Jsuys llahagho,vra

o8a3b$

I
1. r\-TROpUCTION TO LAND SURVEYTNG

1.1 Object and Scope of Survelzing:

$P+ Sun eying is the technolop;y of making scientifrc qEaEu{gme:I[i on th.e Ear*uq_*
sqllaq_e_in order to have desirable ead-ursdwLs such as figUtgbhg!.e of earth
and various kinds of m4gLg,

Surveying measurements 4re essentjal to lay out anr, consfruction r,r,orks such as:
Roads, railwavs, underground structures (tunneis, pipe-hnes, cable lines),
orrerhead systems (electric transmission lines, communication lines), rnining
(coal, graphite, etc.,), civil engineering construction projects (builciings, dams,
reservoirs), etc.
\-
Surveying measurements ary__qlqq _jegqlqgd- to determine the amount of
deformation and displacernent in existing structures and ground (settlement of
buildings, deformation of dams under water load, movement of earth in slopes,
etc.). Surveying is essential in town planning, green plantation, development
projects, irrigation projects, forestation projects, etc.

"i 1.2 Classification of Surveying:

Primary classification :

(i).
Plane Surveyin&: The extent of the area covered on the earth's surface 1S
Therefore, the_!glyeq,1Eq_e{_!he ealth iq neglected. The surface is
-q!q4ll
considered as a plane, and triangles formed on this surface as plane triangles.

A*-
(ii). Geodetic Surveying : The spherical shape of the earth is taken into account
while making measurements
earth's surface are considered as spherical triangles. Geodetic surveys covellgJge
areas on earth's surface, and the measurements are precise.

>:' Classification based on field of surveys :

(a). Land surveying -

Topographical (to show natural and man-made features iike contours, rivers,
. roads, buildings, ponds, reservoirs, towns, etc on maps),
Cadastral (to fix boundaries and demarcate properties).
City (construction of streets, water supply and sewer iines).
(b). Marine or hydrographic surveying. ,l

(c). Astronomical surveying. r\ ,a

(d). Aerial surveying or photogrammetry.
 (d). Mine surver.ing. i

(e). Satellite or space surr.er ing.

Classificati
(a). Chain, (b). Theodolite, (c). Compiss, (d). Levelling, (e) . Plane Tabling,
(f). Tacheometry, (g). Total Station, (h). Giobal Positioning stem (GPS).

'{' Classificationbased
(a). Engrneering, (b), Military, (c).Geological, (d). Archeol

- Classification based
(a). Traversing, (b). Triangulation, (c). Trilateration;, .etc.

-#"

Surveying operations are based upon the follon-ing trvo

(l). "Always workfrom whole to the plrt" .

The first consideration is 'preclse control sun'e\-ing", hich is follora'ed br- "
tghtldrgy dStlilsurveying". rvro,vkrd b1 r{fi,,1n€sr o{ r, e-r'dt{a'I 'i'

I ell ;wrpo.r \on{ qhr,th \:u{ vE161q{

The first step in any extensive survey is to establish control points lr.rdelv
distributed over the area by means of triangulation or recise traversing. The
large triangles are further sub-divided into sma1l which mav be
surveyed with less precision.

This approach will minimize or control the probability error propagation in

the field- work of surveying.

processes" .

This provides a check on the survey work carried out on

See Figure 1.L.

Survey Stations : .trol These points are

marked or permanently fixed on the ground, and their itions are known. in
chain surveying, stations fixed at the beginning and end a chain line are ca11ed
main stations. Stations selected at intermediate points chain lines are knor.t n
as subsidiary stations.

2
 ffi The longest of the main survey liens is called th"W+
M+HYSv
And the various
I Hffi
survny stations are plotted with reference to this base line.

ffilChecklinesorpro.of1inesarelineswhic{rarerunonthefie1dto
check the accuracy of the work. The length oicheck linp measured on the field
rru:stagree with its length on the plan. (4 chrrir..,r,:, -1y$/i
., l,
W: These toin sqUsraiary s trines. These serve the
purpose of a sheck li:,e, as well as taking thg details of nearlv obiects.

