MAKASSAR STATE UNIVERSITY

INTERNATIONAL CLASS PROGRAM

ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
STUDY PROGRAM OF MATHEMATICS EDUCATION

UNIT CODE: A13C108

HAND-OUT, 2009
The cover of this hand-out presents the picture taken from the front cover
of Larson, L., Hostetler, R.P., & Edwards, B.H. 2005. College Algebra: A
Graphing Approach. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
 CURRICULUM COMPETENCE

The course is a fundamental unit which would facilitate students to build

the conceptual understanding and skills in terms of the basic mathematics.

Main Competence
Students will be able to comprehend the fundamental concepts and principles
of algebra as well as be able to apply them in solving relevant problems.

Core Competence (Intended Course Learning Outcomes/Course Objectives)

After completing this unit, the students are expected to be able to demonstrate:
1. conceptual understanding and mathematical skills in terms of equations
and inequalities.
2. conceptual understanding and mathematical skills in terms of functions and
its graphs.
3. conceptual understanding and mathematical skills in terms of arithmetical
and geometrical sequences and series.
4. conceptual understanding and mathematical skills in terms of logarithms
and exponents.
5. conceptual understanding and mathematical skills in terms of the Polish
notation.
6. the ability to apply the conceptual understanding in solving either
mathematical or daily problems.

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Curriculum Competence …………………………………………………... 1

Student Guide ……………………………………………………………... 3

1. Quadratic Equations and Inequalities ………………………………... 4

2. Quadratic Functions …………………………………………………. 12
3. Other Functions (Rational, Absolute Value, the Greatest Integer 19
Functions) ……………………………………………………………
4. Other Equations (Cubic, Quartic, and the Higher Order Equations) … 26
5. Other Inequalities (Rational, Absolute Value, the Greatest 31
Integer, Radical)
6. ………………………………………………………………
Exponent ……………………………………………………………. 41
7. Logarithm …………………………………………………………… 47
8. Sequences ……………………………………………………………. 51
9. Series ………………………………………………………………… 57
10. The Polish Notation …………………………………………………. 63

References ………………………………………………………………… 72
 STUDENT GUIDE

1. This hand-out covers the standard materials which will be discussed within
the lecture.
2. The problems put at the end of each chapter just the simple ones. The students
are encouraged to search for other problems available within the
recommended textbooks to get exposed to wider coverage and richer nature of
problems.
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

A. BASIC COMPETENCE
• State the standard form of quadratic
equation.
• Solve quadratic equation using factorization
method.
• Solve quadratic equation using perfecting square
method.
• Solve quadratic equation using the root
formula.
• Comprehend the characteristics of the roots based upon the value of
the discriminant.
• Find the value of the symmetrical form of the
roots.
• Develop new quadratic equation with the known
roots.
• Solve daily problems using the concept of quadratic
equation.
• State the standard form of quadratic
inequalities.
• Solve quadratic inequalities using the analytical
method.
• Solve quadratic inequalities using the real-line testing
method.
• Solve daily problems using the concept of quadratic
inequalities.

B. MATERIALS
Equations
Mathematicians make as much use of language as anyone else. Not only do
they
communicate their mathematical work with language, but the use of language is
itself part of the mathematical structure. The issue we address is what kinds of
sentences mathematicians use as building blocks for their work. The
mathematician’s work centres around the statement, which will be defined
intuitively as a sentence that can be assigned either to the class of things we
would call true or to the class of things we would call false. A statement is
sometimes called a closed sentence. In the contrary, there is an expression in
mathematics which is considered as an open sentence. The openness is attributed
to certain sentences when they have the possibilities to be true or false, yet, still
undetermined. It is different from certain sentence which is not clear whether it
is true or not, and will never be clear.
The openness of a sentence could be indicated by the existence of variables within
it. A variable has many possibilities of what could be put to replace it. Replacing
a variable with certain, appropriate thing will result in the determination of
the sentence that it is true or false. An open statement containing variables and an
equal sign is sometimes called an equation. If the variables in an equation are
replace with certain, appropriate entities, it turns to be a statement or a closed
sentence as it is now justifiable, whether it is true or not.

An equation in x is a statement that two algebraic expressions are equal.

For
example, 3x − 4 = 5 x2 − x − 2 = 0 , 2x = 4 are equations. To solve an
, and
equation in x means to find all values of x for which the equation is true. Such
values are called the solution or the root of the equation. For example, x = 3 is a
solution of the equation 3x − 4 = 5 , because 3(3) – 4 = 5 is a true statement. The
solutions of an
equation depend on the kinds of numbers being considered. For instance, in the
set
of rational numbers, x 2 = 10 has no solution because there is no rational
numbers
whose square is 10. However, in the set of real numbers, the equation has
tow
solution 10 and − 10 . An equation that is true for every real number in
the
domain of the variable is called an identity. Meanwhile, an equation that is true
for jus t some (even none) of the real numbers in the domain of the variable is
called a conditional equation.

Polynomial Equations
An equation of the form of
n 3 2
a n x + a n−1x n−1 + a n−2 x n−2 + ... +a3 x + a 2 x + a1 x + a0 = 0

where a n ≠ 0 and ai ∈ R for i = 0, 1, 2, 3, …, n

is called a polynomial equation in x. The value of n will determine the degree of

the equation, accordingly.

Quadratic Equations
5
A quadratic equation in x is an equation that can be written in the general form
2
ax + bx + c = 0

6
where a, b, and c are real numbers with a ≠ 0. A quadratic equation in x is also
known as a second-degree polynomial equation in x.

The Methods for Solving Quadratic Equations

There are several methods for solving quadratic equations. The first method
is factoring method, which is considered as the simplest one.
Factoring: If ab = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0.
Example:
2
x −x−2=0
→ (x +1)(x − 2) = 0
→ x = −1 or x = 2

Extracting Square Roots: If u2 = c, where c > 0, then u = ± c

Example:
2
(x − 2) = 9
→ x − 2 = ±3
→ x=2±3
→ x = −1 or x = 5

Completing the x 2 + bx = c , then

Square: If
2 2
2 b b
x + bx + =c+
2 2
2 2
b b
→ x+ =c+
2 4

Example:
2
x + 6x = 5
2 2 2
→ x + 6x + 3 = 5 + 3
2
→ (x + 3) = 14
→ x + 3 = ± 14
→ x = −3 ± 14
2
2x + 3x −1 = 0
2
Quadratic Formula: If ax + bx + c = 0 ,
then

Example:
 2
b − 4ac
−b±
x= 2a
− 3 ± 32 − 4(2)(−1) − 3 ± 17
→ x= =
2(2) 4

The Role of the Discriminant

When we consider the roots of the quadratic equation obtained in the fourth
method of quadratic formula, I could be observed that the value of the roots
depend upon
the values of 2
b − 4ac and a. In terms of a, the roots of the equation will
be
undefined if a is zero (the quotient is of zero denominator). However, this
is impossible as earlier in the definition or the general form of the quadratic
equation, it
has been stated that a ≠ 0. In terms b 2 − 4ac , there are several cases as follow.
of

1. If b2 – 4ac ≥ 0, b 2 − 4ac is a real number.

then

• If b2 – 4ac > 0, then the roots of the equation are of different values.
• If b2 – 4ac > 0, then the roots of the equation are of the same values.
• If b2 – 4ac = k2, where k is an integer, then the roots of the equation
are rational numbers.
2. If b2 – 4ac < 0, b 2 − 4ac is not a real number (an imaginary number).
then In
this case, the equation is said to have no solution.

The Symmetrical Form of the Roots

If the roots or the solutions in x of a quadratic equation are obtained, there are
some values resulted from the two roots. For example, if the roots are
symbolized as
1
x and x2 we could determine the value of 1x + x2 or x1 .x2 . Derived from the xs
obtained in the quadratic formula above, we obtain
b c
1
+ 2 and x1 x2 = .
a
These two values do not change when the indices are swapped. Whichever of
the two xs is indicated with index 1 or 2, the values of the two forms mentioned
above
do not change. Those two forms are then called the symmetrical form. Many
other symmetrical forms could be formed whose values could be obtained by
using the
x 1 .x2. For example:
2
x + and

2 2 2 2
x + x = (x + x ) − 2x x
b c b − 2ac
1 2 1 2 1 2 = − −2 = 2
a a a
2
2 2 c
2 c 2
x x = x = = 2.
or 1 . 2 ( 1.x2 ) a a

Developing New Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation can be developed if the roots of the equation are known or
given. Let the roots are ∝ and β, the we can develop a quadratic equation as
follows:
(x − α )(x − β ) =
0
2
→ x − (α + β )x + αβ =
0
The last row is one of the quadratic equations which can be developed whose
roots are ∝ and β. The other quadratic equations can be obtained by multiplying
the first equation with any non-zero real number. The equations obtained will be
different in terms of the coefficients involved; however, the roots are still the
same. In some cases, the real values of the roots are not given directly. Instead, it
will be stated that those are the modification of the roots of any given quadratic
equation.

Quadratic Inequalities
Alike an equation, inequalities are also an open sentence. In general, inequalities
are simply defined as an open sentence containing inequality signs. The signs
include ≠,
≤, <, >, and ≥.
The discussion about inequalities mainly focuses on their solution. It is to find the
set containing all values that make the inequalities a true statement.
Quadratic inequalities have the standard form as
follows
2
ax + bx + c < 0 , where a, b, c ∈ R, with a ≠
0.
As mentioned before, the symbol < may be replaced with ≠, ≤, >, or
≥.
Solving Quadratic Inequalities Using the Real-Line Testing Method
The real-line testing method is also called the test numbers method. There are
some steps to perform in solving quadratic inequalities using this method. First,
write the inequality as an en equation and solve it using any method for finding
the roots. Second, use the solutions from the first step to determine intervals on a
real line. Graph the numbers (the roots) found in the previous step on the real line.
These numbers divide the number line into three intervals. Third, find the intervals
that satisfy the inequality. It is done by substituting a test number from each
interval into the original inequality to determine the intervals that satisfy it. All
numbers in those intervals are in the solution set. A graph of the solution set will
usually look like one
of the
followings.

) ( ] [

( ) [ ]
The last, consider the endpoints separately. The numbers at end of the
middle interval are included in the solution set if the inequality symbol is ≤ or
≥., they are not included if it is s> or <. The symbols of ( and ) are used to
indicate that the end of the interval is not included in the solution, while the
symbols of [ and ] are used to indicate the inclusion of the end of the interval in
the solution.
Exampl
e:
Solve x 2 − x − 6 ≤ 0
The quadratic x 2 − x − 6 = 0 is solved by factoring, and we obtain
equation
x1 = −2 or x2 = 3
The numbers -2 and 3 divide the real line into three different intervals shown
below.
Interval Interval Interval
A B C
F -2 T 3 F
The numbers -2 and 3 are the only numbers that make the 2
x −x−6
expression
equal to 0. All other numbers make the expression either positive or negative. The
sign of the expression can change from positive to negative, or vice versa, only at
a number that makes it zero. Therefore, if one number in an interval satisfies the
inequality, then all the numbers will satisfy the inequality. To see if the
numbers in
Interval B satisfy the inequality, choose any number from the interval. The
easiest
one is 0. Substitute this test number for x in the original x 2 − x − 6 ≤ 0 . If
inequality
the result is true, then all numbers in Interval B satisfy the
inequality.

Solving Quadratic Inequalities Using the Analytical

Method
Another way to solve quadratic inequality is using the analytical approach. This
method is similar to that which is employed in solving a quadratic equation, that
is, factoring method. Take one standard form of quadratic
2
inequalities: ax + bx + c < 0 .
By factoring the left-hand side of the inequality, assume that a = 1, we
obtain:
x x and (x − x 2 ) > 0
or
(x − x1 ) > 0 and (x − x 2 ) < 0
→ x < x 1 and x > x 2
or
x > x1 and x < x 2

→ x ∈{ } = φ (Given x1 < x2)

or
x1 < x < x 2
So, it is obtained that the solution set of the inequality isx{ x| <1 <x x}2.

