TRANS

RANSFER FUNC
UNCTION OF DC SERV
SERVO
O MOTOR

EXPT.
XPT.N
NO :

AIM:

To determine the transfer function of the DC servomotor

APPAR
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Equipment Range Type Quantity

THEORY
THEORY::
Speed can be controlled by varying (i) flux per pole (ii) resistance of armature circuit and
(iii) applied voltage.
It is known that N∝Eb. If applied voltage is kept, Eb = V – IaRa will

Remain constant. Then,N ∝ 1ϕ

By decreasing the flux speed can be increased and vice versa. Hence this method is
called field control method. The flux of the DC shunt motor can be changed by changing
field current, Ish with the help of shunt field rheostat. Since the Ish relatively small, the
shunt filed rheostat has to carry only a small current,
2
which means Ish R loss is small. This method is very efficient. In non-interpolar
machines, speed can be increased by this methods up to the ratio 2: 1. In interpolar
machine, a ratio of maximum to minimum speed of 6:1 which is fairly common.

1
FORMUL
RMULA:
Armature Contro
ntrol D.C. Serv
Servo motor:

It is DC shunt motor designed to satisfy the requirements of the servomotor. The field
excited by a constant DC supply. If the field current is constant then speed is directly
proportional to armature voltage and torque is directly
proportional to armature current.

Km
Transfer Function =
S (1 + TmS)
> Km = 1 / Avg Kb
> Tm = JRa / Kb Kt
> Kt = T / Ia
> Eb = V-Ia Ra

2
J = 0.039 Kg m
B = 0.030 N / rpm

2
 Field Cont
Contrrol D.C. Serv
ervo motor:

It is DC shunt motor designed to satisfy the requirements of the servomotor. In this

motor the armature is supplied with constant current or voltage. Torque is directly
proportional to field flux controlling the field current controls the torque of the motor.

OBSERVATION TABLE FOR TRANSFER FUNCTION ARMATURE

CONTROL DC SERVO MOTOR:
Table No. 1 Find
Findiing the valu
alue of Kb
Sl.No If Ia S1 S2 N V T Eb K b = Eb /

Avg Kb

3
 Table No. 2 To find Ra

Sl.No Volt Va Current Ia Ra = Va / Ia

Avg Ra =

PRE
PRECAUT
CAUTIONS:

At starting,
The field rheostat should be kept in minimum resistance position

PRO
PROCEDURE
DURE FOR TRANS
RANSFER FUNC
UNCTION OF ARMA
ARMATURE
URE CONTROL DC
SERV
SERVO
OMOTOR
OTOR

Findi
nding Kb
1. Keep all switches in OFF position.
2. Initially keep voltage adjustment POT in minimum potential position.
3. Initially keep armature and field voltage adjustment POT in minimum position.
4. Connect the module armature output A and AA to motor armature terminal A and AA
respectively, and field F and FF to motor field terminal F and FF respectively.
5. Switch ON the power switch, S1, S2.
6. Set the field voltage 50% of the rated value.

4
 7. Set the field current 50% of the rated value.
8. Tight the belt an take down the necessary readings for the table – 1 to find the value of Kb.
9. Plot the graph Torque as Armature current to find Kt.

Findi
nding Ra
1. Keep all switches in OFF position.
2. Initially keep voltage adjustment POT in minimum position.
3. Initially keep armature and field voltage adjustment POT in minimum potential position.
4. Connect module armature output A and AA to motor armature terminal A to
AA respectively.
5. Switch ON the power switch and S1.
6. Now armature voltage and armature current are taken by varying the
armature POT with in the rated armature current value.
7. The average resistance value in the table -2 gives the armature resistance

5
PRO
PROCEDURE
DURE FOR TRANS
RANSFER FUNCT
NCTION OF FIELD CONTROL D.C. SERV
SERVO
OMOTOR
OTOR:

Findi
nding Rf
1. Keep all switches in OFF position.
2. Keep armature field voltage POT in minimum potential position.
3. Initially keep armature and field voltage adjustment POT in minimum potential position.
4. Connect module filed output F and FF to motor filed terminal F and FF
respectively.
5. Switch ON the power, S1 and S2.
6. Now filed voltage and filed current are taken by varying the armature POT
with in the rated armature current value.
7. Tabulate the value in the table no – 3 average resistance values give the fied resistance.

Findi
nding Zf
1. Keep all switches in OFF position.
2. Keep armature and field voltage POT in minimum position.
3. Initially keep armature and field voltage adjustment POT in minimum position.
4. Connect module varaic output P and N to motor filed terminal F and FF
respectively.
5. Switch on the power note down reading for the various AC supply by adjusting varaic for
the table no – 4.

l
Findi
nding Kt
1. Keep all switches OFF position.
2. Initially keep voltage adjustment POT in minimum potential position.
3. Initially keep armature and field voltage adjustment POT in minimum position.
4. Connect the module armature output A and AA to motor armature terminal and AA
respectively, and field F and FF to motor field terminal F and FF
respectively.
5. Switch ON the power switch, S1 and S2.
6. Set the filed voltage at rated value (48V).
7. Adjust the armature voltage using POT on the armature side till it reaches the 1100 rpm.
l
8. Tight the belt and take down the necessary reading for the table – 5 Kt
l
9. Plot the graph Torque as Field current to find Kt

6
OBSERVA
OBSERVATTION TABLE FOR TRAN
RANSFER FUN
FUNCTION OF ARMAT
ARMATURE CONTROL
DC SERV
SERVO
OMOTOR
OTOR:
Table No:3 To find Rf

Sl.No If (amp) Vf (Volt) Rf (ohm)

Avg Rf =

Table No:4 To find Zf

Sl.No If (amp) Vf (Volt) Zf = Vf / If
mA

Av
Avg Zf =
l
Table No: 5 To find Kt

Sl.No If Ia S1 S2 T( N – m) N (rpm)

7
MODEL GRAPH
RAPH

FIELD CURRENT ARMATURE CURRENT

MODEL CAL
CALCUL
CULATION

Result:

8
 TRANS
RANSFER FUNC
UNCTION OF AC SERV
SERVO
O MOTOR

EXPT.
XPT.N
NO :
DATE
DATE :

AIM:
To determine the transfer function of the given AC servomotor

APPAR
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Equipment Range Type Quantity

