Magnetostratigraphy - Concepts, Definitions, and Applications

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/233623371
Magnetostratigraphy - concepts, deﬁnitions, and applications
Article in Newsletters on Stratigraphy · April 2010

DOI: 10.1127/0078-0421/2010/0043-0207 · Source: OAI
CITATIONS READS
60 1,940
4 authors:
Cor Langereis Wout Krijgsman

Utrecht University Utrecht University
233 PUBLICATIONS 9,348 CITATIONS 378 PUBLICATIONS 17,817 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE
Giovanni Muttoni M. Menning

University of Milan Helmholtz-Zentrum Potsdam - Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum GFZ
212 PUBLICATIONS 5,823 CITATIONS 50 PUBLICATIONS 1,383 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Active Tectonics and Evolution of Anatolia and Surrounding Regions View project
Marie Curie Initial Training Network "Throughflow" View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Giovanni Muttoni on 18 December 2013.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Newsletter on Stratigraphy © Gebrüder Borntraeger 2010
Vol. 43/3: 207–233, April 2010
Magnetostratigraphy –
concepts, definitions, and applications
Cor G. Langereis, Wout Krijgsman, Giovanni Muttoni, and Manfred Menning

With 12 figures
Abstract. The most characteristic feature of the Earth’s magnetic field is that it reverses polarity at irregu-
lar intervals, producing a ‘bar code’ of alternating normal (north directed) and reverse (south directed) polar-
ity chrons with characteristic durations. Magnetostratigraphy refers to the application of the well-known prin-
ciples of stratigraphy to the pattern of polarity reversals registered in a rock succession by means of natural
magnetic acquisition processes. This requires that the rock faithfully recorded the ancient magnetic field at
the time of its formation, a prerequisite that must be verified in the laboratory by means of palaeomagnetic
and rock magnetic techniques.
A sequence of intervals of alternatively normal or reverse polarity characterized by irregular (non-periodic)
duration constitutes a distinctive pattern functional for correlations. Over the last 35 Myr, polarity intervals
show a mean duration of ~ 300,000 years, but large variations occur from 20,000 yr to several Myr and even
up to tens of Myr. By correlating the polarity reversal pattern retrieved in a rock succession to a reference
geomagnetic polarity time scale (GPTS), calibrated by radioisotopic methods and/or orbital tuning, the age
of the rock succession can be derived. Magnetostratigraphy and correlation to the GPTS constitute a standard
dating tool in Earth sciences, applicable to a wide variety of sedimentary (but also volcanic) rock types formed
under different environmental conditions (continental, lacustrine, marine). It is therefore the stratigraphic tool
of choice to perform correlations between continental and marine realms. Finally, we emphasise that magne-
tostratigraphy, as any other stratigraphic tool, works at best when integrated with other dating tools, as illus-
trated by the case studies discussed in this paper.
Part one – Concepts, definitions, natural processes and thus to determine the underlying
mechanisms that explain our observations. Biostratig-
and applications
raphy of different faunal and floral systems has been
Introduction used since the 1,840 s to erect the relative geological
age of sedimentary rocks and hence to perform corre-
Dating and time control are essential in all disciplines lations among them. Radioisotopic dating, originally
of the Earth Sciences, since they allow to correlate rock applied mostly to igneous rocks, has become increas-
sequences from distant localities and different (marine ingly sophisticated and can now count on a wide vari-
and continental) realms. Moreover, accurate time con- ety of isotopic decay systems capable to provide nu-
trol is the sine qua non to understand rates of change of merical ages also in sedimentary rocks formed under
Authorʼs addresses:
Cor G. Langereis, Wout Krijgsman, Palaeomagnetic Laboratory “Fort Hoofddijk”, University of Utrecht, 3584 CD Utrecht,
The Netherlands, E-Mail: [email protected], [email protected]; Giovanni Muttoni, Department of Earth Sciences, Uni-
versity of Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy, E-Mail: [email protected], Manfred Menning, GFZ German Research
Center for Geosciences, 14473 Potsdam, Germany, E-Mail: [email protected]
DOI: 10.1127/0078-0421/2010/0043-0207 0078-0421/10/0043-0207 $ 6.75