C. PROBLEMS
In exercises 1-4, evaluate the roots of the quadratic equation using all
possible methods. Ensure that all the methods provide the same results.
2
1. x + 3x + 2 = 0
2
2. 2x − 6x − 3 = 0
2
3. 2x + 5x − 3 = 0
4. 3x 2 + 8x + 2 = 0
5. Given a quadratic 3x 2 + 4x + 2 = 0 , find the value x −3 + x −3 , if x
equation: of

10
 1 2 1
and x2 are the roots of the equation.

11
6. Refer to the four quadratic equations in numbers 1-4 above, evaluate
the characteristics of their roots based upon the value of the discriminant.
2 2
7. Develop a new quadratic equation whose roots x1 + 3 and x2 + 3 , if 1 and
are x
x2 are the roots of the equation given in Number
4.
Solve the inequalities given in Numbers 9-10. Use any both possible methods.
8. 2x 2 + 5x − 3 ≤ 0
2
9. x + 3x + 2 > 0
10. x 2 − 3x −10 < 0
2
11. Prove that the roots of 2x + 2x + 3 = are the negative of the root of
2 0
2x − 2x + 3 = 0
12. Evaluate the roots of (2 − a)x 2 + bx + 3 − c = with a ≠ 2 using the
0
completing square
method.
 QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

A. BASIC COMPETENCE
• State the standard form of quadratic functions.
• Evaluate the characteristics of quadratic functions.
• Find the components of quadratic functions.
• Sketch the graph of quadratic functions.
• Formulate a quadratic function based upon the given characteristics.
• Solve quadratic inequalities using the concepts of quadratic functions.
• Solve problems which relate to the quadratic functions.

B. MATERIALS
Functions
In daily life, we often describe one quantity in terms of another. Consider the
following. The amount of your salary if you are paid hourly depends on the
number of the hours you worked. The cost at the fuel station depends upon the
number of litres of fuel you pumped into your car tank. The distance travelled by
a car moving at a constant speed depends upon the time travelled. We can
use ordered pairs to represent these corresponding quantities. For example, we
indicate the relationship between the amount of salary and hours worked by writing
ordered pairs in which the first number represents hours worked and the second
number represent salary amount in rupiahs. Then the ordered pair (5,250000)
indicates that when you work 5 hours, your salary is Rp250.000,-. Since the
amount if your salary depends on the number of hours worked, your salary
amount is called the dependent variable, and the number of hours worked is called
the independent variable. Generalizing, if the value of the variable y depends upon
the value of variable x, then y is called the dependent variable and x is the
independent variable.

Definition of a Function
A function f from a set A to set B is a relation that assigns to each element x in the
set A exactly one element y in the set B. The set A is the domain (or set of inputs)
of the function f, and the set B is the codomain that contains the range (or
the set of outputs).
12
Sometimes we need to construct the definition of some mathematical idea which
is more operational in nature. Such a definition mentioned above is not
operational enough in nature. The operational nature is attributed to a definition
which we could easily use. For example, we can compare which of the two
formulation of the definition of a function which could be easily used to justify
whether a given relation
is a function or not.

Another Form of Definition of a

Function
f : A → B . If ∀x ∈ A, ∃ y ∈ B, ∋ f(x) =
Let set A and set B are not empty sets.
Let

y, and ∀x1, x2 ∈ A, x1 = x2 → f(x1) = f(x2), then f is called a function from A to

B.

Many functions do not have simple mathematical formulas, but are defined by
real- life data. Such functions arise when we are using collections of data to model
real-life applications. Functions can be represented in four ways.
1. Verbally by a sentence that describes how the input variable is related to
the
output variable. Example: The input value s is the election year from 1952
to
2009 and the output value y is the elected president of the United States.
2. Numerically by a table or a list of ordered pairs that matches input values
with output values. Example: In the set of ordered pairs {(2,34), (4,40), (6,45),
(8,50), (10,54)}, the input value is the age of a male child in years and the
output value is the height of the child inches.
3. Graphically by points on a graph in a
coordinate plane in which the input values are
represented by the horizontal axis and the
output values are represented by the verical
axis. Example:

4. Algebraically: The formula for

temperature,
9
F= C + 32
13
 5
where F is the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit and C is
the
temperature degrees Celsius, is an equation that represents a function. We
will see that it is often convenient to approximate data using a mathematical
model or formula.

14
Some Characteristics of Functions
There are some characteristics of functions which worth discussing. Actually,
they can be considered as the kinds of function.
1. Injective function.
Let set A and set B are not empty sets. f : A → B . If ∀x1, x2 ∈ A, x1 ≠ x2
Let
→ f(x1) ≠ f(x2), then f is called an injective function.
2. Surjective function.
Let set A and set B are not empty sets. f : A → B . If ∀y ∈ B, ∃ x ∈ A ∋ f(x)
Let
= y, then f is called a surjective function.
3. Bijective function.
If f is both injective and surjective in nature, then f is a bijective function.
4. Odd function.
Let set A and set B are not empty sets. Let f : A → B . If ∀x, -x ∈ A, f(x) = - f(-
x), then f is called an odd function.
5. Even function.
Let set A and set B are not empty sets. f : A → B . If ∀x, -x ∈ A, f(x) = f(-
Let
x), then f is called an even function.
6. Periodic function. f : A → B . If ∀x ∈ A, f(x) = f(x +
Let set A and set B are not empty sets.
Let

p) for any p ∈ R , then f is called a periodic function with period p.

Polynomial Functions
A standard form of a polynomial function is
f (x) = a n x n + a n−1 xn−1 + a n−2 x n−2 + ... + a 3 x3 + a 2 x2 + a1 x + a 0

where a n ≠ 0 and ai ∈ R for i = 0, 1, 2, 3, …, n.

The value of n will determine the degree of the function, accordingly.

Quadratic Functions
A quadratic function in x is a function that can be written in the general form
2
f (x) = ax + bx + c
where a, b, and c are real numbers with a ≠ 0. A quadratic function in x is also
known as a second-degree polynomial function in x.

The Components of a Quadratic

Function
There are several components of a quadratic function. These components
are required if the graph of the function is to be sketched. The components
are as follow.
1. The interception of the function with the x-axis and the y-axis. For the
x-axis, the
interceptions are obtained by equalising the function with zero. By so doing,
we obtain a quadratic equation whose solutions are the abscissa of the
coordinates of the x-axis interception: (x1,0) and (x2,0). For the y-axis,
the interception is obtained by substituting x with 0. By so doing, we obtain
f(0) = c, and the coordinate of the y-axis interception is (0,c), accordingly.
2. The symmetrical axis which divides the graph of the quadratic function
into two symmetrical parts. It is obtained by taking the midpoint of the
two x-axis
interceptions of the function. If x1 and x2 are the roots of a quadratic
equation
(x + x ) = − =− . The vertical line passing
2 1 1 b b
ax + bx + c = 0 ,
then
2 1 2
2 a 2a
b
through the midpoint is x = − , which is the symmetrical axis of the function.
2a
3. The maximal or minimal point of the function which is actually the
coordinate
b
containing x = − and the maximum/minimum value of the function. The
2a
b
extreme value of the function is yielded by substituting the x=− into
value 2a

b 2 − 4ac
the function and we will obtain the y=− . x . Thus, the
value
4a
b b 2 − 4ac
coordinate of the maximum/minimum point is − ,− .
2a 4a
Having these all components, it is easy to sketch the graph of the quadratic
function. However, to make the graph smoother, it is better to determine some
other points through which the function will pass.
Sketching the Graph of a Quadratic Function
2
Given a quadratic y = f (x) = −x + 2x
function:
We evaluate all the necessary components of the functions before sketching
its graph.
1. The coordinate axes interceptions. For the x-axis, they are (0,0) and (2,0). For
the
y-axis, it is (0,0).
2. The symmetrical axis. It is x =
1.
3. The maximum point. It is
(1,1).
So, the graph of the function is sketched as
follows.

Formulating Quadratic
Functions
A quadratic function can be developed given any information in terms of its
components. There are few possibilities for the given components of the function,
based upon which, a quadratic function can be formulated.
1. The interceptions of the graph of the quadratic function with the coordinate
axes are given, namely, (x1,0), (x2,0), and (0,c). In this case, the general
formula of the
quadratic function is:
y = f (x) = a(x − x1 )(x − x 2 ) .
The value of a is obtained by substituting y = c, and x = 0 into the formula.
2. The interceptions of the graph of the quadratic function and another point
lying on the graph are given, namely, (x1,0), (x2,0), and (k,l). This case is
solved in similar way to that in the first case. The value of a is obtained by
substituting y = l, and x = k into the formula
3. The maximum/minimum point P and another point are given, namely, P(xp,
y p)
and (m,n). For this case, the general formula to use is as follows.
y = a(x − x p ) + y
p

The value of a is obtained by substituting y = n, and x = m into the formula.

4. Three points upon which the graph of the quadratic function pass
through, namely, (m1, n1), (m2, n2), and (m3, n3). In this case, each point is
substituted into
the general formula of a quadratic function, that y = ax 2 + bx + c . Having the
is,
three points substituted, it yields three linear equations in variables a, b, and,
c, as
follow.
am12 + bm1 + c = n1
am22 + bm2 + c = n 2
am32 + bm3 + c = n3
The linear equation system is to be solved and the value of a, b, and c will
be obtained.

Solving Quadratic Inequalities Using the Graph of Quadratic Functions

Given a quadratic inequality in its general form as follows:
2
ax + bx + c < 0 , where a, b, c ∈ R, and a ≠
0.
This inequality can be solved by using the graph of a quadratic function relevant
to the given inequality. Take the left-hand side of the inequality and
formulate a
2
quadratic f (x) = ax + bx + c . Let the graph of the function is as follows.
function:
y

Interval Interval Interval

A B C
x
F x1 T x2 F

Based upon the graph, on Interval B, the part of the graph is lying below the x-
axis.
It means that the value of the function on that interval is f (x) < 0 . As we
negative,
take f(x) from the left-hand side of the inequality, then the interval where
the function has negative value is the solution of the given inequality.
C. PROBLEMS
In exercises 1-4, evaluate the components of the quadratic functions and sketch
the graph of each function.
2
1. y = f (x) = x + 3x +
2. y = 2 f (x) = 2x 2
−x
3. y = − 3 f (x) = x 2 + x

4. y = −3
2
f (x) = 4x + 8x +
1
In exercises 5-7, formulate the quadratic function with the given conditions
as follow.
5. The graph of the function passes through the points (6,0), (-1,0), and (0,-2).
6. The graph of the function passes through the points (1,-1), (2,3), and (-1,-3).
7. The maximum point of the function is P(3,2) and it passes through point (-1,4).
8. Use the graph of the quadratic function to determine the solution of
the
2
quadratic x − 3x −10 ≥ 0 .
inequality:
 OTHER FUNCTIONS
(Rational, Absolute Value, the Greatest Integer Functions)

A. BASIC COMPETENCE
• State the standard form of the rational
functions.
• State the standard form of the absolute value
functions.
• State the standard form of the greatest integer
functions.
• Evaluate the characteristics of the rational
functions.
• Evaluate the characteristics of the absolute value
functions.
• Evaluate the characteristics of the greatest integer
functions.
• Comprehend the concepts of the
asymptote.
• Find the components of the rational
functions.
• Sketch the graph of the rational
functions.
• Find the components of the absolute value
functions.
• Sketch the graph of the absolute value
functions.
• Find the components of the greatest integer
functions.
• Sketch the graph of the greatest integer
functions.
• Find the components of the functions containing the rational, absolute value,
and the greatest integer parts.
• Sketch the graph of the functions containing the rational, absolute value, and
the greatest integer parts.
• Solve problems which relate to the functions
discussed.

B. MATERIALS
Rational Functions
A rational function can be written in the
form
 N ( x)
f (x) = , where N(x) dan D(x) are polynomials and D(x) ≠
0.
D(x)
In general, the domain of a ration function of x includes all real numbers except x-
values that make the denominator zero (A rational function is not defined at
values of x for which D(x) = 0). Near these values the graph of the rational
function may
increase or decrease without
bound.