NAME
NAME PLATE DETAILS:
OUTPUT:
VOLTAGE:
CURRENT:
SPEED:

FUSE
FUSE RAT
RATINGS:
Blocked rotor test: 125% of rated current.
THEORY
THEORY::
An servo motor is basically a two – phase induction type except for certain special design
features. A two – phase servomotor differ in the following two ways from a normal induction motor.
The rotor of the servomotor is built with high resistance. So that its X / R (Inductive
reactance / resistance) ratio is small which result in liner speed – torque characteristics. The excitation
o
voltage applied to two – stator winding should have a phase difference of 90

9
 WORKING PRI
PRINCIPLE OF AC SER
SERVOMOTOR

o
Voltages of equal rms magnitude and 90 phase difference excite the stator winding.
o
These results in exciting current i1 and i2 that are phase displaced by 90 and have equal
rms value. These current are rise to a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude. The
direction of rotation depends on the phase relationship of the two current (or voltage).

The rotating magnetic field sweeps over the rotor conductor. The rotor conductors
experience a change in flux and so voltage are induced in rotor conductors. This voltage
circulates current in the short circuited rotor conductors and the current creates rotor flux.
Due to the interaction of stator and rotor flux, a mechanical force (or torque) is
developed on the rotor and the rotor starts moving in the same direction as that of rotating
magnetic field.

The rotating magnetic field sweeps over the rotor conductor. The rotor
conductors experience a change in flux and so voltage are induced in rotor conductors.
This voltage circulates current in the short circuited rotor conductors and the current creates
rotor flux.
Due to the interaction of stator and rotor flux, a mechanical force (or torque) is
developed on the rotor and the rotor starts moving in the same direction as that of rotating
magnetic field.

FORMUL
RMULA:

Laplace Transform of output

Transfer Function =
Laplace Transform of input

(s) / Es(s) = K1 / sJ + K2 + B = Km / 1 + s ------ (1)

Km = K1 / (K2 + B) ------------------------------- motor gain constant (2)

m = J / (K2 + B) ---------------------------------- motor time constant (3)

Torque (T) = 9.81 * r * s Nm

S = applied load in Kg
R = radius of shaft in m = 0.068 m

10
Constant Val
Values:

2 2
J = 52 gm cm = 0.05kg cm , B = 0.01875

Table No: 1

OBSERVA
OBSERVAT
TION TABLE FOR DETERM
ETERMIINIG MOTOR CONSTAN
STANT
T K1:

S.No Load Control Torque

(kg) Voltage (Vc) (Nm)

Table No: 2

OBSERV
OBSERV
S.No Speed (N) Load Torque (Nm) ATION
rpm (kg)
TABLE
FOR
DETERM
ETERM
INING
MOTO
OTOR
CONSTA
STA
NT K2:

11
PRE
PRECAUT
CAUTIONS:
i. Initially DPST switch should be in open condition.
ii. Keep the autotransformer in minimum potential position.
iii. In blocked rotor test, block the rotor by tightening the belt around the the brake drum
before starting the experiment .

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF SERVOMOTOR

PRO
PROCEDURE:
DURE:
For determ
determining motor constant K1
1. Keep variac in minimum potential position.
2. Connect banana connectors “Pout to Pin” and “Nout to Nin”.
3. Connect 9pin D connector from the motor feed back to the input of module
VPET – 302.
4. Switch ON the 230V AC supply of the motor setup.
5. Switch ON the power switch.
6. Switch ON the S2 (main winding) and S1 (control winding) switches.
7. Set the rated voltage (230V) to control phase using VARIAC.
8. Apply load to the motor step by step until it reaching 0 rpm.
9. Take necessary readings for the table -1.
10.To calculate K1 plot the graph torque vs control winding

12
 For determ
determining motor constant K2
1. Keep variac in minimum potential position.
2. Connect banana connectors “Pout to Pin” and “Nout to Nin”.
3. Connect 9pin D connector from the motor feed back to the input of module
VPET – 302.
4. Switch ON the 230V AC supply of the motor setup.
5. Switch ON the power switch.
6. Switch ON the S2 (main winding) and S1 (control winding) switches.
7. Set the rated voltage (230V) to control phase using VARIAC.
8. Apply load to the motor step by step until it reaches 0 rpm.
9. Take necessary readings for the table -2.
10.To calculate K2 plot speed vs torque curve.

MODEL GRAPH
RAPH

MOTOR CONSTAN
STANT
T K2 MOTOR CONSTAN
STANT
T K1

K2 = T / N T
T
V
N
K1= T / V

MO
MODELCA
ELCAL
LCUL
CULATIO
N:
Speed in rpm

13
 Result:

Speed in rpm

EXPT NO. 3 ANALOG SIMULATION OF TYPE – 0 and TYPE – 1 SYSTEM

AIM:

To study the time response of first and second order type –0 and type- 1 systems.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Linear system simulator kit

2. CRO

FORMULAE USED:

1. Damping ratio, ξ= (ln MP) 2 / (ξ 2 + (ln MP) 2)

Where MP is peak percent overshoot obtained from the response graphω

2. Undamped natural frequency, ω n =π / tp  (1 - ξ 2)

Where tp is peak time obtained from the response graph

3. Closed loop transfer function of type-0 second order system is

C(s) / R(s) = G(s) / 1+G(s)

Where G(s) = K K2 K3 / [(1+sT1) (1 + sT2)]

K is the gain

K2 is the gain of the time constant – 1 block =10

14
 K3 is the gain of the time constant – 2 block =10

T1 is the time constant time constant – 1 block = 1 ms

T2 is the time constant time constant – 2 block = 1 ms

4. Closed loop transfer function of type-1 second order system is

C(s) / R(s) = G(s) / 1+G(s)

Where G(s) = K K1 K2 /[s (1 + sT1)]

K is the gain

K1 is the gain of Integrator = 9.6

K2 is the gain of the time constant – 1 block =10

T1 is the time constant of time constant – 1 block = 1 ms

Theoretical Values of ω n and ξ can be obtained by comparing the co-efficients of

the denominator of the closed loop transfer function of the second order system

with the standard format of the second order system where the standard format is

THEORY:

The type number of the system is obtained from the number of poles located at origin in a
given system. Type – 0 system means there is no pole at origin. Type – 1 system means there is one
pole located at the origin.