In survey,
l" the chain
#$
line by means of p"rp*rdi.*I* digturyes. These are refe{red to as of{'sets. These
are generally perpendicular distances. However, wheir objects somewhat far
away from the lirrrare to be located, two distances whicfr are not at right-angies
to the chain are taken. These are referrea)to ut:!!g"" oflt"t*_

: l,
I

Every offset irrvolves two measuremenig - the chain4ge (distance aiong the
chain) and the perpendilular distance to that pjlnt-t4Edetail of that point.
Offsets are rneasured with the .linear tape and should lbe as short as possible
(preferably s t0 m). Peqpendicularitv rs judged either Fy or by
swjrying the near end of the tape. "yu-"ttimation

Bearing of a Line : Begririrg of a survey line is its dlleqlp4-IglgllVe !_qg-'giy_gq

@. A'meridian is any direction such as :

I
(i). True Meridiari: This is th
. _potes_althe plqqe of observati
the Earth (which is considered as a sphere) forms.g QIe4! 9tqle, iyhiqh is also
known as the l4g44ieq(see figure 1.3). A Great Circle is a circle traced on the
surface of a Spheie s,r"n tf,ui both have the same diameter. Since the True
Meridian passes through the frue N and S, this can be established by
asfronomical observations. The horizontal angle between the true meridian and
the survey line is the "True Bearirg'._

(ii). Magnetic Meridian: The direction indicated bi' , freely suspended and
balanced needle {r"" rro* ffi"
es compass. The horizontal angle between the
magnetic rrieridian and the survey line is the "Magnetic Bearing"
f'-

ffir.H-'a
-#%'J +- I
,,{

///-/,')
// ,/

.-o-zt 'r&:ro
-/ lrne

iri Boun)ary
A Mai" fwn<1
ttafun
Fizure 1.1

Ties Collilu e of{sets)'

Siee[ band

Of fsets
(ktPend''culqt
A[(sett 1
Tree

Steel band
stretched
on ground
Figure 1'2
SurveY line

reference 0rrr n\ tvttlr

sphez'e *^,.-*--#-- I
[ 6 ,r 11E trutrrt
ovr t\& S'lrttaft o'l
fl ,SPh,nvc ,lr;'*;1
'{',a.g \-r',u t ;f i'rirV li
.,,,6( d{,,3, 1;f\ i|Y,ll r\

fln1 c\'ro r i' 'r 'r

r''l

great circle A il S"\r\i\\ t rY t\t

p

Figure 1.3

!., r4 ol ttttrort! [$- 1' hrrridian{

I
 \

(iii). Arbitrary Meridian: convenient directioo towards a Permanent and

prg.@(topof a transmission line on i mountain toPr etc)' The
and the surveY line is known as
hori.zontal angle between the arbitrary meridian
tfl the "Arbitrar-v Bearin

: Magnetic ceciination at a piace is th-e- hq:1zer'!4lglCe

Magnetic Declination bv
benveen tn rqYq Vg iel]k lq l:T'
t to T'M'' it shows
,i"" left oi f.lv!.iit,iq a,lE)ve or
allE*r eastern declination; and when M.M. is to the
rrrestern declination'

one of
In general a Point C in a plane may be fixed relative to a given line AB in
the following waYs :

t"),;fiffiffigffi#m! Avrrln r,1611'''6Y'':r*'l

This involves angular measurements from a fixed base

iine. (The length AB is
Figure 1.4'
known, and angles cr and $ are measured to locate C). See

{b}ffi1 r""r{r'Li,",ir.} * (.!1*,** *wva\

I

are measured
This involves linear measurements only, (The iengtht +c -& lC
i.,J ,f," position of C can be fixed provided'AC + BC > nf)' See Figure
1'5'
Therefore this method is used in chain surveying
I

t"lWDetai1sofasurvey#ea:,ohco{venient1yobtainedbya a collllgcted series

ffaverse survey. E t u-r"rr" is a course taken whe$ measlu4ng
of lines, each ]oining 2 points on the ground' These ppints.*" :,'l\"d
travelqe
!P
ffifr;arrd irr" str;ght line between two traverse stafions is cailed a traverse
F--

Effi"erses may be closed or unclosed (openO, I

and returns to the

(i.). Closed Traverse : If a traverse emanates from a station
same station, or runs between two known stations,
is a closed traverse' See
Figure 1.6.

(ii).ffiAtraversewhichneitherreturrlrs."'T']1.:1Y.point.nor
traverse'
i"gi* ,"a ends at known stations is called arl open tr unclosed
A traverse survey involves both line ar and angular mealurements'

il i I
q. \o -1r

NotP: Nt th$ Qhet!- tM rYyoyl li curu Srnwrtfi bnr[ dff bn3 ShYYPy

cr?qn bro,VUptle rS p6ap hAo{A Ctrlvpr4iryt{-

F

. l; ,rrfl

;t,lt i

A
(tnovtn)

(t<nown)
Figure 1.6

6
 1.6 The Reliabilitv of a Sgrvey
error' engineers
Since everv technique of measurement is subject to unavoidable
[,*,,'
{ and how they
and surveyors must be aware of all ,orr.", and types or error
combine.

value to its true

Accuracy of a measurement is d.efined as the nearness of that
be known'
value; however, the frue value of a measured quantity can never

Ifa times ofa t

between the
rlgqsqqs is lhq P e pfql*9f-,te-qg*. (Note: A hif;h deFree- of precision-is no
p."isior.r *y@s
.r , r
an index 6f
L^-.^ L^^*
of errors other than accidental errors have been
^eliminated).