19
Asymptotes
1
Take an example of a simple rational f (x) = . The behaviour of the f near
x
function
The line x = 0 is called the
x = 0 is denoted as follows vertical asymptote of the graph
of f. The graph of f also
f(x) → -∞ as x → 0– and f(x) → ∞ as x → 0+
has a horizontal f
(x
asymptote—the line y =
)
0. This means the values =
1
of approaches zero as x x

increases or decreases

without bound.
f(x) →
0 as x
→ -∞
and
f(x) →
0 as x
→ ∞.

Definition of Vertical and

Horizontal Asymptotes
1. The line x = a is a vertical
asymptote of the graph of f if
f(x) → ∞ or f(x) → -∞ as
x → a, either from the right
or from the left.
2. The line y = b is a
horizontal asymptote of the
graph of f if f(x) → b as x → ∞
or
x → -∞.

Asymptote of a Rational
Function
Let f be the rational function
n
a x +a
N (x)
20
 n−1
n x + ... + a x + a 1
n −1 0
f =
(
x
)
= m−1
D(x) b x
m x + ... + b x + b
+
b m m −1 1
0

where N(x) and D(x) have no common

factors.
1. The graph of f has vertical asymptotes
at the zeros of D(x).
2. The graph of f has at most one
horizontal asymptote determined by
comparing the degrees of N(x) and
D(x).
a. If n < m, the graph of f has the
line y = 0 (the x-axis) as a
horizontal
asymptote.
an
b. If n = m, the 0 as a
graph of f has the horizontal
line y =
asymptote,
bm
where an is the leading
coefficient of the numerator and
bm is the leading coefficient of the
denominator.
c. If n > m, the graph of f has no
horizontal asymptote.

21
The Graph of Rational Functions
We will focus only on the graph of the linear rational function. The general form
of this function is
ax + b d
f (x) = , where is x ≠ − .
cx + d c
This rational function is called the linear rational function as both the nominator
and the denumerator are linear function.

The components of the function are as follows.

d
1. The domain of the function is all real numbers x=− , that is,
except c

d
D f = {x | x ≠ − }.
c
a
2. The range of the function is all real numbers y= , that is,
except c

a
R f = {y | y = } .
c
3. The interceptions of the graph of the function with the coordinate axes. With
the
b b
x-axis, the interception is − ,0 . With the y-axis, the interception is 0, .
a d
d
4. The asymptotes. The vertical asymptote x = − and the horizontal asymptote
is c
a
is y = .
c

5. The intervals where the function increases or decreases. It will be (−∞,− and
d
)
c
d
( , ∞) .
c
6. The symmetrical point of the graph will be the intersection between
the
d a
horizontal and vertical asymptote, that is, (− , ) .
c c
In order to sketch the graph of a rational function, beside all the
components determined above, we need to determine some points through
which the graph of the function passes. These points will help to make the graph
smoother.
Exampl
e:
2x+1
Sketch the graph of f (x) = .
x+1
Domain: (−∞,−1) ∪ (−1, ∞)
Range: (−∞,2) ∪ (2, ∞)
1
Interceptions: (− ,0) and
(0,1)
2
Increasing on (−∞,1) and (1,
∞)
Symmetrical point (-
1,2) Vertical asymptote:
y=2
Horizontal asymptote: x = -1.
1
f (x) = , the graph is as follows.
x

For the simple rational

function
The basic characteristics of the reciprocal function are summarized below.

Domain: (−∞,0) ∪ (0,

∞) Range: (−∞,0) ∪ (0,
∞) No intercepts
Decreasing on (−∞,0) and (0, ∞)
Odd function
Origin symmetry
Vertical asymptote: y-axis
Horizontal asymptote: x-axis
Piecewise-Defined Function
A piecewise-defined function is a function that is defined by two or more
equations over a specified domain. The example of this kind of function is as
follows
 x + 1, x<3
2
f (x) = x − 2, 3≤ x<5
3, 5≥x

The Absolute Value Functions

The absolute value function has the standard form as follows
f (x) = x

In order to identify the characteristics or the components of this function, we

should firstly rewrite the function in the form not containing the absolute
value sign. According to the definition of the absolute function, the above
function can be
written as
follows.
x, x≥0
f (x) = x =
−x x<0

From the form mentioned above, it can be observed that the absolute value
function is one example of the piecewise-defined functions. The basic
characteristics of the
absolute value function are summarized below.
x, x≥0
Graph of f (x) = x =
−x x<0
Domain: (−∞, ∞)
Range: [0, ∞)
Interception: (0,0)
Decreasing on (−∞,0)
Increasing on (0, ∞) .

Another example:
f (x) = x 2 − 2x

x 2 − 2x, x≤0∪x≥2
f (x ) =
− x 2 + 2x 0<x<2
We evaluate all the necessary components of the functions before sketching
its graph.
2
The first piece of the f (x) = x − 2x, x ≤ 0 ∪ x ≥ 2 .
function
1. The coordinate axes interceptions. For the x-axis, they are (0,0) and (2,0). For
the
y-axis, it is (0,0).
2. The symmetrical axis. It is x = 1.
3. The minimum points. They are (0,0) and (2,0).
2
The second piece of the f (x) = −x + 2x, 0 < x < 2
function
1. The coordinate axes interceptions. For the x-axis, they are (0,0) and (2,0). For
the
y-axis, it is (0,0).
2. The symmetrical axis. It is x =
1.
3. The maximum point. It is
(1,1).
So, the graph of the function is sketched as
follows.

The Greatest Integer Functions

The greatest integer value of a real number is defined as the greatest integer
which is less than or equal to the number. The greatest value of x is denoted by
[x]. The greatest integer si defined as follows.
[x] = n , n ≤ x < n + 1

The greatest integer f (x) = [x] , is a piecewise-defined function that has

function, an
infinite number of breaks or steps—one at each integer value in its domain.
Taking
one simple example of the function of the greatest integer f (x) = [x] , we
value, have the following results.
f (x) = [x] = n , n ≤ x < n + 1
As the domain of this function is the real number set, then we obtain the
following piecewise-defined expression of the function. Each piece of the
function is a constant function for certain interval.

..., ...
2, 2≤ x<3
1, 1≤x<2
f (x) = 0, 0≤ x<1
− 1, − 1 ≤ x < 0
− 2, − 2 ≤ x < −1
..., ...
The range of the function is the set of integers.
The interceptions are (0,0) and all the points
within the
interval 0 ≤ x < 1 . The graph of the function will f(x)= [x]
jump
vertically one unit at each integer value. The
graph looks like a ladder. This function is also called
the step function.

The challenge is how to examine a function which contains at least two kinds of
the three functions explained above. It is interesting to draw the graph of a
function containing the absolute value and the greatest integer component.
Likewise, it is challenging to sketch the graph of a rational function involving the
absolute value or the greatest integer component.

C. PROBLEMS
In the following exercises, evaluate the components of the functions and sketch
the graph of each function.
x−1
1. y = f (x) =
x+1
3
2. y = f (x) =
2x + 5
3. y = f (x) = x 2 + 2x − 3

4. y = f (x) = x + 1 + x −1

5. y= 6. y=
 f (x) = [x + 1] , − 4 ≤ x ≤ 4
7. y=
f (x) = [x + 1] + x + 1 , − 4 ≤ x ≤ 4

x−1
f (x) =
| x | +1
 OTHER EQUATIONS
(Cubic, Quartic, and the Higher Order Equations)

A. BASIC COMPETENCE
• State the standard form of cubic equations.
• Solve cubic equations.
• Find the value of the symmetrical form of the roots of cubic equations.
• Develop new cubic equation with the known roots.
• Solve daily problems using the concept of cubic equation.
• Find the value of the symmetrical form of the roots of quartic equations.
• Find the value of the symmetrical form of the roots of the higher
order equations.
• Solve daily problems using the concept of cubic, quartic, or the higher
order equations.

B. MATERIALS
Cubic Equations
The standard form of cubic equations is:
3 2
ax + bx + cx + d = 0 , where a, b, c, d ∈ R, a ≠
0
This equation is also called the 3-degree polynomial equation.

Solving Cubic Equations

Similar to quadratic equations, there are some methods for finding the solution
(the roots) of the cubic equation.
1. Factoring: Take the modified form of the cubic equation as follows:
3 2
x + ax + bx + c = 0
If r is any root of this equation, then we may factor using r to obtain
2 2 3 2
(x − r)(x + (a + r)x + b + ar + r ) = x + ax + bx +
c
Hence if we know one root we can find the other two by solving a
quadratic equation, giving
1
(−a − r ± − 3r 3 − 2r 2 + a 2 − 4b )
2
for the other two roots.
26
2. General Formula of Roots. For the general cubic equation ax3 + bx2 + cx + d =
0,
a ≠ 0 , the general formulas for the roots, in terms of the coefficients, are
as follows:

where i = −1 .

Actually, there are various methods for solving the cubic equation, such
as, Cardano’s Method and method of Lagrange resolvents.

Developing Cubic Equation from the Known Roots

Given three roots of a cubic equation, that is, x1, x2, and x3, we can develop
the equation. If the roots of the cubic equation are x1, x2, and x3, then the equation
is
(x – x1)(x – x2)(x – x3) = 0
→ x3 – (x 1 + x 2 + x )x
3
2
+ (x x1 2+ x 1x 3 + x 2x )x
3 – x x
1 2x 3 = 0

27
Symmetrical Form of the Roots
Like a quadratic equation, the cubic equations also have symmetrical form of
the roots. Look the cubic equation developed from the known roots x1, x2, and x3,
that is,
x3 – (x 1 + x 2 + x )x
3
2
+ (x x1 + x 1x 3 + x 2x )x
2 3 – x x
1 2x 3 = 0. ………(*)

If the standard form of the cubic equation, that, is

3 2
ax + bx + cx + d = 0 , a ≠ 0,
we can devide both the sides of the equation by a, and we obtain
3 b 2 c
x + x + x + = 0 . ………(**)
d
a a a
By equalizing the correspondence terms from * and **, we obtain
b
a. x1 + x 2 + x 3 = − ,
a
c
b. x1 x 2 + x1 x3 + x 2 x3 = , and
a
d
c. x1 x 2 x 3 = − .
a
These three forms are the basic of the symmetrical form of the roots. We
can develop the other symmetrical form of the roots of the cubic equation. For
example,
1 1 1
2 2 2
x1 + x 2 + x3 or + + . The challenge is to find the value of
x1 x2 x3
these
symmetrical form in terms of a, b, c, and
d.

Quartic Equations
The standard form of the quartic equation
is:
4 3 2
ax + bx + cx + dx + e = 0 , where a, b, c, d, e ∈ R, a ≠ 0
This equation is also called the 4-degree polynomial
equation.

We are not going to discuss the method of solution of the quartic equations.
Rather, we will simply focus on the symmetrical forms of the roots.
Using the similar approach with that which is employed in the cubic equation, we
will evaluate the value of standard symmetrical forms of the roots of the quartic
equation. Look the quartic equation developed from the known roots x1, x2, x3, and
x4, that is,

x4 – (x 1 + x 2 + x 3+ x 4)x3 + (x x1 2+ x 1x 3 + x 2x 3 + x 1x 4+ x 2x 3 + x 2x 4 + x x3 4)x2 –
(x1x 2x3 + x1x2x4 + x2x 3x4)x + x1x2x3x4 = 0. ………(***)
If the standard form of the quartic equation, that, is
4 3 2
ax + bx + cx + dx + e = 0 , a ≠
0,
we can devide both the sides of the equation by a, and we obtain
4 b 3 c 2 d e
x + x + x + x + = 0 . ………
(****)
a a a a
By equalizing the correspondence terms from *** and ****, we obtain
b
a. x1 + x 2 + x3 + x 4 = − ,
a
c
b. x1 x 2 + x1 x3 + x1 x 4 + x 2 x3 + x 2 x 4 + x3 x 4 = ,
a
d
c. x1 x 2 x3 + x1 x 2 x 4 + x 2 x3 x 4 = − , and
a
e
d. x1 x 2x3 x 4 = .
a
These three forms are the basic of the symmetrical form of the roots. We
can develop the other symmetrical form of the roots of the quartic
equation. For example,
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
x1 + x 2 + x3 + x 4 or + + + . The challenge is to find the value of
x1 x2 x3 x4
these
symmetrical forms in terms of a, b, c, d,
and e.