The order of the system is obtained from the highest power of s in the denominator of
closed loop transfer function of the system

The first order system is characterized by one pole or a zero. Examples of first order
systems are a pure integrator and a single time constant having transfer function of the form K/s
and K/ (sT+1). The second order system is characterized by two poles and upto two zeros. The
standard form of a second order system is C(s) /R(s) = ω n2 / (s2 + 2ξ ω ns + ω n2) where ξ is
damping ratio and ω n is undamped natural frequency.

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

15
1. To find steady state error of type- 1 system

2. To find steady state error of type- 0 system

3. To find the closed loop response of Type-1 second order system

16
4. To find the closed loop response of Type-0 second order system

PROCEDURE:

1. To find the steady state error of type – 1 first order system

1. The blocks are connected using the patch cords in the simulator kit.

2. The input triangular wave is set to 1 V peak to peak in the CRO and this is applied

to the REF terminal of error detector block. The input is also connected to the X-

channel of CRO.

3. The output from the system is connected to the Y- channel of CRO.

4. The experiment should be conducted at the lowest frequency so keep the frequency

knob in minimum position to allow enough time for the step response to reach near

steady state.

5. The CRO is kept in X-Y mode and the steady state error is obtained as the vertical

displacement between the two curves.

6. The gain K is varied and different values of steady state errors are noted.

17
2. To find the steady state error of type – 0 first order system

1. The blocks are connected using the patch cords in the simulator kit.

2. The input square wave is set to 1 V peak to peak in the CRO and this is applied

to the REF terminal of error detector block. The input is also connected to the X-

channel of CRO.

3. The output from the system is connected to the Y- channel of CRO.

4. The CRO is kept in X-Y mode and the steady state error is obtained as the vertical

displacement between the two curves.

5. The gain K is varied and different values of steady state errors are noted.

3. To find the closed loop response of type – 0 and type- 1 second order system

1. The blocks are connected using the patch cords in the simulator kit.

2. The input square wave is set to 1 V peak to peak in the CRO and this is applied

to the REF terminal of error detector block. The input is also connected to the X-

channel of CRO.

3. The output from the system is connected to the Y- channel of CRO.

4. The output waveform is obtained in the CRO and it is traced on a graph

sheet. From the waveform the peak percent overshoot, settling time, rise time,

peak time are measured. Using these values ω n and ξ are calculated.

5. The above procedure is repeated for different values of gain K and the values are

compared with the theoretical values.

TABULAR COLUMN:

1. To find the steady state error of type – 1 first order system

18
 S.No. Gain ,K Steady state error ess (V)

2. To find the steady state error of type – 0 first order system

S.No. Gain ,K Steady state error ess (V)

Type equation here.3. To find the closed loop response of type – 0 second order system

S. Gain, Peak Rise Peak Settling Graphical Theoretical

N time,tr time, time,ts
o. K percent (sec) Dam Undamped Dam Undamped
Overshoo (sec) tp (sec) natural ping natural
t, %MP ping frequency, ratio frequency,
ratio ξ ωn(rad/sec)
ξ ωn
(rad/sec)

MODEL GRAPH:

MODEL CALCULATION:

19
RESULT:

The time response of first and second order type- 0 and type- 1 systems are studied.

20
Ex. No: 4 Transfer Function of Separately Excited D.C. Generator

Aim:

To determine the transfer function of separately excited D.C. generator.

Apparatus Required:

• Ammeter
• Voltmeter
• Rheostat
• DPST

Name plate Details:

D.C Shunt Motor D.C Generator

1. K.W =3 1. K.W = 3

2. R.P.M = 1500 2. R.P.M = 1500

3. Voltage = 220 V 3. Voltage = 220 V

4. A = 14 A 4. A = 14 A

5. If = 0.014 A

Formula Used:

(Without load)
E g (s) Kg
=
V f (S ) R f + SL f

(With load)
V f (s) Kg
=
V f (S ) (R f + SL f ).( Ra + SLa )

21
Where

La=Inductance of armature winding

Lf= Inductance of field winding

Kg=Generator rheostat

Za,Zf= Total impendence due to armature and field winding

Ra,Rf= Effective armature and field rheostat.

Circuit Diagram:

22
Tabulation:

To find Ra

Va Ra
Ia
( )
(A) Ω
(V)

To find Rf

Vf
If Rf

A Ω
V

To find Za

Va
Ia Za

A Ω
V

To find Zf

Vf
If Zf

A Ω
V

23
O.C.characteristics:

Eg (V)

If (A)

Procedure:

Determination of generator constant ‘Kg’

1. The circuit connections were completed as in fig.

2. The D.C motor was started using three point starter and made field rheostat.
3. The voltage corresponding to zero field current was noted
4. Then generator field rheostat was adjusted and opened circuit (voltage for various field
current was tabulated)
5. The above procedure was repeated until the voltmeter reads the rated voltage.
6. A graph was drawn between Eg and If from linear portion of curve Kg was found out using
formula

∆E g
Kg =
∆I f

To find La, Ra, Za and Lf:

1. The connections was completed as shown in fig,

2. DPST switch was closed and rheostat or single phase Variac were varied
3. The voltmeter and ammeter reading were tabulated. The average values are found out.

Result:

Thus the transfer function of the separately excited D.C. generator was found.

24
25
EX NO:
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF ARMATURE CONTROLLED DC MOTOR
Aim:
To determine the transfer function of armature controlled DC motor.

Apparatus Required:
Formula :

1)

ω (s) Kt

Va(s) (Ra + sLa) (B + sJ ) + Kt Kb

ω (s) ( Kt / RaB)

Va (s) (1 + τ as) (1 + τ s) + (Kt Kb/ Ra B)

m

ω (s) ( Km)

Va(s) (1 +as) (1+ms) + (Kt Kb)

Where,

Kt -Torque constant

Kb – Back emf constant

J - Moment of inertia

B - Friction coefficient

26
 Ra -Armature resistance

La -Armature inductance

Km - Motor gain constant = (Kt / Ra B)

m - Mechanical time constant = (J/B)

a - Armature circuit = (La / Ra)

time constant

2)

1 Va.Kt

B = - Kb . Kt N.m / rad / sec.

Ra 

Where,

ω - rated speed in rad / sec. Va - rated armature voltage in volts.

