Water
Copper &
Brass 5 g Ferric Chloride,
10 ml Hydrocloric Acid Immerse
100 ml Water
5 – 10 g Ammonium Persulphate
1 ml Hydrofluoric Acid Immerse
Aluminum 99 ml Water
10 g Sodium Hydroxide,
Immerse
100 ml Water
10 g Oxalic Acid Use
Stainless 100 ml Water Electrolytically
Steels 5 ml Sulfuric Acid Use
100 ml Water Electrolytically

Microscopic Examination
Initial microscopic viewing should be done utilizing a stereomicroscope, which reveals a three-dimensional
scanning of the specimen surface. The specimen is placed on the stage of the microscope so that its surface is
perpendicular to the optical axis.

Detailed viewing is done with a Metallurgical Microscope. A metallurgical microscope has a system of lenses
(objectives and eyepiece) so that different magnifications (25X to 1000X) can be achieved. The important
characteristics of the microscope are: (1) magnification, (2) resolution and (3) flatness of field. The resultant
magnification is the product of the magnifying power of the objective and that of the ocular.
Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEMs) are capable of magnifications up to 20,000X and Transmission
Electron Microscopes (TEMs) are utilized to view at magnifications up to 100,000X for highly detailed
microstructural study.

Grain Size Calculation


In single phase specimens, the ASTM grain size of the metal can be estimated by comparing the image at 100X
with standard microstructure examples corresponding to standard grain sizes from 1 to 10. Also, suitable
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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi
eyepieces etched with a square 0.01" x 0.01" in size can be used to calculate the number of grains per square
inch, N.

The ASTM grain size number, n, can be calculated using the following relationship:
𝑵 𝟐
𝑵( ) = 2(𝑛−1)
𝟏𝟎𝟎
N = number of grains per square inch at 100X, n = ASTM grain size number, and M = Magnification
For single phase materials, ASTM grain size number is given to denote the grain sizes. These are not the actual
grain size values, but the latter can be derived from the ASTM grain size number, n; the larger the grain size
number, the smaller the grains.

If there are N grains per square inch at a magnification M then there are (N) 1/2 grains along a 1 inch length.
The size of each grain at magnification M is then 1/(N)1/2 inches.
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The actual size of the grain is given by Actual Grain Size = (𝑁.𝑀)1/2

Background - Hardness Testing


Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation (e.g., a small dent or scratch).
Hardness testing involves a small indenter being forced into the surface of the material being tested under
controlled conditions of load and rate of application. The depth or size of the resulting indentation is measured,
which in turn is related to a hardness number; the softer the material, the larger and deeper the indentation, and
the lower the hardness index number. Measured hardness are only relative (rather than absolute) thus care must
be taken when comparing values determined by different techniques.

Macro-Hardness (Rockwell and Brinell) testing is the most commonly applied materials test in industry due
to several factors:
1) Macro-Hardness Testing is simple to perform and does not require highly skilled operators;
2) Through the use of different loads and indenters, hardness testing can be used for determining the
hardness and approximate strength of most metals and alloys including soft bearing materials and high-
strength steels;
3) Hardness readings can be taken in a few seconds with minimal preparation; and
4) For Rockwell hardness testing, no optical measurements are required; all readings are direct.

There are two common methods applied to measure material hardness macroscopically: Rockwell and Brinell.
Rockwell hardness differs from Brinell hardness testing in that the indentation size is measured in Brinell
testing while Rockwell hardness is determined by the depth of the indentation made by a constant applied load.
For thin test samples or samples for which the relatively large Brinell or Rockwell indentations must be
avoided, the Superficial Rockwell hardness test is often employed. Superficial Rockwell hardness testing
employs lower loads to the indenter in order to minimize penetration.

The Rockwell Hardness Test consists of measuring the additional depth to which an indenter is forced by a
heavy (major) load beyond the depth of a previously applied light (minor) load as illustrated in Figures 1 and
2. Application of the minor load eliminates backlash in the load train and causes the indenter to break through
slight surface roughness and to crush particles of foreign matter, thus contributing to much greater accuracy in
the test.

The minor load is applied first, and a reference or "set" position is established on the measuring device or the
Rockwell hardness tester. Then the major load is applied at a prescribed, controlled rate. Without moving the
workpiece being tested, the major load is removed and the Rockwell hardness number is indicated on the dial
gage. The entire operation takes from 5 to 10 seconds.