© 2010 Gebrüder Borntraeger, 70176 Stuttgart
eschweizerbart_xxxx
208 Cor G. Langereis et al.
1
N S
NORMAL GPTS (age in Ma) REVERSED

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the geomagnetic field of a geocentric axial dipole (‘bar magnet’). During normal po-
larity of the field the average magnetic north pole is at the geographic north pole, and a compass aligns along magnetic field
lines. Historically, the north pole is referred to as the pole attracting the ‘north seeking’ needle of a compass, but physically
it is a south pole. During normal polarity, the inclination is positive (downward directed) in the northern hemisphere and
negative (upward directed) in the southern hemisphere. Conversely, during reversed polarity, the compass needle points
south, and the inclination is negative in the northern and positive in the southern hemisphere. In the geomagnetic polarity
time scale (column in the middle), periods of normal polarity are conventionally represented by black intervals, reversed in-
tervals by white intervals.
favorable environmental conditions. In this paper, we to the body of the Earth as a whole. Newton’s theory
describe the principles of magnetostratigraphy defined of gravitation came 87 years later with the publication
as a dating tool that uses the record of polarity (normal of his ‘Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
or reverse) of the ancient geomagnetic field registered A pleasantly readable article on a more elaborate his-
in igneous or sedimentary rock sequences by natural tory of magnetism is by Stern (2002).
magnetic acquisition processes. Palaeomagnetic studies of igneous rocks provided
The most distinctive property of the Earth’s mag- the first reliable information on polarity reversals. In
netic field is that it can reverse polarity (Fig. 1). Dur- 1906, Bernard Brunhes, at that time director of the Puy-
ing the siege of Lucera (Apulia, Italy) by the armies de-Dôme Observatory (France), observed lava flows
of Charles d’Anjou, an army engineer called Pierre magnetised in a direction approximately antiparallel to
Pèlerin de Maricourt, better known as Petrus Peregri- the present geomagnetic field, and suggested that this
nus (‘Peter the Pilgrim’), made a remarkable series of was caused by a reversal of the field itself, rather than
observations. He described the dipolar nature of a by a self-reversal mechanism of the rock. In 1929,
(magnetised) spherical lodestone, and showed that the Motonori Matuyama demonstrated that young Quater-
magnetic force of this natural dipole is strongest and nary lavas were magnetised in the same direction as
vertical at the poles. In 1269, he reported his findings the present field (normal polarity), whereas older lavas
in the Epistola de Magnete – regarded as the first sci- were magnetised in the opposite direction. But it was
entific treatise ever written – and became the first to only in the early 1,950 s that Jan Hospers with his
formulate the law by which poles with same magnetic study of Icelandic basalts succeeded to convince many
charge repel whereas poles with opposite charge at- in the geophysics community that reversed magnetism
tract. In 1600, William Gilbert published the results of in rocks was not caused by a self-reversal processes but
his experimental studies on magnetism entitled De was a record of times when the Earth’s magnetic field
Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno had reversed polarity state (Hospers 1951). He was the
Magnete Tellure. He investigated the variation in in- first to realise that the polarity of lava flows could be a
clination over the surface of a spherical lodestone and powerful stratigraphic correlation tool (cf. Irving 1988;
concluded for the first time that ‘magnus magnes ipse Stern 2002), while Khramov (1958) realised that by
est globus terrestris’ (the Earth’s globe itself is a great correlating volcanic and sedimentary rock successions
magnet). Apart from the spherical form of the Earth, worldwide, it could be possible to develop a single
magnetism was the first physical property attributed geochronological palaeomagnetic time scale valid for