Higher Degree Polynomial Equation

Quintic Equation
The idea of the symmetrical form of the roots of the polynomial equation can be
expanded to the equation of higher degree, for example, the 5-degree polynomial
equation. The 5-degree polynomial equation is called the quintic equation.
The
standard form of the quintic equation
is:
5 4 3 2
ax + bx + cx + dx + ex + = 0 , where a, b, c, d, e, f ∈ R, a ≠ 0
f
One of the symmetrical forms of the roots is: x1 + x2 + x 3+ x4 + x4. To evaluate its
formula is left to students.
C. PROBLEMS
Find the roots of the following cubic equations.
3 2
1. x − 3x + 3x −1 = 0
3
2. x − 3x −1 = 0
Given a cubic ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0 , a ≠ 0, whose roots x , x , and x
equation: . 1 2 3

Determine the formula of the following forms in terms of a, b, c, and d.

1 2 3
x +x +x .
2 2 2
3.
1 1 1
4. + + .
x1 x 2 x3
Given a quartic ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e = 0 , a ≠ 0, whose roots x , x , x
equation: , 1 2 3

and x4. Determine the formula of the following forms in terms of a, b, c, d, and e.
1 2 3 4
x +x +x +x .
2 2 2 2
5.
1 1 1 1
6. + + + .
x1 x 2 x3 x 4
7. Given a quintic equation: ax 5 + bx 4 + cx 3 + dx 2 + ex + = 0 , where a, b, c, d,
f
e, f ∈ R, a ≠ 0, whose roots x1, x2, x3, x4 and x5. Express the value of x1 + x2 + x
3+ x4 + x4 + x5 in terms of the coefficients involved within the equation. Verify
your answer.

30
 OTHER INEQUALITIES
(Rational, the Absolute Value, the Greatest Integer,
Radical)

A. BASIC COMPETENCE
• State the standard form of the rational
inequalities.
• State the standard form of the absolute value
inequalities.
• State the standard form of the greatest integer
inequalities.
• State the standard form of inequalities containing the radical
forms.
• Solve the rational inequalities using the analytic
approach.
• Solve the rational inequalities using the real line test
approach.
• Solve the absolute value
inequalities.
• Solve the greatest integer
inequalities.
• Solve the inequalities containing the radical
forms.
• Solve the inequalities containing the combination of rational, absolute value,
the greatest integer, and radical parts.
• Solve problems which relate to inequalities
discussed.

B. MATERIALS
Rational Inequalities
The standard form of rational inequalities
is:
N ( x)
< 0 , where N(x) and D(x) are polynomials and D(x) ≠
0.
D(x)

The sign < can be replace by >, ≥, ≤, or

≠.

Solving Rational Inequalities

The concepts of critical numbers and test intervals can be extended to inequalities
involving rational expressions. To do this, use the fact that the value of a rational
expression can change sign only it its zeros (the x-values for which its numerator
is zero) and its undefined values (the x-values for which its denominator is zero).
These
two types of numbers make up the critical numbers of a rational
inequality.

31
 2x−7
Example: ≤3
x−5
Solve
2x−7 2 x − 7 − 3x + 15 −x+8
→ −3≤0 → ≤→ ≤0
2x−7 x−5 x
≤3 0 −
5
Now, in standard x a
form, it can be n
observed that the = d
critical numbers
are 5

x = 8 , and the
process can
proceed as
follows.
Cx x = 8 .
r=
i5
t,
i
c
a
l
n
u
m
b
e
r
s
:
Test intervals:
(−∞,5) , (5,8) , (8,
∞)
−x+8
T ≤0?
s x − 5
I
Interval
x-value
Polynomial
Value
Conclusion
8
(−∞,5) −
Neg
ativ
e
5
32
( 2 x−5 (
when x = 8, it can be >
P x
concluded that the solution set
o of the inequality is
s
+
i (−∞,5) ∪ [8, ∞) . 0
t
i 1
v The other method for solving
e )
the rational inequality is the o
analytical method. This method
r >
( −
implements some properties and
(x –
1 rules applying in the rational 0
3
expression.
)
( x − 3)( x + 2) o
N Ex >0
x+1
a r
e <
m
(x –
g pl
e: 0 3
a So
)
t lve
a
i (x
→ (x – 3) n <
v −
3)( >0 d
e
4 0
x+
an (
− 2)
By testing a
these x d x
intervals, it >0 n
+ x
can be + (x + d
determined 8 1
that the +
rational is 2 (
x
expression 2)
− ) x

5 >0
< +
− an
negative
in the x 0 2
d
open + )
intervals (x
8 a
(-∞,5) and
(8, ∞). + n >
Moreover, =
d
because 0 1) 0
33
 0 and
a (x + 1)
<0
n
d

(
x

1
)

<

o
r
(
x

3
)

>

a
n
d

(
x

2
)

<
34
 → x > 3 and x > -2 and x > -1
or
x < 3 and x < -2 and x > -1
or
x < 3 and x > -2 and x < -1
or
x > 3 and x < -2 and x < -1
→ x>3
or
x∈{}
or
-2 <x < -1
or
x∈{}
Thus, the solution of the inequality is {x|-2 < x < -1 ∪ x > 3}

The challenge in finding the solution of rational inequality is reducing the

inequality into the simplest form. The simplest form should contain the
factors of the numerator and the denominator. Having the simplest form with all
simplest factors, the next step is to analyse all possibilities for the value of each
factors that satisfy the rational inequality under scrutiny.

Absolute Value Inequalities

There are some rules that apply in inequalities involving the absolute value. They
are as follows.

Let x be a variable or algebraic expression and let a be real number such that a
≥ 0.
1. The solution of |x|< a are all values of x that lie between –a and
a.
|x|< a if and only if –a < x < a.
2. The solution of |x|> a are all vales of x that are less than –a or greater than
a.
|x|> a if and only if x < –a or a < x.
These rules are also valid if < is replaced by >, ≥, or
≤.
3. |x|< |y|↔ x2 < y2.
4. |x|2 = x2.

Solving the Absolute Value Inequalities

There are several methods for solving the inequalities involving the absolute
value. All the methods employ some of the properties or the rules of the absolute
value.

Example: x + 1 ≤ 2x − 2 .
Solve

In order to keep track of what is happening, it is a excellent idea to draw the graph
of the two relations, y = |x + 1| and y = |2x – 2| on the same set of coordinate axes.
This is not a hard job. |x + 1| = x + 1 when x ≥ -1 and |x + 1| = -x – 1 when x < -1.
Therefore, it is not hard to draw its graph. Similar considerations apply to the
other
relation. The graph is as
follows.

1
Equality holds exactly when x = 3 or x = which are obtained by equalizing
all
3
possibilities with suitable domains. There are two possibilities this can happen. It
can be the case that x + 1 = 2x - 2 in which x = 3 or alternatively, x + 1 = 2 -
2x in
1 1
which x = . Consider x between and 3. It is evident that these values of x do
3 3
 1
not solve the inequality. For example, x = 1 does not work. Therefore, ( ,3)
must
3
be excluded. The values of x larger than 3 do not produce equality so either |x + 1|
< |2x – 2| for these points or |2x – 2| < |x + 1| for these points. Checking
examples, you see the first of the two cases is the one which holds. Therefore,
[3,∞)
1
is included. Similar reasoning obtains (-∞, ]. It follows the solution set to
this
3
1
inequality is (-∞, ]∪[3,∞).
3

Another Method of Finding the Solution

Solve x + 1 ≤ 2x − 2 .

x + 1 ≤ 2x − 2 → x + 12 ≤ 2x − 2 2

2 2
→ x + 2x + 1 ≤ 4x − 8x + 4
2
→ 3x −10x + 3 ≤ 0
→ (3x −1)(x − 3) ≤ 0
1
→ x ≤ or x ≥ 3
3
1
Thus, the same set of solution is obtained, that is, (-∞, ]∪[3,∞).
3

Another Method of Finding the Solution

Solve x + 1 ≤ 2x − 2 .

If the inequality is to be expressed without absolute value expression, then we

have to change both sides of the inequality with suitable expression and suitable
domain.
According to the definition of the absolute value, we obtain
x + 1, x ≥ −1 2x − 2, x≥1
| x + 1 |= and | 2x − 2 |=
− x −1, x < −1 − 2x + 2, x<1
The first possibility is x ≥ 1, where |x + 1| = x + 1 and |2x - 2| = 2x – 2. So, we
have x + 1 ≤ 2x − 2 → (x + 1) ≤ (2x − 2) x ≥ 1 → x ≥ 3 , x ≥ 1 → x ≥ 3 .
,

The second possibility is -1 ≤ x < 1, where |x + 1| = x + 1 and |2x - 2| = -2x + 2.

So, we x + 1 ≤ 2x − 2 → (x + 1) ≤ (−2x + 2) −1 ≤ x < 1
have ,
1
→ 3x ≤ 1, −1 ≤ x < 1 → x ≤ , −1 ≤ x < 1
3
 1
→ 3x ≥ 1, −1 ≤ x < 1 → −1 ≤ x ≤ .
3
The third possibility is x < -1, where |x + 1| = -x - 1 and |2x - 2| = -2x + 2. So, we
have x + 1 ≤ 2x − 2 → (−x −1) ≤ (−2x + 2) x < −1
,

→ x ≤ 3 , x < −1 → x < −1 .
1
Thus, the solution obtained x < −1 or −1 ≤ x ≤ or x ≥ 3 . The set of solution
3
is
1 1
x≤ or x ≥ 3 or (-∞, ]∪[3,∞).
3 3

The Inequalities Involving the Greatest Integer

The standard form of the greatest integer inequalities
is:
[f(x)] < a, where a is a real
constant. The symbol < can be replaced by ≠ ,>, ≥, or ≤.

In order to have the solution of the inequality, the greatest integer part of it must
be change into an equivalent expression containing no greatest integer part.
Further, the inequality is solved using some relevant methods available.

Example
s:
1. Solve [x – 1] <
2.
[x – 1] <2 → n < 2, n ≤ x – 1 < n + 1
→ n < 2, n + 1 ≤ x < n + 2
→ 1 < 2, 2 ≤ x < 3, for n = 1
→ 0 < 2, 1 ≤ x < 2, for n = 0
→ -1 < 2, 0 ≤ x < 1, for n = -1
.
.
.

It can be observed that all integer values below -1 will be correct. It is very clear
that for n ≥ 2, the interval obtained will not be part of the solution as it
contradicts the
fact that n < 2. The solution of the inequality is the union of all intervals
obtained, that is, ... ∪ 0 ≤ x < 1 ∪ 1 ≤ x < 2 ∪ 2 ≤ x < 3 = x < 3.
Thus, the solution set is (-∞,3).

2. Solve [2x - 1] < x.

[2x – 1] < x → n < x, n ≤ 2x – 1 < n + 1
→ n < x, n + 1 ≤ 2x < n + 2
n+1 n+2
→ n < x, ≤x< (*)
2 2
.
.
.
5
→ 4 < x, ≤ x < 3, for n = 4 → x ∈ { }
2
5
→ 3 < x, 2 ≤ x < , for n = 3 → x ∈ { }
2
3
→ 2 < x, ≤ x < 2, for n = 2 → x ∈ { }
2
3 3
→ 1 < x, 1 ≤ x < , for n = 1 → 1 < x <
2 2
1 1
→ 0 < x, ≤ x < 1, for n = 0 → ≤x<1
2 2
1 1
→ -1 < x, 0 ≤ x < , for n = -1 → 0 ≤ x <
2 2
1 1
→ -2 < x, - ≤ x < 0, for n = -2 → - ≤ x < 0
2 2
.
.
.