Figure 1 – Diamond-Cone Brale Indenter used in Rockwell Hardness Testing (2X). [Metals Hdbk, 1992]
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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi
Figure 2 – Indentation in a workpiece made by application of (a) the minor load, and (b) the major load, on a
diamond Brale indenter in Rockwell hardness testing. [Metals Hdbk - Desk Edition, 1992].

Hardness value based on the difference in depths of indentation produced by minor and major load. Diamond
indenters are used mainly for testing materials such as hardened steels and cemented carbides. Steel-ball
indenters, available with diameters of 1/16, 1/8, 1/4 and 1/2 in., are generally used for testing materials such
as soft steel, copper alloys, aluminum alloys and bearings metals. Designations and typical applications of
various indenters are listed in Tables 2 and 3.

Table 2 – Rockwell Hardness Scale Designations for Combinations of Type of Indenter and Major Load.
[Metals Handbook - Desk Edition, 1992]

The minor load is always 10 kg in regular Rockwell hardness testing. No Rockwell hardness value is expressed
by a number alone. A letter has been assigned to each combination of load and indenter, as indicated in Tables
1 and 2. Each number is suffixed first by the letter H (for hardness), then the letter R (for Rockwell), and finally
the letter that indicates the scale used. For example, a value of 60 in the Rockwell C scale is expressed as 60
HRC, etc. One Rockwell number represents an indentation of 0.002 mm (0.00008 in.).

Therefore a reading of 60 HRC indicates an indentation from minor to major load of (100 - 60)  0.002 mm =
0.080 mm or 0.0032 in. A reading of 80 HRB indicates an indentation of (130 - 80)  0.002 mm = 0.100 mm.

The metal immediately surrounding the indentation from a Rockwell hardness test is cold worked thus multiple
readings cannot be taken at the same point on a material’s surface. If multiple tests are conducted on a single
part the indentations should each be a minimum of 3 indentation diameters apart. The depth of material affected
during testing is on the order of ten times the depth of the indentations.

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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi
Table 2 – Typical Applications of Regular Rockwell Hardness Scales. [Metals Handbood - Desk Edition, 1992]

Therefore, unless the thickness of the metal being tested is at least ten times the depth of the indentation, an
accurate Rockwell hardness test cannot be expected. In addition to the limitation of indentation depth for a
workpiece of given thickness and hardness, there is a limiting factor on the minimum material width. If the
indentation is placed too close to the edge of a workpiece, the edge will deform outward and the Rockwell
hardness number will be decreased accordingly. Experience has shown that the distance from the center of the
indentation to the edge of the workpiece must be at least 3 times the diameter of the indentation to ensure an
accurate test.

A fundamental requirement of the Rockwell hardness test is that the surface of the workpiece being tested be
approximately normal to the indenter and that the workpiece must not move or slip in the slightest degree as
the major load is applied. As one point of hardness represents a depth of only 0.0008 inches, a movement of
only 0.001 inches could cause an error of over 10 Rockwell numbers. The support must be of sufficient rigidity
to prevent its permanent deformation in use. Indenters are not calibrated below values of 20 or above values
of 95, thus if readings are outside of this range then a different indenter must be selected. Minimum thickness
requirements, conversions between various Rockwell scales and round work corrections are tabulated and are
available in the Materials Testing Laboratory.

The Brinell Hardness Test consists of applying a constant load, usually 500 to 3000 kilograms, on a hardened
steel ball-type indenter, 10 mm in diameter, to the flat surface of a workpiece. The 500-kilogram load is usually
used for testing nonferrous metals such as copper and aluminum alloys, whereas the 3000-kilogram load is
most often used for testing harder metals such as steels and cast irons. The load is held for a specified time (10
to 15 seconds for iron or steel and about 30 seconds for softer metals), after which the diameter of the recovered
indentation is measured in millimeters. This time period is required to ensure that plastic flow of the work
metal has stopped.