3)

(I1 + I2) (V1 + V2)

P1 = watts

2 2

t2

Pm = P1 watts

t1 - t2

2
2 dN

also, Pm = xNxJx watts.

60 dt

where,

27
P1 Average power dissipated in load

Pm Mechanical power developed

N -Rated speed in rpm

4) For armature controlled motor

Kt = Kb

Procedure:

(a) Determination of back e.m.f constant ‘Kb’: [refer figure: (1.1)]

1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Keep the potential divider at the minimum potential position and the field rheostat

at the minimum resistance position.

3. Close the DPST switch and adjust the field rheostat to get a suitable field current say
100% of the rated value.

4. Vary the armature voltage by varying the potential divider.

5. Note down the ammeter, voltmeter readings and speed.
6. Repeat the steps (4) & (5) for various values of armature voltage.
7. Tabulate the readings and plot the graph (Eb Vs w).
8. Calculate the back e.m.f constant Kb.

(b) Determination of moment of inertia ‘J’: [refer figure: (1.2)]

1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Keep the armature rheostat at maximum resistance position and field rheostat at
minimum resistance position.
3. With the DPDT switch at 1-1’ position, close the DPST switch.
4. Slowly vary the armature rheostat to start the motor smoothly.
5. Adjust the speed of motor to rated value by varying field rheostat.
6. Open the DPDT switch and note the time taken by motor for its speed to fall from rated
value to1100rpm. Denote it as ‘t1’
7. Open the DPST switch and repeat the steps (2) to (5).
8. Close the DPDT switch from 1-1’ position to 2-2’ position.
9. Note the time taken by motor for its speed to fall from its rated speed to 1100rpm.
Denote it as ‘t2’.
10. Note the Ammeter and Voltmeter readings at the instant of closing the DPDT to 2-2’
position. Denote them as I1 & V1 respectively.
11. Note the ammeter and voltmeter readings when the speed is 1100rpm. Denote them as I2
& V2 respectively.
28
 12. Tabulate the readings and calculate the value of ‘J’.

(c) Determination of armature resistance ‘Ra’: [refer figure: (1.3)]

1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Initially, the rheostat load should be in OFF position.

3. Close the DPST switch.

4. Apply the load in steps and note down the corresponding ammeter and voltmeter
readings.

5. Tabulate the readings and calculate the armature resistance.

(d) Determination of armature inductance ‘La’: [refer figure: (1.4)]

1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Keep the 1 autotransformer at minimum potential position.
3. Close the DPST switch.
4. Vary the autotransformer insteps and note down the corresponding ammeter & voltmeter
readings.
5. Tabulate the readings and calculate the armature inductance.

Result:
Thus the transfer function of armature controlled dc motor was determine and it is found
to be,

(s)

Va (s)

P
29

S
30
A
F A
Migure:
Determination
Z (1.1) of Back e.m.f Constant
‘K
Vb’:

ZZ

AA

31
Determination of Moment of Inertia ‘J’:

32
A
1z
1’ 2
2’
AV
Figure:
D (1.2)
PM
D
T

zz
AA

33
AFigure:
D V
A
M
Determination
(1.3) of armature inductance ‘La’:

AA

AA

34
AFigure:
D V
A
M
Determination
Rheostat(1.4)
Load of Armature Resistance
‘Ra’:

AA

AA

35
MODEL GRAPH :

DETERMINATION OF BACK EMF CONSTSNT Kb :

36
 S.No Va Ia N Eb= (Va-IaRa) ω = (2πN / 60)
(Volts) (Amps) (rpm) (Volts) (rad /sec)

S.No Speed Time Voltage Current Pm J

(rpm) (sec) (volts) (amps) (watts) (N Sec2 / m)
N1 N2 T1 T2 V1 V2 I1 I2

DETERMINATION OF MOMENT OF INERTIA J

DETERMINATION OF ARMATURE IMPEDANCE Za :

S.No Va Ia Za
(volts) (amps) (ohms)

Average Za =
La =

37
DETERMINATION OF ARMATURE RESISTANCE Ra :

S.No Va Ia Ra
(volts) (amps) (ohms)

Average Ra =

MODEL CALCULATION:

RESULT:

38
EX NO:

TRANSFER FUNCTION OF FIELD CONTROLLED DC MOTOR

Aim:
To determine the transfer function of field controlled DC motor.

Apparatus Required:

Formula :

1) ω sVf s=Kt Rf + s LfB + s J

2) ω sVf s= KtRf .B1 +τ f s1+τ ms
3) ω (s)Vf (s)=Km(1 +τ f s) (1+τ ms)

Where,

Km - Field controlled motor gain constant

τ f - Field circuit time constant = (Lf / Rf)

τ m - Mechanical time constant = (J / B)

Kt Torque constant of field controlled motor

J Moment of inertia

Rf Field resistance

Lf Field inductance

B Viscous friction co-efficient

2)

39
B = (Vf Kt 1/ ω . Rf ) N.m / rad / sec.

Where,

ω - rated speed in rad / sec.

Vf - rated field voltage in volts.

3)

where

P1 Average power dissipated in load

Pm Mechanical power developed

N Rated speed in rpm

Procedure:

(a) Determination of Torque constant Kt: [refer figure: (3.1)]

1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Keep the potential divider at the minimum potential position and the field

rheostat at the minimum resistance position.

3. Close the DPST switch and adjust the field current to a suitable value say

50% of the rated value by varying field rheostat.

40
 4. Apply low voltage to armature circuit by varying the potential divider and note down
the armature current.
5. Apply the load gradually till the motor comes to reset.
Note: While loading the motor, the armature current should be maintained to

the noted value by adjusting the potential divider.

6. Note down the spring balance readings corresponding to the field current.

7. Repeat the steps (4) to (6) for different values of field current.
8. Tabulate the readings and plot the graph (T Vs If)
9. Calculate the torque constant Kt.

(a) Determination of moment of inertia ‘J’: [refer figure: (3.2)]

1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.