The surveyor must ensure that the techniques he chooses

will produce a result
that is sufficiently accurate; thus he should know the accuracy required'
and
should check whether he achieved that level of accuracy.

1.6.1. Accuracy Required

The accuracy required is defined by the scale of the p1ot, since

there should be no
plottable error in the survey data.

E.g.: A good draftsman can plot a len-gth to within.O.25 mm.

Thus if the^plane
1000 mm
UJing pioduced is at a scale of 1./fi0,A, (1 mm on the plan represents
(f*io" the ground), the smallest plottable distance is 0.25 m' Thus for a plan of
of any
this scale, all measurements must te taken such that the relative positions
two points must be determined to 0'25 m or better'
rd

Accuracy required for engineering works may be. governed by

engineering
tolerances, and that for proferty boundary definition by legal
standards'

Accuracy achieved can be checked, in simple works, bY comParing

some
measurements scaled off the plan with their equivalent on the
ground.

1.6.2. Types of Errors

Errors made in may be classified as follows:

(1) Blunders or mistakes -

(2) Systematic effors

j

(3). Random or accidentai errors

- f*ro,.r* {: *firrfld rl,1*rn"nle}

I
I

errors, and consist of

d-f*tt" "-rtt-r*ding or mis-booking of whatever the scale being used,(6.76 e.g.

missing a chain length, misreading QA as 10 on a chain line), mis-booking

as7.66).

This can be very serious, and can be avoided only by , methodical

work, cross-checking and careful recording'

These effors fol1ow a definite mathematical or w, and mav be constant

or variable throughout an mav t-of naturai conditions Y,

(e.g. rise of. temperature, ref@tc.)' This error be elimrnated if the

observer is aware of the law governing the systematic e

e.g.: using an elongated chain (30'02 m instead of 30'00 ); zero error in an

measurements; neglecting slope in length measurementt

Errors that remain after systematic errors and blunders eliminated, are calied
random or accidental errors. These are generally small, can never be avotded
entiiely in measurements. They may arise due to ion of instrunient,
observers' etc.

Random errors are treated using the law of based on statistical

principles.

Locations on the surface of the Earth are specified coordinates. The three
coordinates'to identify a iocation are the lqlgiq4 , the Latitude, and the
the locations on the
*Ahitqde. If the Earth-s surface is considered as a spl ,
--surface
are given by the first two coordinates, and the third coordinate sPecifies
the height above or below a datum surface.

The coordinate axes for the itudes are the

EffiA-the Prime Meridi4n, which is the
 thej of the plane ueh the centre of the
The equalqr of the Earth is of tfre Earth. it is a
Earth-perpendicular to
' Plation, and the
.-r
e' The rEquator
-,,-r^.- divi es the Earth into two
Ct Southern Hemisphere. AII the
hrlr.r, the Northern Hemisphere and theEarth inte the Equator at right
tu'turiaiurrs through the N and S poles
of the
angles.

coordinate system is at thq of the Pripe

:he 9I1PI". of the surface is illustrated bY Figure
of coordina
measurement
@he
7.7.

plane at the centre

r-g!gl!ag"f-
ffih
a locatio::r
1t. lh" Tq]: :lo,l"y*
by the Merid.ian throughJh?1.1:tut1:"'
:*i: . to the East or the
prime Meridian has
iirJ}",i#ii#J"dE;*. ilJJrkl-Ail locations on the
ry longifude 0o 0' 0",

angle measured on t plane of the meridian

Jfti4de-o{ a point is the vertical points on the equator
ffi1r tt'rut point, to the ,.,ol1"l t?oth.o1.lh"":ti3':l
'N and South Pole has
ilr";"r;*d;6" 0;'0". North Pole has iatitude 90o 0'
latitude 90o 0' 0"S.

North Pole 6008 52"N

Parallel circles
Latitude

Equator

Prime meridian . "

through GreenrYtcn
Meridians
South Pole Longitude
=
Figure 1'7

on the sphere' longitude / latitude

Gridnet

I
 /

The science of surveying is dei,'eloping rapidly. rnodern methods like

photogrammetry, eleclronic equipment and satellite eying techniques, the
old techniques of surveying by chain, compass plane tabling are being
outdated, However, the knowledge of these tec is essential for any
engineer or surveyor and these are termed "basic su ing techniques". If a
small extent of area is to be surveyed, the applicati of these basic surveying
techniques is still economical and convenient.