Brinell hardness is evaluated by taking the mean diameter of the indentation (two readings at right angles to
each other) and calculating the Brinell hardness number (HB) by dividing the applied load by the surface area
of the indentation according to the expression:
HB = L/(D/2)[D - (D2 - d2)1/2]
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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi
where L is the load in kilograms, D is the diameter of the ball in millimeters, and d is the diameter of the
indentation in millimeters. Highly hardened steel (or other very hard metals) cannot be tested by a hardened
steel ball by the Brinell method because the ball would plastically deform and flatten during penetration.
Tungsten carbide balls are recommended for Brinell testing materials of hardness from 444 HB up to 627 HB
(indentation of 2.45 mm in diameter). However, higher Brinell values will result when using carbide balls
instead of steel balls because of the difference in elastic properties. The degree of accuracy that can be attained
by the Brinell hardness test is greatly influenced by the surface smoothness and therefore the test surface should
be filed, ground, machined or polished with emery paper such that the indentation diameter is clearly enough
defined to permit its’ accurate measurement.

General precautions of Brinell hardness testing include the following:


1. Indentations should not be made on a curved surface having a radius of less than 1 inch.
2. The load should be applied in such a way that the direction of loading and the test surface are
perpendicular to each other within 2o.
3. The thickness of the workpiece being tested should be such that no bulge or mark showing the
effect of the load appears on the side of the workpiece opposite the indentation. In any event, the
thickness of the specimen shall be at least 10 times the depth of the indentation

The Brinell hardness test has three principal limitations as follows:


1. Size and shape of the workpiece must be capable of accommodating the relatively large
indentations.
2. Because of the relatively large indentations, the workpiece may not be usable after testing.
3. The limit of hardness range -- about 11 HB with the 500-kg load to 627 with the 3000-kg load
-- is generally considered the practical range.

Figure 3 – Comparison of Several Hardness Scales. [Callister, 1991]

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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi
Superficial Rockwell Hardness Testing employs a minor load of 3 kilograms, and a major load of 15, 30 or
45 kilograms. Just as in regular Rockwell testing, the indenter may be either a diamond brale or steel ball
depending mainly on the ductility of the material being tested. Superficial Rockwell hardness values are always
expressed with a number suffixed by a number and a letter that show the load/indenter combination. For
example, if a load of 30 kg is used with a diamond indenter and a reading of 80 is obtained, the result is reported
as 80 HR30N (where H indicates hardness, R indicates Rockwell, 30 indicates a major load of 30 kg, and N
indicates the use of a diamond brale indenter).

All Superficial Rockwell hardness tests are started from the "Set" position. One Rockwell superficial hardness
number represents an indentation of 0.001 mm or 0.00004 inches. Therefore, a reading of 80 HR30N indicates
an indentation from minor to major load of (100 - 80) X 0.001 mm = 0.020 mm or 0.0008 inches.
Correlation between Hardness and Tensile Strength – Both tensile strength and hardness are indicators of a
metal’s resistance to plastic deformation. Consequently, they are roughly proportional. As a rule of thumb for
steels (steels only!), the HB and Tensile Strength are related according to
TS (MPa) = 3.45 X HB or TS (psi) = 500 HB.

A comparison/conversion between various hardness scales is provided in Figure 3.

Homework
1. Briefly (one concise sentence each) describe the steps involved in the preparation of a metallographic
sample:
Sectioning
Mounting
Course Grinding
Fine Grinding
Polishing
Etching

2. Why must metallographic samples be washed and carefully dried before proceeding from one grinding
or polishing operation to the next?

3. What is the purpose of etching metallographic samples?

4. Why are metallographic samples sometimes mounted in plastic?

5. What is the difference between a Eutectoid steel and a Hypoeutectoid steel?

6. At room temperature :
• What are the phases of a eutectoid steel?
• What are the constituents of a eutectoid steel?
• What are the phases of a hypoeutectoid steel?
• What are the constituents of a hypoeutectoid steel?

7. Briefly explain the effect of grain size on the strength of a metal.

8. How should a Rockwell hardness reading of 63 be expressed if tested with the C scale?

9. Would you expect a deep hardness indentation to result in a high hardness number? Explain. Why isn't
the diamond Brale indenter used on copper alloys?

10. If 10 hardness tests were to be conducted on the same specimen, why would large errors result if the
measurements were all made at the same point?

11. What is "Superficial Rockwell Hardness Testing" and when should it be used?

12. Determine the Tensile Strength of a steel sample with a Rockwell C reading of 63.

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MSE 359/METE 357, Materials/Metallurgical Laboratory I, Materials Engineering Department, KNUST, Kumasi

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