eschweizerbart_xxxx
Magnetostratigraphy 209
the whole Earth. The first geomagnetic polarity time
APTS
1963
1992
1985
1968
1977
scales (GPTS) began to take shape when the combined
use of radioisotopic dating and magnetostratigraphy 0
C1n Brunhes
was adopted on lava flows (Fig. 2; Cox et al. 1963,
1964). Improved techniques and the undertaking of 1 C1r.1n
extensive palaeomagnetic investigations in many parts
Matuyama
of the world have significantly increased the amount C2n
2 C2r.1n.
of palaeomagnetic information and have now provided
a very detailed Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale (e. g. C2An.1n
3 Gauss
Age in Ma
Opdyke and Channell 1996), of which the Neogene C2An.2n
C2An.3n
part is fully astronomically calibrated (Lourens et al.,
2004) through the extensive use of cyclostratigraphy 4
C3n.1n
(e. g. Strasser et al. 2006). C3n.2n
C3n.3n Gilbert
More than one century after the first reversal of 5 C3n.4n
the Earth’s magnetic field was discovered by Brunhes
(1906), more than half a century after the start of the 6 C3An.1n
modern era of magnetostratigraphy (Hospers 1951), Chron 5
C3An.2n
and almost half a century after the first development of
7 C3Bn Chron 6
the modern GPTS (Cox 1963), it can be concluded that
C4n.1n
magnetostratigraphy has evolved into an indispensable Chron 7
8 C4n.2n
stratigraphic tool for Earth Sciences.
Fig. 2. Development of the geomagnetic polarity time scale
(GPTS) over the last half century of study. The initial as-
The palaeomagnetic signal sumption of periodic behaviour (Cox, 1963) was soon aban-
doned as new data became available. The first modern GPTS
The Earth’s magnetic field is generated in the liquid based on marine magnetic anomaly patterns was established
by Heirtzler et al. (1968). Subsequent revisions by Labreque
outer core through a dynamo process that is main-
et al. (1977), Berggren et al. (1985), Cande, Kent (1992) show
tained by convective fluid motion. At the surface of improved age control and increased resolution. A major
the Earth, the field can be conveniently described as a breakthrough came with the astronomical polarity time scale
dipole field, which is equivalent to having a bar mag- (APTS) in which every individual reversal is accurately dat-
net at the centre of the Earth. Such a dipole accounts ed (e. g. Hilgen et al., 1997). Black (white) intervals denote
for approximately 90 % of the observed field. The re- normal (reversed) polarity; for chron nomenclature, see text.
maining 10% derives from higher order terms: the
non-dipole field. At any one time, the best fitting geo-
centric dipole axis does not coincide exactly with the boundary play an important role (e. g. Gubbins 1999).
rotation axis of the Earth, but averaged over several Although polarity reversals occur at irregular times,
thousand years, we may assume the dipole to be both the reversal frequency can change considerably over
geocentric and axial (Merrill et al. 1996). Initially, it geological time spans. For instance, the polarity rever-
was believed that the field reversed periodically, but sal frequency has increased since 80 Ma from approx-
as more results on lava flows became available, it be- imately 1 rev/Myr to 5 rev/My in more recent times. In
came clear that geomagnetic reversals occur random- the Cretaceous, from 124.5 to 84 Ma, no reversals
ly. It is precisely this random character that confers occurred and the field maintained stable normal polar-
stratigraphic value to a measured polarity reversal se- ity for some 40 Myr. This Cretaceous Superchron is
quence. A polarity reversal typically takes several known in ocean-floor magnetic anomaly profiles as the
thousands of years to occur, fast enough to be consid- Cretaceous Normal Quiet Zone.