1. Keep the armature rheostat at maximum resistance position and field rheostat at
minimum resistance position.
2. With the DPDT switch at 1-1’ position, close the DPST switch.
3. Slowly vary the armature rheostat to start the motor smoothly.
4. Adjust the speed of motor to rated value by varying field rheostat.
6. Open the DPDT switch and note the time taken by motor for its speed to fall from rated
value to1100rpm. Denote it as ‘t1’

7. Open the DPST switch and repeat the steps (2) to (5).

8. Close the DPDT switch from 1-1’ position to 2-2’ position.

9. Note the time taken by motor for its speed to fall from its rated speed to 1100rpm.
Denote it as ‘t2’.

10. Note the Ammeter and Voltmeter readings at the instant of closing the DPDT to 2-2’
position. Denote them as I1 & V1 respectively.

11. Note the ammeter and voltmeter readings when the speed is 1100rpm. Denote them as I2
& V2 respectively.

12. Tabulate the readings and calculate the value of ‘J’.

(c) Determination of field resistance ‘Rf’: [refer figure: (3.3)]

1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Initially, the rheostat load should be in OFF position.
41
 3. Keeping the armature circuit open, close the DPST switch.
4. Apply the load in steps and note down the corresponding ammeter and voltmeter
readings.
5. Tabulate the readings and calculate the armature resistance.

(d) Determination of field inductance ‘Lf’: [refer figure: (3.4)]

1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Keep the 1ϕ autotransformer at minimum potential position.
3. Keeping the armature circuit open, close the DPST switch.
4. Vary the autotransformer insteps and note down the corresponding ammeter & voltmeter
readings.
5. Tabulate the readings and calculate the field inductance.

Determination of Torque Constant ‘Kt’:

M
S1
D
A S2
P

Vf (s)
A
220V F
V
DC
Co
-
SUPP

42
 A

Figure: (3.1)

Tabulation:
Radius of the Brake drum = -----------m

Va = ………….Volts, Ia = …………Amps

S.No Vf If Load Torque =

(Volts) (Amps) S1 S2 9.81 (S1 S2)

(Kg) (Kg) (N.M)

Model Graph:

43
Determination of moment of inertia J :

44
AF
1
1’
D
+ DVA 2
2’
M
P
SD

FT

P
AA

Figure. (3.2)45
S.No Speed Time Voltage Current Pm J
N1 N2 t1 t2 V1 V2 I1 I2 () (N.S2 /m)
(rpm) (rpm) (sec) (sec) (V) (V) (A) (A)

46
DFigure
220V
Z V
A
Determination
3.3 of Field Resistance
‘Rf’:
DC

ZZ

AA

47
Tabulation :

S.No Vf If Rf

(Volts) (Amps) (Ohms)

Average Rf=

Result:

Thus the transfer function of field controlled dc motor is determined.

Expt. No: 6.a) STABILITY ANALYSIS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS(Bode Plot)

AIM
To obtain the bode plot for the given system whose transfer function is given as

G(S)= 242(s+5) s(s+1)(S2+5s+121)

and to find out whether the system is stable or not.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

48
 MATLAB Software

THEORY

A Linear Time-Invariant Systems is stable if the following two notions of system

stability are satisfied

 When the system is excited by Bounded input, the output is also a Bounded
output.
 In the absence of the input, the output tends towards zero, irrespective of the
initial conditions.
The following observations are general considerations regarding system stability and are
If all the roots of the characteristic equation have negative real parts, then the impulse
response is bounded and eventually decreases to zero, then system is stable.
 If any root of the characteristic equation has a positive real part, then system is
unstable.
 If the characteristic equation has repeated roots on the jω-axis, then system is
unstable.
 If one are more non-repeated roots of the characteristic equation on the jω-axis,
then system is unstable.

BODE PLOT:

Consider a Single-Input Single-Output system with transfer function

C(s) R(s)= b0 Sm + b1Sm-1 + ……+ bma0 Sn+ a1Sn-1 + ……+an

Where m < n.

 Rule 1 A system is stable if the phase lag is less than 180˚ at the frequency for
which the gain is unity (one).
 Rule 2 A system is stable if the gain is less than one (unity) at the frequency for
which the phase lag is 180˚.
The application of these rules to an actual process requires evaluation of the gain and
phase shift of the system for all frequencies to see if rules 1 and 2 are satisfied. This is
obtained by plotting the gain and phase versus frequency. This plot is called BODE
PLOT. The gain obtained here is open loop gain.

49
 The stability criteria given above represent Limits of Stability. It is well to design a
system with a margin of safety from such limits to allow for variation in components and
other unknown factors. This consideration leads to the revised stability criteria, or more
properly, a Margin of Safety provided to each condition. The exact terminology is in
terms of a Gain Margin and Phase Margin from the limiting values quoted.

• If the phase lag is less than 140˚ at the unity gain frequency, the system is stable.
This then, is a 40˚ Phase Margin from the limiting values of 180˚.
• If the gain is 5dB below unity (or a gain of about 0.56) when the phase lag is
180˚, the system is stable. This is 5dB Gain Margin.

ALGORITHM

1. Write a Program to (or using SIMULINK) obtain the Bode plot for the given system.
2. Access the stability of given system using the plots obtained.

PROGRAM

%BODE PLOT OF THE SYSTEM%

%Enter the numerator and denominator of the transfer function

num=[0 0 0 242 1210];

den=[1 6 126 121 0];

sys=tf(num,den)

%Specify the frequency range and enter the command

w=logspace(-2,4,1000);

50
bode(sys,w)

xlabel('Frequency')

ylabel( ' Phase angle in degrees Magnitude of G(s)')

title('Bode Plot of the system 242(s+5)/s(s+1)(s^2+5*s+121)')

%To determine the Gain Margin,Phase Margin, Gain crossover frequency and

%Phase cross over frequency

[ Gm, Pm, Wcp, Wcg ]= margin (sys)

PROCEDURE TO OBTAIN BODE PLOT

1. Rewrite the sinusoidal transfer function in the time constant form by replacing s by jω

2. Identify the corner frequencies associated with each factor of the transfer function.

3. knowing the corner frequencies draw the asymptotic magnitude plot. This plot

consists of straight line segments with line slope changing at each corner frequency

by +20db/decade for a zero and -20db/decade for a pole. For a complex conjugate

zero or pole the slope changes by + 40db/decade.

4. Draw a smooth curve through the corrected points such that it is asymptotic to the line

segments. This gives the actual log-magnitude plot.

5. Draw phase angle curve for each factor and add them algebraically to get the phase

plot.