The lines below (*) are obtained by substituting the values of n and then
examining the intersection between the two intervals yielded. It can be observed
that for n ≥ 2, the final results are an empty set. However, for n ≤ 1, all yield an
interval that is part or the subset of the solution set. Then, the solution set is the
union of all those intervals, that is,

1 1 1 3 3
…∪ - ≤x<0∪ 0≤x< ∪ ≤x<1∪ 1<x< =x<1∪ 1<x< .
2 2 2 2 2
 3
Thus, the solution set of the inequality is (-∞, ) – {1}.
2
Actually, the solution of the inequality can also be found by further examining
the expression (*) above.
n+1 n+2 n+2
n < x, ≤x< →n< (The intersection of the two intervals exists)
2 2 2
→ n < 2.
Given the criterion of the value of n, we test the inequality with n values and
examine the intersection of the existing intervals.
3 3
For n = 1, → 1 < x, 1 ≤ x < →1<x< .
2 2
1 1
For n = 0 → 0 < x, ≤x<1→ ≤ x < 1.
2 2
1 1
For n = -1 → -1 < x, 0 ≤ x < →0≤x< .
2 2
1 1
For n = -2 → -2 < x, - ≤ x < 0 → - ≤ x < 0.
2 2
And so on for next value of n.
The solution of the inequality is the union of all intervals obtained. It yields
3
(-∞, ) – {1}.
2

Inequalities of Radical Forms

The standard form of inequalities involving radicals
is:
f (x) < a , a > 0.
The specific feature of the inequalities involving radical forms is the condition the
function under radical sign must satisfy. Given the form above, f(x) must be non-
negative, f(x) ≥ 0. There exist some rules that are of importance in solving this
kind
of inequality, that
is,
2 2
0 < a < b → a < b and a< b
and
 a < b → a < b, a, b ≥ 0

Example
s:
x −1 ≤ 1.
1. Solve
x −1 ≤ 1→ ( x −1) 2 ≤ 12 , x −1 ≥ 0 → x −1 ≤ x −1 ≥ 0
1,
→ x ≤ 2, x ≥ 1 → 1 ≤ x ≤ 2

Thus, the solution set is 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 = [1,2].

2. Solve x + 5 ≤ x −1 .

x + 5 ≤ x −1 → ( x + 5) 2 ≤ (x −1) 2 , x + 5 ≥ 0, x −1 > 0

→ x + 5 ≤ x 2 − 2x + x ≥ −5, x > 1
1,
→ 0 ≤ x 2 − 3x − x ≥ −5, x > 1
4,
→ 0 ≤ (x − 4)(x + x ≥ −5, x > 1
1),
→ x ≤ −1∪ 4 ≤ x, x ≥ −5, x > 1

→ 4≤x
Thus, the solution set is 4 ≤ x =
[4,∞).

Inequalities Involving Various

Forms
Inequalities can contain various forms as discussed above. One inequality may
both involve rational form, the absolute value form, the greatest integer form, and
radical form. It may also involve at least two of them. Solving such inequalities
requires all the criteria employed in solving inequalities involving only single
form to be taken into account.

Example
s:
x+1
1. Solve >0
.
x +1
x+1 x+1 x+1
>0 → > 0, x ≥ 0 or > 0, x < 0
x +1 x+1 −x+1

→ x > −1∪ x < −1, x ≥ 0 or −1 < x < x<0

1,
 → x ≥ 0 or −1 < x < 0
→ −1 < x
Thus, the solution set is −1 < = [-1,∞).
x

2. Solve x < [x ] .

x < [x ] → x < [x], x ≥ 0 or − x < [x], x < 0

→ x < n, n ≤ x < n + x ≥ 0 or − x < n, n ≤ x < n + x<0

1, 1,
→ 0 ≤ x < n, n ≤ x < n + 1 or − n < x, n ≤ x < n + x<0
1,
→ 0 ≤ x < n, n ≤ x < n + 1 or − n < x < 0, n ≤ x < n + 1

→ x ∈ { } or x ∈ { }
Thus, the solution set is { }.

C. PROBLEMS
Find the solution set of the following inequalities.
2
x − 3x +
2 ≤0.
1. 2
x − 3x −18
2
x −4x+
4 >0.
2. 2
x + 3x −10
3. 2 − x < 2x + 3 .

4. 2 − x ≤ 3x + 2 .

5. [2x + 2] < 2 .
6. 2x ≤ [x −1] .
7. 3 − 2x ≤ 2 − 3x .

8. 2x ≤ 2 − 3x .
| x | −2 x
9. >0.
2x − 3

10. x −1 − [2x ] ≤ 0 .

40
 EXPONENT

A. BASIC COMPETENCE
• Comprehend the properties of the exponent.
• Prove all the properties of the exponent
• Comprehend the simple characteristics of the exponential functions.
• Sketch the graph of the exponential functions.
• Comprehend the standard form of the exponential functions.
• Solve the exponential equations of many forms.
• Solve problems which relate to the concepts of exponent.

B. MATERIALS
Indices
Given any non-zero real number a ∈ R and any natural number k ∈ N, we
often
write
k
a =a × a × a × . ..× a × a.
k factors

This definition can be extended to all integers k ∈ Z by

writing a0 = 1
and
k 1 1
a = −k =
a a × a × a
×. ..× a × a
k factors

whenever k is an negative integer, noting that -k ∈ N in this

case. It is not too difficult to establish the followings.

Law of Integer Indices

Suppose that a, b ∈ N are non-zero. Then for every m, n ∈ Z, we have
1. a m a n = a m+n
am m−n
2. n = a
a
3. (a m ) n = a mn

41
4. (ab) m = a m b m

We now further extend the definition of ak to all rational numbers k ∈ Q. To do

this, we first of all need to discuss the q-th roots of a positive real number a, where
q ∈ N. We recall the following definition, slightly modified here.
Definition. Suppose that k ∈ Q is positive and k ∈ Q. We say that x > 0 is
the
1
q q q
positive q-th roots of a if x = a. In this case, we x= a =a .
write
p
Recall now that every rational number k ∈ Q can be written in the k= ,
form q

p
where p ∈ Z and q ∈ N. We may, if we wish, assume is in the lowest terms,
that q

where p and q have no common factors. For a ny positive real number a ∈ R, we

can
now define ak by writing
p
p 1 1
k q
a =a = a q
= (a )
p q
.

In other words, we first of all calculate the positive q-th root of a, and then take
the p-th power of this q-th root. Alternatively, we can first of all take the p-th
power of a, and then calculate the positive q-th root of this p-th power.

We can establish the following generalization of the laws of integer

indices.
Law of
Indices
Suppose that a, b ∈ R are positive. Then for every m, n ∈ Q, we
have
1. a m a n = a m+n
am m−n
2. n = a
a
m n mn
3. (a ) = a
4. (ab) m = a m b m

42
Remarks. (1) Note that we have to make the restriction that the real numbers a
and b are positive. If a = 0, then ak is clearly not defined when k is a negative
integer. If a < 0, then we will have problems taking square roots. (2) It is possible
to define cube roots

43
of a negative real number a. It is a real number x satisfying the requirement x3 =
a. Note that x < 0 in this case. A similar argument applies to q-th roots when q ∈
N is odd. However, if q ∈ N is even, then xq ≥ 0 for every x ∈ R, and so xq ≠ a
for any negative q ∈ N. Hence a negative real number does not have real q-th
roots for any even q ∈ N.
Example
s:
4 3 7 4+3
1. 2 × 2 = 16 × 8 = 128 = 2 = 2
−3 1
2. 2 =
8
2
2 1 1 13 2
3
3. 8 = 8 3 3 = (8
2
) =83
2
= 2 = 4 = 64

4. To show that 5 + 26 = 2 + 3 , we first of all observe that both sides

are
positive, and so it suffices that the squares of the two sides are equal. Note
now

that ( ) ( )
2+ 3 2 = 2 2 +2 3+ ( 3 )2 = 2 + 6 + 3 = 5 + 2 6 , the square

2 2
of the left hand side.

Exponential Functions
Exponential functions are non-algebraic function. Some call them as
transcendental functions.
Definition of Exponential
Function
The exponential function f with base a is denoted
by
f(x) = ax
where a > 0, a ≠ 1, and x is any real
numbers.
Note that in the definition of an exponential function, the base a = 1 is excluded
because it yields f(x) = 1x = 1. This is a constant function, not an
exponential function.
The exponential function is different because the variable x is an exponent. A
distinguishing characteristic of an exponential function is its rapid increase as x
increase (for a > 1). Many real life phenomena with patterns of rapid growth
(or
decline) can be modeled by exponential functions. The basic characteristics of
the exponential function are summarized below.

Graph of f(x) = ax, a > 1. y

Domain: (-∞,∞)
Range: (0, ∞)
Interception: (0,1)
Increasing on: (-
∞,∞)
Asymptotes: x-axis is a horizontal x
asymptote.

Graph of f(x) = –x, a > 1.

a y

Domain: (-
∞,∞) Range:
(0, ∞)
Interception: (0,1)
Decreasing on: (-
∞,∞)
Asymptotes: x-axis is a horizontal x
asymptote.

Exampl
e:
In the same coordinate system, sketch the graph of each function by
hand.
1. F(x) = 2–x 2. G(x) = 4–x
The table below lists some values for each function. By plotting these points and
connecting them with a smooth curve, the graphs will be obtained. Note that both
graphs are decreasing. Moreover, the graph of
G(x) = 4–x is decreasing more rapidly than
the
graph of F(x) = 2–x.
Exponential Equations
There are several forms of exponential equation.
1. a f ( x) = a c , a ≠ 1, a > 0
The solution is as follows
f ( x) f (x) = c → f (x) − c = 0 and then this last form of equation is to be
a =b→
solved.
2. a f ( x) = a g ( x) , a ≠ 1, a > 0
The solution is as follows
f ( x) g ( x) f (x) = g(x) → f (x) − g(x) = 0 and then this last form of equation
a =a
→
is to be solved.
3. f (x) h( x) = g ( x)
f (x)
The solution takes several possibilities as follows
(i) f (x) = 1 → f (x) −1 = 0 and then this last form of equation is to be
solved.
(ii) f (x) = −1 → f (x) + 1 = and then this last form of equation is to be
0
solved. Further, whatever x yielded, it has to be tested to ensure that
it
makes h(x) and g(x) both even or both odd.
(iii) f (x) = 0 and then this last form of equation is to be solved. Further,
whatever x yielded, it has to be tested to ensure that it makes h(x) and
g(x)
both positive.
(iv) h(x) = g(x) → h(x) − g(x) = 0 and then this last form of equation is to be
solved. Further, whatever x yielded, it has to be tested to ensure that it
does
make f (x) h( x) = g ( be defined and true.
f (x)
x)

All the xs obtained within each possibility is negotiated with each other in order
to
h( x)
ensure that none of them will f (x) = f (x) g ( be undefined and false.
make x)

4. h(x) f ( x) = g(x) f ( x)
The solution takes several possibilities as follows
 (i) f (x) = 0 and then this last form of equation is to be solved. Further,
whatever x yielded, it has to be tested to ensure that it makes h(x) and
g(x)
both positive.
(ii) h(x) = g(x) → h(x) − g(x) = 0 and then this last form of equation is to be
solved. Further, whatever x yielded, it has to be tested to ensure that it
does
make f (x) h( x) = g ( be defined and true.
f (x)
x)

All the xs obtained within each possibility is negotiated with each other in order
to
ensure that none of them will make h(x) f ( x) = g(x) f ( be undefined and false.
x)

5. a f ( x) = b g ( x) , a ≠ 1, a > 0, b ≠ 1, b > 0
The solution is as follows
a a
a
f ( x)
=b
g ( x) f (x) = g(x) log b → f (x) − g(x) log b = 0 and then this last

→
form of equation is to be solved.