ered globally synchronous on geological time scales. The ancient geomagnetic field can be registered in
The field itself is sign invariant whereby the same rocks at the time of their formation. Rocks commonly
configuration of the geodynamo can produce either contain magnetic minerals, usually iron (hydr)oxydes
normal or reverse polarity. What causes the field to or iron sulphides. During rock-forming processes,
reverse is still debated, but recent hypotheses suggest these magnetic minerals (or more accurately, their
that lateral changes in heat flow at the core-mantle magnetic domains) statistically align with the then am-
eschweizerbart_xxxx
bient field, and are subsequently ‘locked in’ the rock and the alternating magnetic field (AF) demagnetisa-
system, thus preserving the direction of the field as a tion technique (e. g. Zijderveld 1967; Langereis et al.
natural remanent magnetisation (NRM): the palaeo- 1989; Butler 1992; Tauxe 1998). During demagnetisa-
magnetic signal. tion experiments, samples are subjected to stepwise
We distinguish three basic types of NRM, depending increasing values of temperature or alternating field in
on the mechanism of palaeomagnetic signal acquisi- a zero magnetic field (field-free) space. The residual
tion: TRM, CRM and DRM. A thermoremanent mag- magnetisation is measured after each demagnetisation
netisation (TRM) is the magnetisation acquired when a step and the resultant changes in direction and intensi-
rock cools below the Curie temperature of its magnet- ty are displayed and analysed in order to reconstruct the
ic minerals, thereby ‘locking’ the magnetic domains complete component structure of the NRM. Some
along positions statistically aligned with the ambient palaeomagnetic laboratories have recently invested in
field and producing a magnetic remanence that at room automatic measurement systems, which enable contin-
temperature may be stable for billions of years. A uous measurements of large amounts of samples. Auto-
chemical remanent magnetisation (CRM) is the mag- mated and repeating measurement schemes yield pre-
netisation acquired when a magnetic mineral grows viously unattainable amounts of information, and may
through a critical ‘blocking volume’ or grain size at give results even from low-intensity limestones (e. g.
which the field is locked in and the acquired remanence Gong et al. 2008) provided such systems are designed
may again be stable over billions of years. A detrital to maintain low noise levels during measurements.
remanent magnetisation (DRM) is the magnetisation The results of stepwise demagnetisation are com-
acquired when magnetic grains of detrital origin are monly visualized and analyzed using the so-called Zij-
deposited. Magnetic grains responsible for a DRM can derveld diagrams (after Zijderveld 1967), also known
also form directly in the water column as magneto- as vector end-point demagnetisation diagrams (Fig. 3).
somes: intra-cellular chains of magnetic minerals made In these diagrams, both the intensity and directional
by magnetotactic bacteria (e. g. Vasiliev et al. 2008). changes of the NRM occurring during demagnetisation
Detrital magnetic grains statistically align with the are displayed at the same time. Magnetic components
ambient field as long as they are in the water column or are then extracted from the Zijderveld diagrams using
in the soft water-saturated topmost layer of the sedi- least-square analysis (Kirschvink 1980), and the most
ment. Upon compaction and dewatering, the grains are stable and consistent component that can be isolated
mechanically fixated in a ‘lock-in depth zone’ and will is referred to as the characteristic remanent magnetisa-
preserve the direction of the ambient field. Within the tion (ChRM). This ChRM is further investigated to es-
sediment, authigenic or diagenetic formation of mag- tablish if it represents a record of the geomagnetic field
netic minerals may take place which also record the at, or close to, the time of rock formation, or a second-
field. This may occur in an early stage, but also well ary magnetisation acquired later in geologic history by
after deposition, deeper within the sediment. In the lat- post-depositional processes. To assess the primary na-
ter case, this may cause an apparent delay of the NRM ture of the ChRM, and hence its suitability for magne-
acquisition which can distort the magnetic record. tostratigraphic studies, rock magnetic experiments and
reliability tests are usually carried out. Rock magnetic
experiments are aimed at determining the fundamental
Demagnetisation, laboratory tests, characteristics of the minerals bearing the magnetic
and field tests remanence (e. g., type, grain size, etc.). A review of
these methods is beyond the scope of this paper but can
Frequently, the total NRM is the vector sum of different be found in appropriate text books (e. g. Butler 1992)
magnetic components (Fig. 3). This is because the pri- or review papers. The three most important reliability
mary NRM, i. e., the magnetisation originated at the tests for magnetostratigraphy are:
time of rock formation, may be overprinted by magnet-
ic components acquired later in geologic history Consistency test. A natural remanent magnetisation
through weathering reactions at room temperature or component is considered primary in origin when it de-
thermochemical reactions associated with tectonic or fines a sequence of polarity reversals that is laterally
burial processes. An overprint component can be re- traceable by independent means (e. g. lithostratigra-
moved through ‘magnetic cleaning’ techniques. These phy) between distant sections from different parts of
are primarily the thermal demagnetisation technique the basin.