MANUAL CALCULATIONS

51
i)The sinusoidal transfer function G (jω) is obtained by replacing s by jω in the given s domain
transfer function

G(jω)= 242(jω +5)jω (jω +1)( jω 2+5 jω +121)

On comparing the quadratic factor of G(s) with standard form of quadratic

factor , ζ and ωn can be evaluated.

s2+5s+121 = s2+2ζωns + ωn2

On comparison

ωn2 = 121 2ζωn= 5

ωn =11 rad/sec ζ = 0.227

G(jω)= 10(1+0.2jω)jω (1+jω)( 1+0.4 jω -0.0083ω 2)

ii)CORNER FREQUENCIES

The corner frequencies are ωc1=1rad/sec ωc2= 5 rad/sec and ωc3=11rad/sec

Choose a low frequency ωl such that ωl< ωc1 and choose a high frequency ωh> ωc3.

Let ωl=0.5 rad/sec and ωh=100 rad/sec

Term Corner Slope db/dec Change in slope

Frequency db/dec
rad/sec
10 __ -20 __

jω
1 1 -20 -20-20= - 40

52
 (1+jω)

(1+0.2jω) 5 20 -40-20 = -20

1 11 -40 -40-20 = -60

( 1+0.4 jω -0.0083ω 2)

iii)MAGNITUDE PLOTS

Calculate A at ωl, ωc1, ωc2, ωc3, and ωh

Let A= | G(jω)| in db

At ω= ωl A= 20 log(10/0.5)=26.03db

ω= ωc1 , A=20l og(10/1)=20db

ω= ωc2 A= -40log(5/1)+20=-7.96 db

ω= ωc3 A = -20log(11/5) - 7.96 = -14.80 db

ω= ωh A = -60log(100/11)-14.80 = - 72.3 db

These values are plotted in the semilog graph sheet taking frequency along the logarithmic scale
and magnitude in db along the linear scale

iv)PHASE PLOT

The phase angle of G(jω) as a function of ω is given by

Φ = ‹G(jω) = tan-1 0.2ω -90 – tan-1 ω – tan-1 0.04ω/(1 – 0.0083ω2)

Ω tan-1 0.2ω tan-1 ω tan-1 {0.04ω/ Φ = ‹G(jω)

(1 – 0.0083ω2)}

1 11.3 45 2.31 -126.01

10 63.43 84.29 63.44 -174.3

53
 20 75.96 87.14 180-19.98=160 -261.18

100 87014 89.43 180-2.9=177.1 -269.3

These values are plotted in the semilog graph sheet taking the same frequency as before along
the logarithmic scale and phase angle in degrees along the linear scale.

OUTPUT (from simulation)

242 s + 1210S4+6S3+126S2+121S

Gm = 2.0273

Pm = 41.8270

Wcp = 10.0961

Wcg = 3.6322

OUTPUT (from graph)

ωgc= Φgc=3.1rad/sec

Phase margin γ=180+ Φgc = 180-134 = 46 degrees

Gain Margin = 12 db

54
ωpc = 10.1 rad/sec

BODE PLOT

RESULT:
i)The Bode plot is drawn for the given transfer function using MATLAB and verified
manually

ii) The system is stable

Expt. No: 6. b) STABILITY ANALYSIS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS

55
 (Root Locus Plot)

AIM

To obtain the Root locus plot for the given system whose transfer function is given as

G(S)= Ks(s+3)(S2+3s+11.25)

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Mat lab Software

THEORY

ROOT LOCUS PLOT :

The characteristic of the transient response of a closed-loop system is related to the location of
the closed loop poles. If the system has a variable loop gain, then the location of the closed-loop
poles depend on the value of the loop gain chosen. A simple technique known as “Root Locus
Technique” used for studying linear control systems in the investigation of the trajectories of the
roots of the characteristic equation.

This technique provides a graphical method of plotting the locus of the roots in the s-plane as a
given system parameter is varied over the complete range of values(may be from zero to
infinity). The roots corresponding to a particular value of the system parameter can then be
located on the locus or the value of the parameter for a desired root location can be determined
form the locus. The root locus is a powerful technique as it brings into focus the complete
dynamic response of the system . The root locus also provides a measure of sensitivity of roots
to the variation in the parameter being considered. This technique is applicable to both single as
well as multiple-loop systems.

PROCEDURE:

1. Write a Program to (or using SIMULINK) obtain the Root locus plot for the given
system.
2. Access the stability of given system using the plots obtained.

56
PROGRAM

%ROOT LOCUS OF THE SYSTEM%

num=[0 0 0 0 1]

den=[1 6 20.25 33.75 0]

sys=tf(num,den)

rlocus(sys)

v=[-10,10,-8,8];

axis(v)

xlabel('Real Axis')

ylabel('Imaginary Axis')

title('Root Locus of the system ')

title('Root Locus Plot of the system K/s(s+3)( s2+3s+11.25))')

MANUAL CALCULATIONS

1. Number of poles =4, zeros = 0, number of root locus branches =4. Starting points s=0, -3
& 1.5+ j3.
2. Pole – zero plot is as follows
Section between 0 and -3 is part of root locus. One breakway point is between s=0 and
s=-3.

3. Angle of asymptotes are 45,135,225 and 315 degrees

4. Centroid = -1.5
5. Three Breakway points are -1.5,-1.5 + j 1.8371
6. Intersection with imaginary axis s= + j2.37.
7. Angle of departure -90, +90.
57
 8. Root locus is plotted.
9. Stability for 0< K<82.26 system is stable.
K=82.26 system is marginally stable.

K>82.26 system is unstable

OUTPUT

num =

0 0 0 0 1

den =

1.0000 6.0000 20.2500 33.7500 0

Transfer function:

1S4+6S3+20.25S2+33.75S

GRAPH(from Simulation)

58
RESULT:

59
 Expt. No: 6 c) STABILITY ANALYSIS OF LINEAR SYSTEMS

(Nyquist Plot)

AIM

To obtain the Nyquist plot for the given system whose transfer function is given as

G(S)= 50 (s+4)(s2+3s+3)

and to find out whether the system is stable or not.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Mat lab Software

THEORY

POLAR PLOTS OR NYQUIST PLOTS:

The sinusoidal transfer function G(jω) is a complex function is given by

G(jω) = Re[ G(jω)] + j Im[G(jω)] or

G(jω) = │G(jω) │ ∟G(jω) = M ∟Φ -----------(1)

From equation (1), it is seen that G(jω) may be represented as a phasor of magnitude M and
phase angle Φ. As the input frequency varies from 0 to ∞, the magnitude M and phase angle Φ
changes and hence the tip of the phasor G(jω) traces a locus in the complex plane. The locus thus
obtained is known as

POLAR PLOT.