C. PROBLEMS
1. Prove all the laws of integer indices.
2. Prove all the laws of indices.
x
x 1
3. Sketch the graph y = f (x) = 3 and y = f (x) = in one coordinate
of
3
system.
Find the solution set of the following
equations.
x2 −3x+4
4. 3 =9.
2 x+2
5. 2x −4
=8 .
1−5 x x+2
6. (2x − 3) = (2x − 3) .
1−5 x 1−5 x
7. (x + 3) = (2x − 3) .

8. 2 2 x−5 = 3 x+2 .
9. 4e 2 x − 5e x − 6 = 0
10. 2.3 2t −5 − 4 = 11
 LOGARITHM

A. BASIC COMPETENCE
• Comprehend the properties of the logarithm.
• Prove all the properties of the logarithm.
• Comprehend the simple characteristics of the logarithmic functions.
• Sketch the graph of the logarithmic functions.
• Solve problems which relate to the concepts of logarithm.

B. MATERIALS
Logarithm
Definition of Logarithm
For x > 0, a > 0, and a ≠ 1,
y= a log x if and only x = a (a is called the base of the logarithm).
y
if

The first equation from the equivalence above is in logarithmic form, while
the
second one is in exponential form. When evaluating logarithms, remember that
a
a
logarithm is an exponent. This means log x is the exponent to which a must
that

be raised to obtain x. For 2

log 8 = 3 because 2 must be raised to the
instance, third
power to get 8.

The Properties of Logarithm

The following properties follow directly from the definition of the logarithm
with base a (a > 0, a ≠ 1).
a
1. log1 = 0
a
2. log a = 1
a a a
3. log bc = log b + log c , b > 0, c > 0

a b a a
4. log = log b − log c , b > 0, c > 0
c
a
5. log b x = x a log b , b > 0
6. a a log b = b , b > 0
47
 k
a log b
7. log b = k , b > 0, k > 0, k ≠ 1
log a

a 1
8. log b = b , b > 0, b ≠ 1
log a
a
9. log b.b log c = a log c , b > 0, c > 0, b ≠ 1
a m a

10. n log b = log b , b > 0

m
n
11. a log b = a log c → b = c , b > 0, c > 0

The Property 3 is proven here.

Let x = a log b and y = a log c
The corresponding exponential forms of these two equations are
ax = and a y = c
b
Multiplying b and c produces bc = axay = ax + y. The corresponding logarithmic
form of
a a a a
bc = ax + y is log bc = x + y . So, log bc = log b +
log c .

Logarithmic Functions
The standard form of logarithmic function
is
a
f (x) = log x , a > 0, a ≠ 0, x > 0.

The logarithmic function is the inverse of the exponential function. Its domain is
the set of positive real numbers and its range is the set of real numbers. This
is the opposite of the exponential function. Moreover, the logarithmic function
has the y- axis as a vertical asymptote. Many real-life phenomena with a slow rate
of growth can be modeled by logarithmic functions. The basic characteristics
of the logarithmic
function are summarized
below.

Graph f (x) = a log x , a > 1

of

48
Domain: (0,∞)
Range: (-∞,∞)
Interception:
(1,0)

49
Increasing on (0,∞)

y - axis is a vertical asymptote

Continuous
Reflection of graph of f(x) = ax in the line
y = x.

Example:
In the same coordinate plane, sketch the graph of each function.
a. f (x) = 2 b. g(x) = 2 log x
x

For f (x) = 2 x , construct a table of values. By plotting these points and

connecting
them with a smooth curve, the graph of f is obtained.

Because 2
g(x) = log x is the inverse
function of f (x) = 2 x , the graph of g
is
obtained by plotting points (f(x),x)
and connecting them with a smooth curve.

Logarithmic Equations
There are several forms of logarithmic equation.
a
1. log f (x) = b , a > 0, a ≠ 1.
The solution is as follows.
a
log f (x) = b f (x) = a b f (x) − a b = and then this last form of equation is
→ → 0
to be solved. The xs obtained are tested by substituting them into f(x) and
ensuring that f(x) > 0.
2. a log f (x) = a log g(x) , a > 0, a ≠ 1.
The solution is as
follows.
a
f (x) = g(x) → f (x) − g(x) = and then this last form
log f (x) = a log g(x) → 0
of equation is to be solved. The xs obtained are tested by substituting them into
f(x)
and g(x) and ensuring that f(x) > 0 and g(x) > 0.

3. h( x) log f (x) = h( x) log g(x) .

The solution is as follows.
h( x)
log f (x) = h( x) log g(x) → f (x) = g(x) → f (x) − g(x) = and then this last
0
form of equation is to be solved. The xs obtained are tested by substituting
them into f(x), g(x), and h(x) and ensuring that f(x) > 0, g(x) > 0, h(x) > 0, and h(x)
≠ 1.

C. PROBLEMS
1. Prove all the properties of logarithm that are left unproven within the
materials section.
3
2. Sketch the graph y = f (x) = and y = f (x) = log in one coordinate
x
3 x
of system.
Find the solution set of the following equations.
2 2
3. log(x − 3x + 4) = 1 .
2 2 2
4. log(x − 4) = log(x + 2) .
8 2 2
5. log(x − 4) = log(x + 2) .
(2 x−3) (2 x−3)
6. log(1 − 5x) = log(x + 2) .

50
 SEQUENCES

A. BASIC COMPETENCE
• Comprehend the basic concepts of
sequences.
• Comprehend the properties of the arithmetic
sequences.
• Comprehend the properties of the geometric
sequences.
• Comprehend the characteristics of the middle term of arithmetic
sequences.
• Comprehend the characteristics of the middle term of geometric
sequences.
• Find the nth-term of arithmetic
sequences.
• Find the nth-term of geometric
sequences.
• Comprehend the characteristics of the arithmetic sequences after inserting
certain number of new terms between two terms.
• Comprehend the characteristics of the geometric sequences after inserting
certain number of new terms between two terms.
• Solve problems which relate to the arithmetic
sequences.
• Solve problems which relate to the geometric
sequences.

B. MATERIALS
In mathematics, the word sequence is used in much the same way as in ordinary
English. Saying that a collection is listed in sequence means that it is ordered so
that it has a first member, a second member, a third member, and so on.
Mathematically, we can think of a sequence as a function whose domain is the set
of natural numbers. Instead of using function notation, sequences are usually
written using subscript notation, as shown in the following definition.

Definition of Sequence
An infinite sequence is a function whose domain is the set of the natural
numbers. The function values
a 1, a 2, a 3, a 4 , ..., a n , ....
are the terms of the sequence. If the domain of a function consists of the first n
positive integers only, the sequence is a finite sequence.
51
On occasion, it is convenient to begin subscripting a sequence with instead 0 of 1
so
that the terms of the sequence a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., a n , ....
become
There are many aspects which could be discussed in terms of sequences. The
main examination of a sequence is to determine whether a given sequence is
convergent or not. This discussion will be left till the students take the unit of the
Real Analysis.

In this fundamental unit, the discussion will only cover the arithmetic and
geometric sequences.

Arithmetic Sequences
A sequence whose consecutive terms have a common difference is called an
arithmetic sequence.

Definition of Arithmetic
Sequence
A sequence is arithmetic if the differences between consecutive terms are the
same.
a is arithmetic if there is a number d such
1 , a 2 , a3 , a 4 ,
...,
that a n , ...
So, the
sequence
a 2 − a 1 = a3 − a2 = a4 − a3 =... = d .
The number d is the common difference of the arithmetic sequence.

An example of an arithmetic sequence is the sequence whose n-th term is 4n + 3.

For this sequence, the common difference between consecutive terms is 4. The
sequence
is as follows:
7, 11, 15, 19, …, 4n + 3,
….
However, the sequence whose n-th term is n2 is, of course, not an
arithmetic sequence as the difference between two consecutive terms is not fixed.
Its terms are
as follows:
52
 1, 4, 9, 16, …, n2, …, where 4 – 1 = 3, while 9 – 4 = 5.

It should be noticed that each of the arithmetic sequences has an n-th term that is
of the form dn + c, where the common difference of the sequence is d.

53
The n-th Term of an Arithmetic Sequence
The n-th term of an arithmetic sequence has the form
a n = dn + c
where d is the common difference between consecutive terms of the sequence and
c = a1 − d .
An arithmetic sequence a n = dn + can be thought of as counting by d’s after a
c shift

of c unit from d. For instance, the sequence

2, 6, 10, 14, 18,
…
has a common difference of 4, so you are counting by 4’s after a shift of two
units below 4 (beginning with a1 = 2). So, the n-th term is 4n – 2. Similarly, the
n-th term
of the sequence
6, 11, 16, 21, …
is 5n + 1 because it is counting by 5’s after a shift of one unit above 5
(beginning with
a1 = 6 .

Using a n = dn + and c = a1 − d , we obtained = dn + − d = a 1 + (n −1)d .

c an a1

Inserting Some Terms between Two Terms

In order to obtain a new sequence, one way to do is inserting a fix number of
terms between two old terms. When there is k new terms are inserted, the
sequence will change. The change is caused by the new difference resulted from
the quotient between the previous difference and the number of new inserted
terms plus one. If the previous difference is d, then the new difference, d’, is
d
d '=
k +1
where k is the number of the new inserted terms.

As the common difference changes, though the first term does not change,
the formula of the n-th terms also changes. The n-th term is now
a n = a 1 + (n −1)d '
The Middle Terms
If an arithmetic sequence has an odd number of terms, then we could locate
the terms which is in the middle of the sequence’s terms. In case that the number
of the terms is n (n is odd), the middle term is
a m = a n+1
2

If the sequence has an even number of terms, then we consider two terms within
the middle as the middle terms. In case that the number of the terms is n (n is
even), the middle terms are
m n
a 1
= a n and a m2 = a
+1
2 2

Geometric Sequences
A sequence whose consecutive terms have a common ratio is called a
geometric sequence.

Definition of Geometric Sequence

A sequence is geometric if the ratios between consecutive terms are the same. So,
the
1 , a 2 , a3 , a 4 ,
a..., a n , ... is geometric if there is a number d such that
sequence
a2 a 3 a 4
= = = r≠0.
r,
a1 a 2 a 3
The number r is the common ratio of the geometric
sequence.
An example of a geometric sequence is the sequence whose n-th term is 3.4n. For
this sequence, the common ratio between consecutive terms is 4. The sequence is
as follows:
12, 48, 192, 768, …, 3.4n, ….
However, the sequence whose n-th term is 2n2 is, of course, not a
geometric sequence as the ratio between two consecutive terms is not fixed. Its
terms are as follows:
8 18
2, 8, 18, 32, …, 2n2, …, = 4 , while = 2.25 .
where
2 8
It should be noticed that each of the arithmetic sequences has an n-th term that is
of the form dn + c, where the common difference of the sequence is d.
The n-th Term of a Geometric Sequence
The n-th term of a geometric sequence has the form
a n = a 1r n−1
where r is the common ratio between consecutive terms of the sequence. So
every geometric sequence can be written in the following form
a1, a1r, a12r , a31r , a4 1r , …, n-1, ….
a1r
If you know the n-th term of a geometric sequence, you can find the (n + 1)-th
term by multiplying by r. That is, an+1 = ran.

Inserting Some Terms between Two Terms

In order to obtain a new sequence, one way to do is to insert a fix number of terms
between two old terms. When there is k new terms are inserted, the sequence will
change. The change is caused by the new ratio resulted from the (k + 1)-th root
of the previous ratio. If the previous ratio is r, then the new ratio, r’, is
r'= k +1 r
where k is the number of the new inserted
terms.