eschweizerbart_xxxx
N
Comp1 (1-3: normal) Comp1 (1-3: normal)
Comp2 (3-5: normal) Comp2 (3-5: reversed)
W/up 3 W/up
H 2 1
5 4 3 2
D S N 4
E 4 1
I
4 5
3 S 3 N
2
2
F
1
1
E/down E/down
A B C
Fig. 3. (A) The magnetic field on any point on the Earth’s surface is a vector (F) which possesses a component in the hor-
izontal plane called the horizontal component (H) which makes an angle (D) with the geographical meridian. The declina-
tion (D) is an angle from north measured eastward ranging from 0° to 360°. The inclination (I) is the angle made by the mag-
netic vector with the horizontal. By convention, it is positive if the north-seeking vector points downward and negative if it
points upward. (B) and (C) To resolve the different magnetic components that can be acquired in a rock during its geologi-
cal history, rock samples are subjected to a process of stepwise demagnetisation. The standard method for presentation and
analysis of the results is called Zijderveld diagrams (after Zijderveld, 1967). Changes in the magnetisation vector during de-
magnetisation involve both its direction and its intensity; orthogonal vector Zijderveld diagrams show the changes in both.
The endpoint of the vector measured after each demagnetisation step is projected both onto the horizontal plane (closed sym-
bols) and onto the vertical plane (open symbols). Difference vectors (lines between end points) then show the behaviour of
the total vector upon stepwise removal of the magnetisation. Conventionally, she solid points are these endpoints when pro-
jected onto the horizontal plane containing axes NS and EW, whereas the open points are these endpoints when projected
onto the vertical plane containing axes NS (or EW), and up-down. Although many variations exist in literature, the only sen-
sible projected axes combinations are W/up vs. NS and N/up vs. EW.
Reversal test. The observation of characteristic rema- history: the marine magnetic anomaly record and the
nence directions with different polarity and, in partic- magnetostratigraphic record. Surveys over the ocean
ular, the occurrence of antiparallel (within statistical basins carried out from the 1950’s onward found linear
error) directions is taken as a strong indication for the magnetic anomalies, parallel to mid-oceanic ridges,
primary origin of that ChRM. This test is greatly en- using magnetometers towed behind research vessels
hanced if a polarity zonation can be established, and if (Cox et al. 1963; Heirtzler et al. 1968). During the ear-
this zonation is independent of possible changes in the ly 1960s, it was suggested, and soon after confirmed,
composition of the rock. that these anomalies resulted from the remanent mag-
netisation of the oceanic crust. This remanence is ac-
Fold test. If the ChRM directions from differently tilt- quired during the process of sea-floor spreading, when
ed beds converge after correction for the dip of the uprising magma beneath the axis of the oceanic ridges
strata, this remanence was acquired before tilting. cools through the Curie temperatures of its constituent
Strictly speaking, this fold test does not directly prove ferromagnetic minerals in presence of the ambient ge-
a primary origin of this component, but only that it omagnetic field, thus acquiring its direction and polar-
dates from before tilting. ity. The continuous process of rising and cooling of
magma at the ridge results in magnetisaed crust of al-
ternating normal and reverse polarity, which produces
The Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale a slight increase or decrease of the measured field: the
marine magnetic anomalies (Fig. 4a). It was also found
For the construction of the ‘bar code’ pattern of mag- that the magnetic anomaly pattern is generally sym-