In chain surveying, only linear measurements are de in the field, and no

angular measurements are made. The basic princi e of chain surveying is
always 'lryp* ffqfn lhe ryhqle_ !o 4e This ise control
lt _, ,1-
as the first detail surveYi \9

The term chaining is used to denote measurement of n ith the help of a

chain or a tape. For work of ordinary precision, a is used, but for higher
precision, a tape is used.

Following insfruments and accessories are used in chaining and chain surver-ing:

Steel chain - normally 30 meters in length, made of a series of steel wire 1inks,
connected together by rings; there are five links per metre, and each meter is
marked by a plastic or brass tag. There are no graduations along the chain except
for the tags). See Figure 2.1.

Steel tape - may be of various iengths like 30m i 50m. These are normallv
made of a flexible steel strip of 6.25mm wide, and uations engraved on the
strip (down to one rnillimeter). See Figue2.2.
Plastic coated steel tapes and steel strips of other wid are also available.

Linen tape -this is made of a strip of cloth, and le in different lengths

as 20m, 25m, 30m, 50m, etc. There are different v such as linen tapes r,t ith
brass wires enmeshed to increase durability. See Figu L.J.

Ranging pole - wooden or aluminum poles of abt 25mm diameter, and 2.0
metre height. There is a pointed iron shoe to facili it to be driven into the
ground, and to be kept standing upright. These are painted in alternate bands of
red and white, or black and white, in order to increase its visibility from a
distance. They are used to range long survey lines, as signals with a piece of
coloured cloth tied to the top, other ranging works, etc. See Figure 2,4.

10
 Arrow - made of steei wire, with a pointed end to facilitate being driven into the

I ground. This is about 40 cm in height, and has a loop at the top end, w'here a
pi"." o{ coloured cloth can be tied to serve as a signal to indicate a location from
a distance. See Figure2.4.

Mallet - a wooden hammer to drive in wooden pegs into the ground.

pegs -
pieces of wood, of different height and lvith cross-sections of L2.5mm x
12.5mm or 50mm x 50mm, with a pointed end. Used to be driven into the
ground with the mallet, to indicate a location on the ground.

Cross Staff, Optical Square - Instruments that can be used to obtain

on the ground. See Fig]:re

..1 Clinometer - An instrument which gives th" i u

Figure 2.6.

tt :t..

L'n'
Figure 2.1 r. .,t_. t

Filgure 2.3

Figure 2.2
11
td

f;

t
I

lT'
Uil
Pcle At rcn]
lRarytlng
rod)

Figure 2.1,
W
Cross stalf

o2

T
,r0a
a'/'r

-/
\
vieivine
i ilJ Lor
i --- windows Fhld of yierv

'-^*r'
--f
*u'' 9O*c v
/
.. Tn Normal
.
./ -'-
.. o\"tq$t
.r$'..-
/
w.. i 1i*,.,"
x lI Florizontal

,,
.\ |
-Yii -- t- +
! vertica
anqle
I _,/
1,,
t. ...-'
i .:-
,-'/
Figure 2.6
Figure -1.5
t2 c '' :'ri
1e
Ft*r " l{
.f,,1
. a.l qtiu :
A"cl d*
 2.2. Chain Survey Field Wo{k
f,'
/
2.2.L. Reconnaissance

Before actually making measurements on the field, the area to be surveyed is

carefully examined and best positions of control points (survey stations) are
determined, after being tested for lnter-visibility.

The reconnaissance is done bv taking a round of the area (walking around the
area). At the end of reconnaissance, a sketch of ground sholt'ing the principal
feafures such as buildings, roads, etc., and the arrangement of the lines and the
numbering (or lettering) of the stations is prepared. This sketch is known as the
'index pian', or'reference sketch' or a'key plan', or a'prospection diagrarn .
J
The 'kuy plan' lvill indicate the
technique of. approach to the
problem. In this plan, conventional ooo
symbols are used to represent /
various features on the ground.
/

Figare2.7

2.2.2. Selection of Stations

In selecting stations, the followrng pornts should be noted ;

(a). Survey lines should be as few as practicable, and such that the frame-work
can be plotted.
(b)._ llpSggrble,_a
- long line should be run through the middle of the area to form
a base line on u,hich to hang the triangies.
(c). Triangles should be 1v-e!1 c-g4-l{iti.ongd.
- :''!' lir' i'r":'"'i:\ 1'r ':' I ' '" "' p- Ur|*huvlrQ

(d), Each portion of the survey (e.g. each triangle) should be provided with a
check line.
("). A;l;;il;t as possible should have to be run 1v-ithsut offsets. ''
(f). Off-sets should be short, particularly locating important features.
(g). Obstacles to ranging and chaining should be avoided as far as possible.

L\
1a
-tJ
j

:
I

(h). Lines should be over the more 1eve1 ground.

(i). In lines lying along a road, the possibilitv of i ption of the chain line by
passing trafiic should be avoided by running r lines at one side of the
road.