60
 The major advantage of the polar plot lies in stability study of systems. Nyquist related the stability
of a system to the form of these plots. Polar plots are referred as NYQUIST PLOTS.

NYQUIST stability criterion of determining the stability of a closed loop system by investigating
the properties of the frequency domain plot of the loop transfer function G(s) H(s).

Nyquist stability criterion provides the information on the absolute stability of a control system as
similar to Routh- Hurwitz criterion. Not only giving the absolute stability, but indicates “Degree
of Stability” i.e “Relative Stability” of a stable system and the degree of instability of an unstable
system and indicates how the system stability can be improved. The Nyquist stability citerion is
based on a Cauchy’s Residue Theorem of complex variables which is referred to as the “principle
of argument”.

Let Q(s) be a single –valued function that has a finite number of poles in the s-plane. Suppose
that an arbitrary closed path Гq is chosen in the s-plane so that the path does not go through
any one of the poles or zeros of Q(s); the corresponding Гq locus mapped in the Q(s) plane
will encircle the origin as many times as the difference between the number of the zeros and
the number of poles of Q(s) that are encircled by the s-plane locus Гq.
The principle of argument is given by

N= Z - P

Where N – number of encirclemnts of the origin made by the Q(s) –plane locus Гq.

Z – number of zeros of Q(s) encircled by the s-plane locus Гq in the s-plane.

P - number of poles of Q(s) encircled by the s-plane locus Гq in the s-plane.

ALGORITHM

1. Write a Program to (or using SIMULINK) obtain the Nyquist plot for the given system.
2. Access the stability of given system using the plots obtained.

PROGRAM

%NYQUIST PLOT

%Enter the numerator and denominator of the transfer function

num=[0 0 0 50]
61
den=[1 7 12 12]

sys=tf(num,den)

%Specify the frequency range and enter the command

nyquist(sys)

v=[-3 5 -7 7]

axis(v)

xlabel('Real Axis');

ylabel('Imaginary Axis');

title('Nyquist Plot of the sytem 50/(s+4)(s^2+3s+3)')

%To determine the Gain Margin,Phase Margin, Gain crossover frequency and

%phase cross over frequency

[Gm,Pm,Wcp,Wcg]=margin (sys)

v=

-3 5 -7 7

Gm =

1.4402

Pm =

11.1642

Wcp =

3.4643

Wcg =

2.9533

MANUAL CALCULATIONS:

62
NYQUIST PLOT

RESULT:

Thus the Nyquist plot is drawn for the given transfer function using matlab and verified manually

63
Expt. No: 7a) DC POSITION CONTROL SYST M

To study the characteristics of a dc position control system.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

i) DC position control kit and Motor unit

ii) Multimeter
THEORY:

A pair of potentiometers acts as error-measuring device. They convert the

input and output positions into proportional electric signals. The desired position is set on the input
potentiometer and the actual position is fed to feedback potentiometer. The difference between the
two angular positions generates an error signal, which is amplified and fed to armature circuit of
the DC motor. If an error exists , the motor develops a torque to rotate the output in such a way as
to reduce the error to zero. The rotation of the motor steps when the error signal is zero, i.e., when
the desired position is reached.

PROCEDURE:

64
 1. The input or ref potentiometer is adjusted nearer to zero initially.
2. The command switch is kept in continuous mode and some value of forward gain K a is
selected.
3. For various positions of input potentiometer (r) the positions of the response
potentiometer (0) is noted. Simultaneously the reference voltage measured between Vr &
E and the output voltage measured between VO & E are noted.
4. A graph is plotted with 0 along y-axis and r along x-axis.

Tabular Column

S.`No θr θO Vr in Volts VO in Volts

degree degree

MODEL GRAPH:

Output

Position

(Deg)

Input Position (Deg)

RESULT

Thus the dc position control system characteristics are studied and corresponding graphs are drawn

Ex no 7 (b) AC POSITION CONTROL SYSTEM

AIM: Study Of Synchro Transmitter and receiver

APPARATUS REQUIRED
65
 Name of the Equipment
S.No Quantity
1 Synchro transmitter and receiver unit 1
2 Multimeter (Digital / Analog ) 1
3 Patch cords As required

THEORY:

A synchro is an electromagnetic transducer commonly used to

convert an angular position of a shaft into an electric signal. It is commercially known as a
selsyn or an autosyn. The basic synchro unit is usually called a synchro transmitter. Its
construction is similar to that of three phase alternator. The stator is of laminated silicon steel
and is slotted to accommodate a balanced three phase winding which is usually of concentric
coil type and star connected. The rotor is dumb bell construction and its wound with a
concentric coil.

AC voltage is applied to rotor winding through slip rings. Let and

AC voltage

Vr (t) = Vr sin ct be applied to the rotor of the synchro transmitter.

66
The voltage causes a flow of magnetizing current in rotor coil which produces a
sinusoidally time varying flux directed along its axis and distributed nearly sinusoidally
in the air gap along the stator periphery. Because of transformer action, voltage is induced
in each of the stator coil. As the air gap flux sinusoidally distributed the flux linking with any
stator coil is proportional to the cosine of the angle between the axes of rotor and stator coil.
This flux voltage in each stator coil. Voltages are in time phase with each other. Thus the
synchro transmitter acts a like a single-phase transformer in which the rotor coil is the
primary and the stator coil is the secondary.
Let Vs1n, Vs2n, Vs3n, be the voltage induced in the stator coils, S1, S2, S3
respectively with respect to the neutral. Then for a rotor position of the synchro transmitter,
is the angle made by rotor axis with the stator coil S2.
The various stator voltages are
o
Vs1n = KVr sin ct cos ( + 120 )
Vs2n = KVr sin ct cos
o
Vs1n = KVr sin ct cos ( + 240 )
The terminal voltages of the stator are