netic polarity intervals, geophysicists rely on two fun- metric on both sides of the ridge, and, most important-
damentally different records of geomagnetic polarity ly, that it provides a remarkably continuous record of
eschweizerbart_xxxx
A
Mid
Oceanic
Ridge
J Sediment
2
2A
Uprising magma, Crust

cooling and "lock-in" Lithosphere
of magnetic polarity
2 Ma 1 Ma 0 1 Ma 2 Ma
2A 2 J 1
B
South Atlantic flow line (I)
+ Klitgord et al. (1975) (II)

3 2A 2 J 1
Wilson & Het (1981) and
+ Rea & Blakely (1975) (III)
C C5n.2n
OCS (APTS)
CK95
C5r.3r C5r.3r-1n C5r.2n C5r.2r-2n C5r.2r C5r.2r-1n C5r.1n C5r.1r
11.75 11.60 11.45 11.30 11.15 11.00 Ma
eschweizerbart_xxxx
the geomagnetic reversal sequence. The template of DeMets et al. 1990) with respect to those derived from
magnetic anomaly patterns from the ocean floor has geodesy has become much smaller, and NUVEL-1 has
remained central for constructing the GPTS from mag- been updated (to NUVEL-1A; DeMets et al. 1994) to
netic polarity chron M0r in the Early Cretaceous on- incorporate the new astronomical ages.
ward (~ 124.5–0 Ma; He et al. 2008). Combined mag- Periods of a predominant (normal or reverse) polar-
netostratigraphic, biostratigraphic, and radioisotopic ity are called chrons, and the four youngest ones are
results of deep-sea sediments and land-based sections named after leading scientists in the field of palaeo-
have confirmed and refined the general validity and ac- magnetism or geomagnetism, i. e. Brunhes, who sug-
curacy of the GPTS (e. g. LaBreque et al. 1977; gested the existence of field reversals, Matuyama, who
Berggren et al. 1985). The development of the GPTS proved this, Gauss, who mathematically described the
reflects increasing detail and gradually improved age field, and Gilbert, who discovered that the Earth itself
control. is a big magnet. The Brunhes to Gauss chron sequence
The latest development in constructing a GPTS contain short intervals of opposite polarity called sub-
comes from orbital tuning of the sediment record, the so chrons, which are named after the locality where they
called Astronomically calibrated Polarity Time Scale were discovered, e. g. the Olduvai normal polarity sub-
(APTS) (Hilgen et al. 1997). The APTS is now almost chron within the Matuyama reverse polarity chron is
complete for the Neogene (Lourens et al. 2004) and has named after the Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania), or the Kae-
been developed for the Late Triassic (Kent and Olsen na reverse polarity subchron within the Gauss normal
1999; Olsen and Kent 1999). It differs essentially from polarity chron named after Kaena Point (Hawaii).
the conventional GPTS, in the sense that each reversal Older chrons were not named but numbered accord-
boundary – or any other geological boundary, e. g. bios- ing to the anomaly numbers originally given by Heirt-
tratigraphic datum levels or stage and epoch bound- zler et al. (1968). Cande and Kent (1992) developed a
aries – is dated individually. This time scale has the in- consistent (sub)chron nomenclature that is
herent promise of increasingly advancing our under- now used as the standard (details in their Appendix:
standing of the climate system, because cyclostratigra- Nomenclature). A more recent revision of the Cande
phy and orbital tuning rely on deciphering environmen- and Kent (1992) time scale was made by Cande and
tal changes driven by climate change, which in turn is Kent (1995) in which they adopted the orbitally tuned
orbitally forced. The main feature of an APTS is that the timescale (Shackleton et al. 1990; Hilgen 1991a, b) for
age of each reversal is directly determined, rather than the last 5.3 Myr.
interpolated between radioisotopic calibration points.