2.2.3. Marking of Stations

Wooden pess mav be used to mark the stations. But wherr more durability is
-t9,,
required, cemery!,p1ck, may be used. In cases positions istatrons) are
useful for fuhr:re ; thFire permanentlv r

Ifcontrol points are established by driving pegs, a location sketch for each
control point s.hould be prepared. Example for a locati _s_ketch is shorvn :

N
\{!

Location are necessarr- L-recause,

I BuitdinS
if the work be completeci on the
6.8 irt
same day, it possible that sorne pegs
A/ fi
may be lost, in that case iocation
fu)*-- r.^ sketch will us to re-locate the
'ftq, -t'{rarto4
\ r,r, position.

Locali'on Skeieh
\-
Figpre 2.8 Cr;{
2.2.4.

After the preliminary planning and marking of ste ns are compieted, the
chaining may be started preferably from the base line. from one station,
measurements are taken along the survey lines.

The work in chaining a survey line consists of :

(i). Chain the line (measure the chain lengths)

(ii). Locate ther details, by taking offsets in order of their

.gt)ftMlh,X od .[t*r\ ,r*,1n5

It is essential to book the observations simultaneously th the field-vyork of any
kind of surveying. Standard booking procedures are {ollowed in keeping the
field notes.
 In chain surveving, two methods are available
P' line method, and (ii). directional method'

t.

FtztAlrd-
lwlz'
'1--

." .j

, , .. . ,r ,,,Ftgure2.9 } ryri li.+^

Examples for some field book Pages:

I
lm s/m
cinr, ^oP1
i!1'lolsrrco
t"*f{uo
/>
"1145
_ gzit

25/60 76/50
23150
6o/OO
19n2
1sno s7/l0

),* 14115
51no
46/50

40/00
38/40

35/00
i

I
34/rs

Figure 2.10

15
dF

:t

A scaie is useil for plotting the measured information ailable in the field book.
Plotting is done using a pencii on a drawing sheet.

(1), Type of: L cm = 75 m -+ each cm on the sheet represents 75m

on the ground

(2). Type of: L : 5000 -+

each length unit on the dr sheet represents 5000
units on the ground
(i.e. 1 cm on the sheet is 5000 cm or 50m on the actual )
\(l.

(3). Type of giving the scale on a line.

rn The advantage is the expression of the scale according to the third type is that the
plan wil1be valid even if it is enlarged or contracted ( in photocopying),

Note : 1cm : 1/5m can be expressed as the other type scale,

(i.e.as1:x)
1cm=7'5x100cm
i.e. L:7500
Ex. A line on a survey plan drawn to a scale of 1 cm 75 m vi/as measured, and
was found to be 3000m long. It was later discovered that the plan was actua1lv
drawn to a sca,Le of 1cm = 80 m. What is the correct of the line ?

Length of line :in plan :3000m / (75rn/ cm) = 40 cm

Therefore, true length of line on the fieid = 40cm x cm) : 3200 m
OR:
correct scale
True (correct) distan"" - x measured di
wrong scale
Wrong scale : 1 cm = 75 m
Correct scaie : 1cm = 80m
Truelength : I x 3000
75
'= 3200 m

f.e,.qt,1t l;, i {,} lu*A * J=f

*TC ,*
16

e{ d'ht /rur. ? /1O S$o m

-? S?efornrt
 2.4. Chain Survey Office Work Survey
line
\-..\ _ Check
2.4.1. Plottins of Frame Work
-;l-= tine

The largest line is first drarvn and its -- ,/

total length
welj ,: the positions of lrr.re pickets lsuUsittia
stations) 0.r€ ,;21sfu11y scaled Th; triangles Figure 2.11
att
line are than.erected by deslribing .#;
::,:9:::e areas with the length
intersecting of sides
These triangl:s are checkeci bv fiti.,g
the check li
The remaining triangles are then
plotted and chec
before startinig the plotting of details.
.{ q)
2.4.2. Plottini+ of Details =
o
a
The- chainagersfrorn u,hich off_sets were taken <t) Subsidiary
triangle
marked out along the chain 1ines and
the off.
lengths are scaled oi{ at right u"gi"r.
Whe* ;; Fig:.re 2.L2
detail need to be shorvn, Iff_set'points
joined up as thel are piotted.
should b
Use ol the
offset scale
Following mistakes are to be noted and
guarded aga Oflrsr
sla
!i). Plotting offsets {rom wrong points.
(ii)- Plotting offsets on wrong side of the
-_.\t-

chain-tilne.
(iii). Oriritting of{sets.
(iv). ]oining up \\'rong offsets. Sumry line
(v). Scaling cl'rainag"r fto* wrong end of
the lines.
2.4.3.