As the common ratio changes, though the first term does not, the formula of the
n- th terms also changes. The n-th term is now
a n = a1r '( n−1)

The Middle Terms

If a geometric sequence has an odd number of terms, then we could locate the
terms which is in the middle of the sequence’s terms. In case that the number of
the terms is n (n is odd), the middle term is
a m = a n +1
2

If the sequence has an even number of terms, then we consider two terms within
the middle as the middle terms. In case that the number of the terms is n (n is
even), the
middle terms are
m
a 1
= a n and a m2 = a n
+1
2 2
C. PROBLEMS
In exercises 1-6, determine whether or not the given sequences are arithmetic or
geometric. If it is arithmetic, find the common difference, and if it is geometric,
find the common ratio.
1. 4, 9, 14, 19, 24,
….
2. ln 1, ln 2, ln 3, ln 4, ln, 5,
….
3. 3.7., 4.3, 4.9, 5.5,
6.1, ....
1 1 1 1
4. 1, , , , ....
8 16
,
2 4 1 1
5. 1, , , ....
1 1 4 5
, ,
2 3
6. 1, -3, 9, -27, 81, ....
In exercises 7-10, write the first five terms of the sequence. Determine whether
or not the sequence is arithmetic or geometric.
7. a n = 8 + 13n
1
8. a =
n n+
1
9. n
an = 2 n
10.
n−1
an = 2
11. An arithmetic sequence has the first term 15 and its next term is the
previous term plus 6. Determine the formula of the n-th term of the
arithmetic sequence. If two terms are inserted between two terms and the
sequence is still an arithmetic one, find the formula of the n-th term of the
new sequence.
12. A geometric sequence has the first term 2 and its next term is the previous
term multiplied by 27. Determine the formula of the n-th term of the
geometric sequence. If two terms are inserted between two terms and the
sequence is still a geometric one, find the formula of the n-th term of the new
sequence.
 SERIES

A. BASIC COMPETENCE
• Comprehend the basic concepts of
series.
• Comprehend the properties of the arithmetic
series.
• Comprehend the properties of the geometric
series.
• Comprehend the function of the middle term in arithmetic
series.
• Comprehend the function of the middle term in geometric
series.
• Find the sum of the n-first terms of arithmetic
series.
• Find the sum of the n-first terms of geometric
series.
• Comprehend the characteristics of the arithmetic series after inserting
certain number of new terms between two terms.
• Comprehend the characteristics of the geometric series after inserting
certain number of new terms between two terms.
• Solve problems which relate to the arithmetic
series.
• Solve problems which relate to the geometric
series.

B. MATERIALS
Arithmetic Series
In discussion about the arithmetic series, the focus is actually on the sum of a
finite arithmetic sequence. There is a simple formula for doing this.

The Sum of a Finite Arithmetic

Sequence
The sum of a finite arithmetic sequence with n terms is given
by

Sn = 1 n[a1 + an].
2
The formula is obtained in the following
way.
Begin by generating the terms of the arithmetic sequence in two ways. In the
first way, the sum is written in the natural expression. In the first way, the
sum is expressed in inverted way, starting from the last term and ending at the
first term.
The expressions are as
follow.

57
Sn = a1 + (a1 + d) + (a1 + 2d) + … + (a1 + (n - 3)d) + (a1 + (n – 2)d) + (a1 + (n –
1)d). Sn = (a1 + (n – 1)d) + (a1 + (n – 2)d) + (a1 + (n – 3)d) + … + (a1 + 2d) + (a1 +
d) + a1. When we add these two partial sums in the way that adding the first
terms of the two, then the second terms of the two, the third terms of the two, and
so on, we will obtain:
2Sn = [a1 + a1 + (n - 1)d)] + [a1 + a1 + (n - 1)d)] + … + [a1 + a1 + (n - 1)d)]. The
right side of this equality consists of n terms of a1 + a1 + (n - 1)d). Thus, we can
write
2Sn = n[a1 + a1 + (n - 1)d)]. This last form implies
that

Sn = 1 n[a1 + a1 + (n - 1)d)] or Sn =1 n[2a1 + (n - 1)d)] or Sn 1= n[a1 + an].

2 2 2

Be sure you see that this formula works only for arithmetic sequences. The sum
of the first n terms of an infinite sequence is called the n-th partial sum. This sum
can be found buy using the formula for the sum of a finite arithmetic sequence.

Using the Middle Terms

If an arithmetic sequence has an odd number of terms, for example n (n is odd),
then the middle term is
a m = a n+1
2

The sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic sequence can also be found by using
the middle term. The formula is as follows:
Sn = nam.

When the number of the terms under consideration, n, is even, and the two terms
in the middle are considered as the middle terms, that is,
am 1 = a n and am2 = a n
+1
2 2

then

Sn = 1 n[ a m + am ].
2 1 2

58
Inserting Some Terms between Two Terms
A new arithmetic sequence obtained from inserting certain number of terms
between two terms has the same formula of the sum of its first n terms. As the
sum formula contains a1, n, and d, the change of the value of d to d’ after the
insertion results in the
following
formula

Sn = 1 n[a1 + a1 + (n - 1)d’)] or Sn =1 n[2a1 + (n - 1)d’)] or Sn1= n[a1 +

2 2 2
an].

In the last form, no change is evident as it is the general formula of the sum the
first
n terms of an arithmetic sequence.

Geometric Series
The sum of the terms of an infinite geometric sequence is called an infinite
geometric series or simply a geometric series.

The Sum of a Finite Geometric Sequence

The formula for the sum of a finite geometric sequence is as
follows. The sum of the finite geometric sequence
a1, a1r, a21r , a31r , a4 1r , …, n-1
a1r
with common ratio r ≠ 1 is given by
n
i−1 1−rn
Sn = a r 1 =a
i=1 1 1−r

The formula is obtained from the following

way. Begin by writing out the n-th partial sum.
Sn = a1 + a1r + a1 + a1r3 + a1r4 + … + a 1rn-2 + a1 rn-1
r2
Multiplication by r yields
rSn = a1 r + a1 + a1r3 + a1r4 + a1r5 +… + a 1rn-1 + a1 rn
r2
Subtracting the second equation from the first yields
Sn - rSn = a1 - a1 rn.
So, Sn(1 – r) = a1(1 -n r ), and, because r ≠ 1, you have

1−rn
 S n1 = a
1−r
The formula for the sum of a finite geometric sequence can, depending on the
value of r, be extended to produce a formula for the sum of an infinite
geometric series.
Specifically, if the common ratio r has the property r < 1, it can be shown that
that
rn becomes arbitrarily
close to 0 as n
increase without
bound.
Consequently,
1−rn 1−0
1 1 a n→∞.
1−r 1−r

This result is
1 summarized as
follows.
The sum of an
infinite geometric
series
I < 1, then the infinite
r geometric series
1

1 1 1 1 + + + + a rn-1 + …
aa…
r3 r4 + a
rn-2 a

h
a
s

t
h
e
1
s
u
m
S = a r1
i−1
=
1 .
i=1 1−r

60
Note that if | r |≥ 1,
the series does not
have a sum.

Inserting Some
Terms between
Two Terms
A new geometric sequence obtained from inserting
certain number of terms between two terms has the
same formula of the sum of its first n terms. As the
sum formula contains a1, n, and r, the change of the
value of r to r’ after the insertion results in the
f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g
f
o
r
m
u
l
a

Sn =

61
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64
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94
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99
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
10
9
11
0
11
1
11
2
11
3
11
4
11
5
11
6
11
7
11
8
11
9
12
0
12
1
12
2
12
3
12
4
12
5
12
6
12
7
12
8
12
9
13
0
13
1
13
2
13
3
13
4
13
5
13
6
13
7
13
8
13
9
14
0
14
1
14
2
14
3
14
4
14
5
14
6
14
7
14
8
14
9
15
0
15
1
15
2
15
3
15
4
15
5
15
6
15
7
15
8
15
9
16
0
16
1
16
2
16
3
16
4
16
5
16
6
16
7
 n
1−r'
1 a .
1 − r'
In the last form, no change is evident as it is the
general formula of the sum the first
n terms of a geometric arithmetic sequence.

C. PROBLEMS
In exercises 1-4, find the indicated n-th partial sum of
the arithmetic sequence.
1. 8, 20, 32, 44, …. n = 10.
2. 0.5., 1.3, 2.1, 2.9, .... n = 50.
3. a1 = 100, a25 = 220, and n = 25.
4. a1 = 15, a100 = 307, and n = 30.
5. a17 = 30, and n = 33.
6. Find the sum of the first 100 positive odd integers.

16
8
7. Find the sum of the integers from -10 to 50.
8. A brick patio has the approximate shape of a trapezoid, as shown in the
figure.
The patio has 18 rows of
bricks. The first row has 14
bricks and the 18-th row
has
31 bricks. How many
bricks are in the patio?

In exercise 9-12 find the indicated n-th partial sum of the geometric sequence.
1 1 1 1
9. 1, , , , , .... n = 20.
2 3 4 5
10. 1, -3, 9, -27, 81, .... n = 13.
11. 5 + 15 + 45 + … + 3645.
1 1 1
12. 2 − + − ... .
2 2048
+
8
In exercises 13-16, find the sum of the infinite geometric series, if possible. If
not possible, explain why.
∞ n
1
13. .
n=0 2
∞ n−1
7
14. 2
n=1 3
9 37
15. 8 + 6 + + + ....
2 8

16. a n = 2 n−1

17. Annuity. A deposit of Rp 1,000,000.- is made at the beginning of each moth in

an account that pays 8% interest, compounded monthly. The balance A in
the
account at the end of 5 years is given by
1 2 60
0.08 0.08 0.08
A = 1000000 1+ +100000 01+ ... +1000000 1+
12 12 12
Find A.
18. Geometry. The sides of a square are 16 cm in length. A new square is formed
by connecting the midpoints of the sides of the original square, and two of the
resulting triangles are shaded (see figure). If this process is repeated five more
times, determine the total area of the shaded region.

19. Geometry. If the process in the question number 18 above is repeated

infinitely, find the total area of the shaded region.
 THE POLISH NOTATION

A. BASIC COMPETENCE
• Comprehend the importance of the Polish
Notation.
• Comprehend the strength of the Polish
Notation.
• Comprehend the importance of the Reverse Polish
Notation.
• Comprehend the strength of the Reverse Polish
Notation.
• Comprehend the simple system of the Polish
Notation.
• Comprehend the simple system of the Reverse Polish
Notation
• Convert the expression in the infix notation into the Polish
Notation.
• Convert the expression in the infix notation into the Reverse Polish
Notation.
• Convert the expression in the Polish Notation into the infix
notation.
• Convert the expression in the Reverse Polish Notation into the infix
notation.
• Solve the questions expressed in the Polish
Notation.
• Solve the questions expressed in the Reverse Polish
Notation.
• Solve the questions expressed in the Reverse Polish
Notation.
• Solve problems which relate to the Polish
Notation
• Solve problems which relate to the Reverse Polish
Notation.

B. MATERIALS
The Polish Notation
The Polish Notation, also known as prefix notation, is a form of notation for logic,
arithmetic, and algebra. Its special feature is that the operator is placed to the left
of or prior to the operands. If the arity of the operators is fixed, the result is a
syntax without parentheses or brackets that can still be comprehended without
ambiguity. The Polish logician Jan Lukasiewicz invented this notation around
1920 in order to simplify sentential logic. When Polish notation is used as a
syntax for mathematical expressions by interpreters of programming
languages, it is readily parsed into abstract syntax trees and can, in fact,
define a one-to-one representation for the same. Because of this, Lisp and
related programming languages define their entire syntax in terms of prefix or
postfix expressions. Alonzo Church mentions this
notation in his classic book on Mathematical logic as worthy of remark in
notational

63
systems even contrasted to Whitehead and Russell's logical notational exposition
and work. While no longer widely used much in logic, Polish notation has since
found a place in computer science.

Arithmetic
The expression for adding the numbers one and two is, in prefix notation,
written
‘+1.2’ rather than ‘1 + 2’. In more complex expressions, the operators still
precede their operands, but the operands may themselves be nontrivial
expressions including operators of their own. For instance, the expression that
would be written in conventional infix notation as
(8 − 6) * 9
can be written in prefix
as *−8 6 9.
Since the simple arithmetic operators are all binary in nature (at least, in
arithmetic contexts), any prefix representation thereof is unambiguous, and
bracketing the prefix expression is unnecessary. In the previous example, the
parentheses in the infix version were required, since removing them
8−6*9
would change the meaning and result of the overall expression. However, the
corresponding prefix version of this second calculation would be written
−8*6 9

The processing of the subtraction is deferred until both operands of the

subtraction have been read in (i.e., 8 and the product of 6 and 9). As with any
notation, the innermost expressions are evaluated first, but in prefix notation this
‘innermost-ness’ can be conveyed by order rather than bracketing. Prefix notation
of simple arithmetic is largely of academic interest. Like the similar postfix
Reverse Polish Notation, prefix notation has been used in a few (HP-11C)
commercially-made calculators. However, prefix-notated arithmetical expression
is frequently used as a first, conceptual step in the teaching of compiler
construction.