This has important consequences for changes in spread-
ing rates of plate pairs, as sea floor spreading rates can Tiny wiggles, cryptochrons and
now be more accurately determined. Indeed, Wilson subchrons
(1993) found that the use of astronomical ages resulted
in very small and physically realistic spreading rate The magnetic anomaly template over the last 84 Myr
variations. As a result, the discrepancy in plate-motion was thoroughly revised by Cande and Kent (1992), up
rates from the global plate tectonic model (NUVEL-1; to the Cretaceous Normal Superchron (Cretaceous
Fig. 4. A) Formation of marine magnetic anomalies during seafloor spreading. The oceanic crust is formed at the ridge crest,
and while spreading away from the ridge it is covered by an increasing thickness of oceanic sediments. The black (white)
blocks of oceanic crust represent the original normal (reversed) polarity of the thermoremanent magnetisation (TRM) ac-
quired upon cooling at the ridge. The black and white blocks in the drill holes represent normal and reversed polarity depo-
sitional remanent magnetisation (DRM) acquired during deposition of the marine sediments. Normal polarity anomalies are
given numbers and refer to anomaly 1 (Brunhes Chron), 2 (Olduvai subchron) and 2A (Gauss Chron); J = Jaramillo sub-
chron. B) Stacks of marine magnetic anomaly profiles (red line) are used to model (blue line) the polarity sequence. B) Cat-
egories used by Cande and Kent (1992): category I = major anomalies along a synthetic reference flow line in the South At-
lantic, II = filling in details from the best South Atlantic profiles (Klitgord et al. 1975), III = further details from (often deep-
tow) anomaly profiles from fast-spreading ridges (Wilson and Hey, 1981, Rea and Blakely, 1975). C) Example of Chron-
Subchron-Cryptochron nomenclature: reversed Chron C5r, with normal subchrons C5r.1n and C5r.2n. Cryptochrons
C5r.2r-1, C5r.2r-2 and C5r.3r-1 elevated to the status of subchrons C5r.2r-1n, C5r.2r-2n and C5r.3r-1n (after Abdul Aziz and
Langereis 2004).
eschweizerbart_xxxx
Quiet Zone in magnetic anomaly profiles). They con- designated as subchrons and acquired a polarity suffix:
structed a synthetic flow line in the South Atlantic, C5r.2r-1n – C5r.2r-2n and C5r.3r-1n.
with first order distances built up from a combination The origin of many cryptochrons has not yet been
of finite rotation poles, designated as category I inter- confirmed by magnetostratigraphic studies. On the
vals. On these intervals, they projected the best quali- other hand, there is firm evidence for excursions and
ty profiles surveyed in this ocean basin, providing cat- reversal excursions. The term excursion is used for vir-
egory II intervals (Fig. 4b). Since spreading rates in the tual geomagnetic poles (VGP) deviating more than 45°
Atlantic are relatively slow, they subsequently filled in from geographical north (Verosub and Banerjee 1977),
the category II intervals with high-resolution profiles while it is termed a reversal excursion for VGPs that
from fast spreading ridges (their category III). This deviate in excess of 90° from geographical north (Mer-
enabled them to include much more detail on short rill and McFadden 1994) and possibly reaching (near)
polarity intervals (or subchrons), for instance around opposite polarity. Invariably, reversal excursions are
7 Ma (Fig. 2). In total, they used 9 calibration points associated with low palaeointensities of the geomag-
to construct their GPTS, including for the first time as netic field, both in the Brunhes and in the Matuyama
youngest tie point an astronomically calibrated age for Chrons (Guyodo and Valet, 1999; Channell et al.