After ali Figure 2.13

cencil work is over, the inkine of the t
-the
BIue.. Everyth.ing else o, tne
ffi*itt
;i.;;,i
Uffi
an can be started. _C_ha1q

Ink.
will be in Prussian
T'he plan should be
provided nit1r a gthlng,_leading,
scale and a leg also the name of the
person who has ao
. See Figur"e2"l4.
I
2.4.4.8@
It is advised to ufl.opriate symbols when survey .ng. A list
symbols used in"r."
the Cnited
of conventional
the details is E;iven in Figure 2.15:
*hil"lrf.*Si}-r
!ingdo", fiel<l notes and booking

l7
.- . ',.*, , - .r: ,, hi ry.f f rua rn
 il*
tulain Sla{ion't
W

( f ,tt< et CirclO

( Lin e.
P,Lkcls S

Figure2.L4 \3
,I
--r-r-r-r-rT T-1-rfl*l

-l<1-l-l-
Post and rail fence Close
:ry,i:#n"
u',l#*-fi-- Dy I ano
position
walls Hedge .slrows side
and ditch o which it belonds

-ul Gate Footp: :hs

--G-<4|-

Road
# Hedoe

_l-:._
r

Can trdbk or unfenced road

($ !$
{fl(,if"n} $ ,.fi,.
re ri
Trees ( rlan )

l,i t t c
tJrcnatg
i-;"{ Q*o
r_-._Wo

nlt/, (ll,r, {1,

url*.aw$&
pB*q rtlIL r\tr,
'sh
Rouoh oastuie

(]oa Brushwood
)f
railways
<

L= =+
t)
: \1,
,--)

Embankment: Cutting

-----7====-- €.1
v f
.:.J
Bridge aurrr"

(areas included together) Building Barn Glasshouse

Fi re2.15
18
fl' z.5, frm l

l
Errors in ordinary chaining can be classified. as follows according to hor,r, they
affect the final results:

(svstemaric e$ors and solne- blir44qrs) 'fhese

errors
ffir
a""uffiiHi"'in one direction or tfre other, The total cnailt distance will be
:

either
greater or less than the actua-l length. I

ffi :Theseare
;AI;ffi"td;d-@eition'' ar{a nence they tend to
compensate. They are positive sometimes and negative af other times'
ry I

Errors may be caused bl' et.o."ous inst{rm ,1u9l<g!jk:|!p o(Egrie he

part of thl r.rr.,u),or, and gtg!44y,to gppll
DTODCT SENSCS
--.1--l-----_--

2.5.1., Erroneous Length of Chain Cumulative error (+ or -)

Positive error : recording more than what is found on the So.""t this occurs if a
.nuir't oi lengift shorter than its nominal length is used; e.g. if a chain of nominal
length 30.0; is actuall.; only 29.8m long, we record 30m for every 29'8m of
ground length. FIere, ttte error is positizse, and therefore the correction is
negatizse.

Negative qrror : recording less than what is found on the groundl this occurs if a
.f l"ngth longer thin its nominal length is used; e.g. if a chain of nominal
"h"in
length 30.0; is acial1t, 30.07m long, we record only 30m for every 30'07m of
ground length. Flere, the error is negative, arrd therefore the cotrection is
positiae.

, Knotting of the rings is to be carefully avoided. Similarly when the links get bent
o, .rrr"d, the chain lvill be shortened, The error is corrected by (i). correcting the
chain itself, or (ii). correcting the measurements taken'

2.5.2. Bad Ransing Cumulative (+)

Bod rargi't3 This does not seriously affect the length

{ of the line, but the adverse effect is
serious when the off-sets are taken'
B
plan view
Figure 2.16 19
r-

If the chain li ctirved on the plan, it

aifects the of the iine similar to
ylan view the case of ranging. Offsets are
more affected. .t
. Iil
Figwe2.17

This error generally occurs during stepping, when st eying on 5jspes This also
arises from disregarding flat slopes (gentle siopes)' error is a-r.,'ai-s positive
(we measure a greater length than the actual length). Figure 2 18
\
Not

Stepping
1he arve {armed bi
Figqre 218 ehaln is noiln as ^1uyenc1
!
Figure 2.L
2.5.5. Sag Cumulative (+)

See Figure 2.19. When the chain is stretched in the either in stepping or Ln
'
measurmg over sIrlall undulations or obsfructions, it il1 always sag. Thus the
distance measured between the ends is more than th actual length (+ r:e error).
The sag varies with : (a). the weight of the tape, (b). pull exerted at the tu'o
ends of the tape, and (c). the distance between the poi of support.