Vs1n Vs2n Sin(2400 sin c

Vs1s2 3 KVr t)

Vs2n Vs3n Sin(1200 sin c

Vs2s3 3 KVr t)

Vs3s1 Vs3n Vs1n 3 KVr Sin sin c t

When = 0, Vs1s2 and Vs2 s3 have the maximum voltage and while Vs3s1 has zero
voltage. This position of rotor is defined as ht electrical zero of the transmitter and is used as
reference for specifying the angular position of the rotor.
Thus it is seen that the input to the synchro transmitter is the angular position of
its rotor shaft and the output is a set of three signal phase voltages. The magnitudes of this
voltage are function of the shift position. The output of the synchro transmitter is applied to
stator winding of synchro control transformer.
The control transmitter is similar in construction to a synchro transmitter except for
the fact that rotor of the control transformer in made cylindrical in shape so that the air gap is
practically uniform. The system (transmitter and control transformer pair) acts an error
detector, circulating current to the same phase but of different magnitudes flow through two
stator coils. The result is establishment of
an indentical flux pattern in the air gap of the control transformer as the voltage drops in
resistance and lockage reactance’s of two sets of stator coils are usuallysmall.

OBSERVA
OBSERVAT
TION TABLE

67
 Transmitter Receiver
S.No Vs1 – Vs2 Vs2 – Vs3 Vs3 – Vs1 Error
(Degree) (Degree)

the synchro transmitter rotor, the voltage induced the control transformer rotor is
proportional to the cosine of the angle between the two rotors given by

E (t) = KVr cos sinr t

The synchro transmitter and control transformer thus act as an error detector giving a voltage
signal at the rotor terminals of the control transformer proportional to the angular difference
between the transmitter control transformer shaft positions.
PRO
PROCEDURE:
DURE:
1. Make the connections as per the patching diagram.
2. Switch ON the supply.
3. Vary the shaft position of the transmitter and observe the corresponding changes in
the shaft position of the receiver.
4. Repeat the above steps for different angles of the transmitter.
5. Tabulated the different voltage at the test points of S1 S2, S3S2, and S3S1

Result:

EX NO STEPPER MOTOR CONTROL SYSTEM

68
DATE

AIM

To control the stepper motor using microprocessor using 8085.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

(1) 8085 Micro Processor Kit

(2) Power chord
(3) stepper motor
(4)stepper motor interface board

ALGORITHM

Step 1: Load the count value and data into memory locations

Step 2: Get the first data and move it to interface board

Step 3: Call delay routine

Step 4: Decrement the count

Step 5: If count is equal to zero, then go to next step else go to step 2

Step 6 : Stop

PROGRAM

Memory address Label mnemonics opcode

4100 START LXI H,LOOL UP 21 1A 41
4103 MVI B,04 06 04
4105 REPT MOV A,M 7E
4106 OUT OC0H D3 CO
4108 LXI D, 0303H 11 03 03
410B DELAY NOP 00
410C DCX D 1B
410D MOV A,E 7B

69
410E ORA D B2
410F JNL DELAY C2 0B 41
4112 INX H 23
4113 DCR B 05
4114 JNZ PEPT C2 05 41
4117 JMP START C3 00 41
411A LOOK UP DB 09 05 06 0A 09 05 06 0A

RESULT

Expt. No9: DIGITAL SIMULATION OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEMS

AIM
To digitally simulate the time response characteristics of a linear system without non
linearities and to verify it manually.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

PC with MATLAB package

THEORY
70
 The time characteristics of control systems are specified in terms of time domain
specifications. Systems with energy storage elements cannot respond instantaneously and will
exhibit transient responses, whenever they are subjected to inputs or disturbances.

The desired performance characteristics of a system of any order may be specified in terms
of transient response to a unit step input signal. The transient response characteristics of a control
system to a unit step input is specified in terms of the following time domain specifications

➢ Delay time td
➢ Rise time tr
➢ Peak time tp
➢ Maximum overshoot Mp
➢ Settling time ts

PROCEDURE:

1. In MATLAB software open a new model in simulink library browser.

2. From the continuous block in the library drag the transfer function block.

3. From the source block in the library drag the step input.

4. From the sink block in the library drag thescope.

5. From the math operations block in the library drag the summing point.

6. Connect all to form a system and give unity feedback to the system.

7. For changing the parameters of the blocks connected double click the respective

block.

8. Start simulation and observe the results in scope.

9. From the step response obtained note down the rise time, peak time, peak overshoot and

settling time.

10. For the same transfer function write a matlab program to obtain the step response and verify

both the results.

PROGRAM

%This is a MATLAB program to find the step response

num=[0 25];

den=[1 5];

sys = tf (num,den);
71
step (sys);

PLOT

RESULT

The time response characteristics of a linear system without non linearities is simulated digitally
and verified manually

72
Expt. No 10: DIGITAL SIMULATION OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS

DATE:

AIM
To digitally simulate the time response characteristics of a linear system without non
linearities and to verify it manually.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

A PC with MATLAB package

THEORY

The time characteristics of control systems are specified in terms of time domain
specifications. Systems with energy storage elements cannot respond instantaneously and will
exhibit transient responses, whenever they are subjected to inputs or disturbances.

The desired performance characteristics of a system of any order may be specified in terms
of transient response to a unit step input signal. The transient response characteristics of a control
system to a unit step input is specified in terms of the following time domain specifications

➢ Delay time td
➢ Rise time tr
➢ Peak time tp
➢ Maximum overshoot Mp
➢ Settling time ts

PROCEDURE:

1. In MATLAB software open a new model in simulink library browser.

2. From the continuous block in the library drag the transfer function block.

3. From the source block in the library drag the step input.

4. From the sink block in the library drag thescope.

5. From the math operations block in the library drag the summing point.

6. Connect all to form a system and give unity feedback to the system.

7. For changing the parameters of the blocks connected double click the respective

block.

8. Start simulation and observe the results in scope.

9. From the step response obtained note down the rise time, peak time, peak overshoot and

settling time.

73
10. For the same transfer function write a matlab program to obtain the step response and verify

both the results.

PROGRAM

num=[0 0 25];

den=[1 6 25];

sys = tf (num,den);

step (sys);

Model graph

RESULT

The time response characteristics of a linear system without non linearities is simulated digitally
and verified manually.

74