64
Computer
Programming
Prefix notation has seen wide application in Lisp s-expressions, where the
brackets are required due to the arithmetic operators having variable arity. The
Ambi programming language uses Polish Notation for arithmetic operations and
program construction. The postfix Reverse Polish Notation is used in many
stack-based programming languages like PostScript, and is the operating principle
of certain calculators, notably from Hewlett-Packard.

Although obvious, it is important to note that the number of operands in

an expression must equal the number of operators plus one, otherwise the
statement makes no sense (assuming only binary operators are used in the
expression). This can be easy to overlook when dealing with longer, more
complicated expressions with several operators, so care must be taken to double
check that an expression makes sense when using prefix notation. To some extent,
this is considered as the specific feature of the prefix notation; some claim that it
is the strength of the notation. Another strength is that the brackets or parentheses
are no longer in use. However, there might some problems occur when the
expression is dealing with two- or more- digit numbers. In some cases, the
expression of the numbers will be separated by space to distinguish between 12 3
and 1 23. In some other cases, comma is used to separate one number from the
others, such as, 12,3 and 1,23.

Order of
Operations
Order of operations is defined within the structure of prefix notation and can
be easily determined. One thing to keep in mind is that when executing an
operation, the operation is applied to the first operand by the second operand.
This is not an issue with operations that commute, but for non-commutative
operations like division or subtraction, this fact is crucial to the analysis of a
statement. For example,
the following
statement:
/10,5 = 2 (Prefix)
is read as "divide 10 by 5". Thus the solution is 2, not ½ as would be the result
of an incorrect analysis.
Prefix notation is especially popular with stack-based operations due to its innate
ability to easily distinguish order of operations without the need for parentheses.
To evaluate order of operations under prefix notation, one does not even
need to memorize an operational hierarchy, as with infix notation. Again, this is
another feature of the prefix notation. Instead, one looks directly to the notation to
discover which operator to evaluate first. Reading an expression from left to right,
one first looks for an operator and proceeds to look for two operands. If another
operator is found before two operands are found, then the old operator is placed
aside until this new operator is resolved. This process iterates until an operator is
resolved, which must happen eventually, as there must be one more operand than
there are operators in a complete statement. Once resolved, the operator and the
two operands are replaced with a new operand. Because one operator and two
operands are removed and one operand is added, there is a net loss of one operator
and one operand, which still leaves an expression with n operators and n + 1
operands, thus allowing the iterative process to continue. This is the general
theory behind using stacks in programming languages to evaluate a statement in
prefix notation, although there are various algorithms that manipulate the process.
Once analyzed, a statement in prefix notation becomes less intimidating to the
human mind as it allows some separation from convention with added
convenience. An example shows the ease with which a complex statement in
prefix notation can be deciphered through order of operations:

-*/15-7+1,1,3+2+1,1 = -*/15-7+1,1,3+2,2
= -*/15-7+1,1,3,4
= -*/15-7+1,1,3,4
= -*/15-7,2,3,4
= -*/15,5,3,4
= -*3,3,4
= -9,4
= 5
It is important to be able to change the expression from the prefix notation into
infix notation. For example:
-*/15-7+1,1,3+2+1,1 = (15÷(7-(1+1)))×3)-(2+(1+1))
15
= × 3 − (2 + 1 + 1)
7 − (1 +
1)

Polish Notation for Logic

The table below shows the core of Jan Lukasiewicz's notation for sentential
logic. The "conventional" notation did not become so until the 1970s and 80s.

Concept Conventional Notation The Polish Notation

Negation ¬p Np
Conjunction pΛq Kpq
Disjunction pVq Apq
Conditional p→q Cpq
Biconditional p↔q Epq
Universal Quantifier ∀x Πx
Existential Quantifier ∃y Σy

Example
s:

(¬pVq)Λ(q↔r) → (p→r) = CKANpqEqrCpr

CKANECpqrstu =
(¬((p→q)↔r)Vs)Λt→u

The Reverse Polish Notation

Reverse Polish notation (or just RPN) by analogy with the related Polish notation,
a prefix notation introduced in 1920 by the Polish mathematician Jan
Lukasiewicz, is a mathematical notation wherein every operator follows all of its
operands. It is also known as postfix notation and is parenthesis-free as long as
operator arities are fixed. The Reverse Polish scheme was proposed in 1954 and
was independently reinvented by F. L. Bauer and E. W. Dijkstra in the early
1960s to reduce computer memory access and utilize the stack to evaluate
expressions. The notation and algorithms for this scheme were extended by
Australian philosopher and computer scientist Charles Hamblin in the mid-1950s.
During the 1970s and 1980s, RPN had some currency even among the general
public, as it was widely used in desktop calculators of the time—for example, the
HP-10C series and Sinclair Scientific calculators.

In computer science, postfix notation is often used in stack-based and

concatenative programming languages. It is also common in dataflow and
pipeline-based systems, including Unix pipelines. Most of what follows is about
binary operators. A unary operator for which the Reverse Polish notation is the
general convention is the factorial.

Arithmetic
In Reverse Polish notation the operators follow their operands; for instance, to
multiply four by five, one would write ‘5,4*’ rather than ‘5×4’. If there are
multiple operations, the operator is given immediately after its second operand; so
the expression written ‘3 − 4 + 5’ in conventional infix notation would be
written
‘3,4−5+’ in RPN: first subtract 4 from 3, then add 5 to that. An advantage of RPN
is
that it obviates the need for parentheses that are required by infix. When the
expression is ‘3 − (4 * 5)’, then in the postfix notation, it will be ‘3,4,5*−’.

Interpreters of Reverse Polish notation are often stack-based; that is, operands are
pushed onto a stack, and when an operation is performed, its operands are popped
from a stack and its result pushed back on. Stacks, and therefore RPN, have the
advantage of being easy to implement and very fast. Note that, despite the name,
reverse Polish notation is not exactly the reverse of Polish notation, as the
operands of non-commutative operations are still written in the conventional
order (for example, ‘/15,3’ in the Polish Notation corresponds to ’15,3/’ in the
Reverse Polish Notation, both will be evaluating to 3. Numbers are also written
with the digits in the conventional order.

Practical Implications
• Calculations occur as soon as an operator is specified. Thus, expressions are
not entered wholesale from right to left but calculated one piece at a time,
most
 efficiently from the center outwards. Some claim this result in fewer operator
errors when performing complex calculations.
• The automatic stack permits the automatic storage of intermediate results for
use
later: this key feature is what permits RPN calculators to easily evaluate
expressions of arbitrary complexity: they do not have limits on the complexity
of expression they can calculate, unlike algebraic calculators.
• Brackets and parentheses are unnecessary: the user simply performs
calculations
in the order that is required, letting the automatic stack store intermediate
results on the fly for later use. Likewise, there is no requirement for the
precedence rules required in infix notation.
• In RPN calculators, no equal key is required to force computation to occur.
• RPN calculators do, however, require an enter key to separate two
adjacent numeric operands.
• The machine state is always a stack of values awaiting operation; it is
impossible to enter an operator onto the stack. This makes use conceptually
easy compared to more complex entry methods.
• Educationally, RPN calculators have the advantage that the user must
understand the expression being calculated: it is not possible to simply copy
the expression from paper into the machine and read off the answer
without understanding. One must calculate from the middle of the expression,
which is only meaningful if the user understands what they are doing.
• Reverse Polish notation also reflects the way calculations are done on pen
and paper. One first writes the numbers down and then performs the
calculation. Thus the concept is easy to teach.
• The widespread use of electronic calculators using infix in educational
systems can make RPN impractical at times, not conforming to standard
teaching methods. The fact that RPN has no use for parentheses means it is
faster and easier to calculate expressions, particularly the more complex ones,
than with an infix calculator, owing to fewer keystrokes and greater visibility
of intermediate results. It is also easy for a computer to convert infix notation
to postfix, most notably via Dijkstra’s shunting-yard algorithm.
• Users must know the size of the stack, since practical implementations of
RPN
use different sizes for the stack. For example, the algebraic
expression
 ( −6.2−23π )
1 −1.001 , if performed with a stack size of 4 and executed from left
to right, would exhaust the stack. The answer might be given as an erroneous
imaginary number instead of approximately 0.5 as a real number.
• When writing RPN on paper (something which even some users of RPN
may not do) adjacent numbers need a separator between them. Using a space
is not good practice because it requires clear handwriting to prevent
confusion. For example, 12 34 + could look like 123 4 + but in a
monospace font it is quite clear, while something like 12,34 + is
straightforward. The comma becomes a virtual Space key.
• RPN is very easy to write and makes practical sense when it is adopted.
The
learning process to adopt RPN in writing usually comes later than adopting
RPN
on a calculator so that one may communicate more easily with non-RPN
users.

Example:
The infix expression ‘5 + ((1 + 2) * 4) − 3’ can be written down like this in RPN:
5,1,2+4*+3−
The expression is evaluated left-to-right, with the inputs interpreted as shown in
the following table (the Stack is the list of values the algorithm is ‘keeping track
of’ after
the Operation given in the middle column has taken place):
Input Operation Stack Comment
5 Push operand 5
1 Push operand 5, 1
2 Push operand 5, 1, 2
+ Add 5, 3 Pop two values (1, 2) and push result (3)
4 Push operand 5, 3, 4
* Multiply 5, 12 Pop two values (3, 4) and push result (12)
+ Add 17 Pop two values (5, 12) and push result (17)
3 Push operand 17, 3
− Subtract 14 Pop two values (17, 3) and push result (14)

70
When a computation is finished, its result remains as the top (and only) value in
the stack; in this case, 14. The above example could be rewritten by following the
"chain calculation" method described by HP for their series of RPN
calculators: As was

71
demonstrated in the Algebraic mode, it is usually easier (fewer keystrokes) in
working a problem like this to begin with the arithmetic operations inside the
parentheses first.
Convert the following expression into the infix
notation.
6,12+4*5,6/+3− = (6+12)×4)+5÷6-3
5
= (6 + 12) × 4 + −3
6
Convert the following expression into the postfix notation.
3−2
(5 + 4) × = 5,4+3,2-1,7+/×
1+7

C. PROBLEMS
1. Analyze some specific features of the Polish Notation (the prefix notation)
which might make it be considered as better than then infix notation.
2. Analyze some specific features of the Reverse Polish Notation (the
postfix notation) which might make it be considered as better than then infix
notation.
Convert the following expression into the Polish Notation.
3. -/*+-*1,2,3,4,5,7,8.
4. /*3,4*-5,+6,7,9.
Convert the following expression into the infix notation.
2 4−5
5. ( + 6) −
3 7
5+
8
5
6. 4×3+
6−7
Convert the following expression into the Reverse Polish Notation.
5
7. 4+3×−
6+7
4−5
8.
6+7
5−
8
Convert the following expression into the infix notation.
9. 1,2,3,4,5,6+/*/-
10. 3,4,5*-8,6,7/+*
 REFERENCES

Bello, I. & Britton, J. R. 1982. Contemporary College Algebra. New York: Harper
& Row
Publishers.
Larson, L., Hostetler, R.P., & Edwards, B.H. 2005. College Algebra: A
Graphing
Approach. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Nustad, H. L. & Wesner, T. H. 1987. Principles of Elementary Algebra with
Applications.
Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
Rich, B. 1960. Elementary Algebra. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Vance, E. P. 1962. Modern College Algebra. Reading: Addison Wesley
Publishing
Company.
Wesner, T. H. & Nustad, H. L. 1992. Intermediate Algebra with Applications.
Iowa: Wm.
C. Brown Publishers.
72