The error is minimizedby short only, and (ii). Pulling

firmly, or (iii). Placing the or tape on proPer su

errors (+)

The error is produced by (l). Holding of the chain to or the other side of the
pole, (ii). Fixing arrows, sometimes on one side, and other times, on the other
side of the true line, and (iii). wrong plumbing (vertic ity). See Figure 2,20.
 ]L Poie
7F
,-
(sl,,,ej
Arro* Po:ihons -,

l,'ne)

phn view
L
I
error dqe
to. tutrdng
erunb,'.y

(ii)
(i)
Figure 2.21)

2.5.7. Yar.ialion of Pull ior tension) (tompensating (

ln ordinary surveYing, r1..,. error is not serious. T I may be i.oo muc]r

h
sornetj.mes, anci too lii:1e at other tirnes, and thus one lnsates the rlther. "fo
[* nraintain a constant p-ili a spri ybe (lt pult 1s tpt-ater than
the standard, the chain if pu1l Iesser thtur the ;tandard,
the chain will Lre toc

2.5.8. (1)

T'his is not ver,. ir:r:,:rtant in ordinary surveving, tt in accurerte su l'veving ;t

correctir>n shou1"1 l-e aFrpliert. This is tive w.hen ature rs rurlre tharr
the standar.l

2.6.1..

lVhile chain :rg, i e. clrawing the chain, the arrow y be knockecl out ancJ
rcplacecl at .tntrther wrong point which may leacl the errror. 'I'o ir',,rlid this"
before fixirrg the arror.v, mark the point with an X,

2.6.2.

This er:ror ma\. be due to the loss of an arrow rlr mi ntirrll the nurnbe r, antl is
a serious mistake. The mistake can bet avoided, if at h chain, the fol1ower picks
up the arro\^. planted by the leader, and also as a c k, bottr the leadcr and the
follower cher:k the nurnber with each and tallv the
Eac'k end o{ ch't)n
held fu f>llawer Ftont end o{
,z' chaia hel,l by
ttade"(

Figure 2.21 Chairting 7o3'tesses

-forward *h is direc{-t'on -
 2.6.3.

For example, reading the mark 10 in place of 20. To av this, one should check
it at once, and read the correct one.
or, for example, reading the number 20.5 as 25 (the num is read wrongly).

2.6.4. Erroneous Booking

Instead of booking a figure as 5.79, it mav be recorded C.9, '; D a-'-Cldtne efror/
the chainman can read the number loudly, and the sho'-:-ld repeat it
loudly.

2.6.5.
a-
The recorder (or survevor) should check while

2.6.7.

,17 ,".,l.'

If the length of the tape of nominal length I is I tdl, the error per unit length is t
6tl .

If the measured length is dm, and the true lengthis dt, I

dt = dm t dm.5L : a*(tt 4l
{ \,,{) t
,
+ when in is too long.
- when in is too short. {,
i
-t (see ion 2.5.1)

i.
.,i i

2.7

The correction is always subtractive' This is y applied before the

standardization and temperature corrections. 'u'ed\ -;
Slope correction
inclind,"f:l{ t '

* rt/r,
If g is measured instead of h,
I

4ofrtisht diffbrence
Figute2.22
22
I

t
lll' ?.7.3. Correction for TemPerature
tiran the temp at which chain
If the temperature in the field is more/ less
decreases'
,iurtautairud, the length of chain increases/
subtractive'
and therefore the correction is additive/

Temp. correction Ct = a (T,n - To) L

a= coefi. of thermal exPansion

T=
L117 mean temp' in the field during measurement
r
lo - standard temPerature for the taPe
I
T=
L measured length
{v

2.7.4.

than the puil at which the

If the pull applied during measurernent is more/less
tape was standardized,
the length of taPe increa-ses,i decreases,
negative'
and therefore the correcCon is positive/

Itisgivenby, M =ffi*
where, P pull apPlied during measurement
fc standard PuIl
T
L measured length
A cross-sectiona-l area of the taPe
E Young's modulus of elasticitY

2.7.5. Correction for Sag

and the measured length along
The difference beftveen horizontal distance
is always negative. The sag correction
.ur"rrury is called the'sag correctiott' and
C, is given bY,
I {*r
v.itl
F
suspended between thd supports
where, t #-the'tape
P
pull apPlied The desired. shaP of chairr
a) *eig* of the taPe Per unit length
oJ- fietual
shaPe
c'fchau'l
z3
(eatenary)
Figure 2.23
 2"8. Obstacles in Chain Sun,eying

2.8. (and not chaining)

(a) tififfitili

Required to alii5n C and D

rangirLg pole ai Dr and

range in Ct on ^tne ADt.
ID
Elevalion I

From observe Cr and range in

I
I

I
Dz on linef
I I
\
I
LD' I
From 1 obserye Dz and range
./' - I
t
in Cz to line AD2.
I
I

I tion will produce Cr, Cs

D. I
and Da etc. until C and D 1ie
& on lirre AB.
a
Figwe 2.24,
This method is known as
recit ranging. q

(b)

Required to rrreasure a lor-rg line AB on which A and B are not intervisible and
intermediate points on this line are not possible.

Set out randorn line ltD close to

AB. From B, I:ind
. c;+-
the
*r'-K9 icular BC to the line AD,
tr I

---tl\ t.tr i
AC & BC.
./' .--'t \\:.\l r

-./-
-./
AB
Figure 2,25

i 24
 2.8.2. and not rangrng)
(a). are many possible ways to perform this, e.g.

(
(i)
(ii) h
Set out equal
perpendrculars ls
1

oI
"f.'
out Cc. Meesure Cc and
B
-,_ Bb and Cc.
l,'.v:hy' f€)\ BC= J Bc*Cc"
w'arzr l( -J I
rqgedY
drecl
Then bc: BC @t'.
8c>30

(ii). I ^
*
:1)
r kc
ry l\

@L
'rf'
Ftgure 2.26
Set out line Dd At d sel out the
right angle to gi'ie C on the chail
the. Meas,r:e Dd and Cd.

ComputeBC = /Cd'+P-d'
(b

A river or stream represents this type of obstacle. There many possible solutions,

(i).
A random tne CBt is set out.
From iculars at D and E,
points d e are obtained.
By simila triangies c d D andCeE,

+DE
Ee

DExDd
E' @:Dil
.,3

25

I
 In this method,
right angle need
be set out'

e Triangles CDX z

dFX are identical'

\i
)/ CD=dF

,,Ftgorc 2.27
)r

a
l
l (c).
ranged and, thr:s. Produced
prevents the line from
l
Some obstacles, e'g'abuilding'
tackled as
ffiil tiloUrtactJ- Tbese ptouit*t can be

On the line right angles a= se: out at

e Br and C1., *'here BBt
=
BandCto
CCr.

BrCr is now .uced to give Dr and Er

where right are set out to give D and
E; so that D =ErE=CrC=BtB.

Now D and E outhe line ABCProdusd,

with CrDr :
v_

On the fne ABC, a length BCis

measured and an equilateral

tiangle BCD is
l

set uP (i.e.
:
CD : DB).
:

BD is to a suitable Point F, and a

length EF and an equilateral A
EFG is set (to eive the direction of line
FGHJ). Li r.C ii extended to J such that
BF = FJ.

= EFG - 60", BFJ is

an
Since C;
equilateral with BJ : BF = EJ' An
equilateral IIH is set uP at J, to give
of chain line ABC as IIK'

26
i.
 x )5v r ; t-|r\hq,S t\,,.t'1',
o8o3bb,X

2.8. Perpendieulars to qhain

Iines
T:.:= :_-= r,,. ,=,.*__,. consider: (1)..D.ropping
H a
o:t.u line at rugrrt angtes perpr from a point to a
,,:,':t,l: ;:,'y,
"_ rr.rl,- - sreel band.
to the line from a given

, on r,: i short ofls e ts

*i:-,; ts::::I_":::li*ati
rnls nt:t a:n accurate rnethod. tliis is often practiced,
/L\ .._
(b). Swing rhe end of the
;;;; ilre chain tine,, r,r.r
;il1jffi*l"H:jl1 +;i;nri
the teast off.ser distance take tne
the point i .lu"p.*S the far (zero)
the
;;';il;p[Ke chain rrfuch gives
k) ;;,,,l,i"r.u,
f?;Jllj:,:,"g,,h;
P (the poinr), *o,r" r,virh rhe rree :ncl cf
;;TT.T;#H1.jI-; the tape at cenfre
(: Bisect AB at
e" The argle peA is 90,. anrl B (Figure 2.29{a)).

(a). Use crr:ss-statf.

(b). Use OpHcat sq
i;i it#;X' ---' \r/r/v rute' or any multipir
:"i!=li;T,'Hil.
with the zero end mu,
.thereof, say 9,12,75).;
__ -* r4,r un take the 24m mark on
*"J:ff^t"lT..T.s"=.,H:liJ5,ffi
in the hrrnd u.,a. ,
tne oand. Take li,J:tti :9m mark on the tape
helcl at A and p, puti
*j*f#j,t
(d) rake A andi:rilJniB
,-.:Iffi ft:,Iffi : ffil{
l xiilr:#?;
i

from ##Y;
A :rnd B ,rr.ith 2.8(c )), Sfrike arcs
"q"J;-Iriolo ir,t*rr"ct at e. Th angle APQ = 90o.

i
9m
Survey
{in€
Survey
I2 rn P- line
\ Survey
g line
{6)

Figwe 2.29

! ' 'i'
1-
,LI