the Gauss/Matuyama boundary. 2002). Reversal excursions have a typical duration of
The reliability and completeness of the GPTS is 3–6 kyr (Langereis et al. 1997), which is usually much
crucial for geochronology but also for understanding too short to be detected in marine magnetic anomaly
the long-term statistical properties of the geomagnetic profiles, and explains why so few excursions have
field. The shortest polarity intervals in the GPTS are been detected, even as tiny wiggles. Excursions are
typically on the order of 30 kyr in duration, but the most frequently observed within the Brunhes normal
magnetic anomaly patterns of fast spreading oceanic polarity Chron (0–781 ka), but this is in part because
plates indicate that smaller-scale variations exist as of the chronostratigraphic coverage of DSDP and ODP
well. They have been referred to as what they look like: holes, which decreases more or less exponentially with
tiny wiggles (LaBrecque et al. 1977); these very short depth, and in part because of our higher confidence in
and low intensity anomalies have an uncertain origin. assuming that excursions of reverse polarity are pri-
Tiny wiggles may represent very short subchrons of mary in origin and not due to e. g. overprinting by the
the field, as has been proven for some of them (e. g. the normal polarity present-day field. In any case, reversal
Cobb Mt. subchron at 1.21 Ma, or the Réunion sub- excursions or even short subchrons are as a rule not
chron at 2.13–2.15 Ma), or just represent intensity suitable for magnetostratigraphic correlation because
fluctuations of the geomagnetic field, causing the of their elusive nature inherent to their very short du-
oceanic crust to be less (or more) strongly magnetised. ration (Roberts and Winkelhofer 2004).
Because of their uncertain or unverified nature, these
were called cryptochrons (Cande and Kent, 1992). The
cryptochrons have a designation (– 1, – 2, etc.) follow- Part two – Case studies
ing the primary (sub)chron nomenclature. For exam-
ple, three new cryptochrons were recently discovered We present three case studies to illustrate the use of
in the reversed Chron C5r in Middle-Late Miocene magnetostratigraphy as a dating and correlating tool.
continental deposits of Spain (Abdul Aziz et al. 2004; Each case study comes from a different area with a
Abdul Aziz and Langereis 2004) (Fig. 4C). Chron C5r different geological age and depositional setting. The
contains two normal polarity subchrons (C5r.1n and first study deals with the Neogene part of the GPTS,
C5r.2n) and is consequently divided in three reversed which is based on the direct dating of polarity reversals
polarity intervals (C5r.1r, C5r.2r and C5r.3r). Since and biostratigraphic datums using astronomical curves
two of the cryptochrons were found in C5r.2r, they are in the Monte dei Corvi section, Italy (Hüsing et al.
denoted C5r.2r-1 and C5r.2r-2, from young to old. The 2007, 2009a). This case study provides a state-of-the-
third cryptochron in C5r.3r then must become art example of integrated stratigraphy with orbitally
C5r.3r-1. Cande and Kent (1992) proposed that a cryp- controlled resolution. The second case study is from
tochron can be elevated to the status of subchron if it the middle Triassic Seceda core, Italy (Muttoni et al.
corresponds to a magnetostratigraphically document- 2004a), which provides an example of a multi-discipli-
ed pair of reversals. Since this was the case in the nary and integrated stratigraphic approach. The third
Spanish deposits, the cryptochrons therein found were case study deals with the Carboniferous-Permian Re-
eschweizerbart_xxxx
versed Superchron (PCRS), and discusses the state-of- enriched in organic carbon) arranged in a remarkably
the-art stratigraphy of its lower and upper boundaries. clear cyclic pattern that is controlled by precession and
In addition, it provides an updated stratigraphic chart eccentricity. The next goal was to extend the Mediter-
for the late Permian, and a newly interpreted record of ranean-based APTS into the Miocene. Suitable upper
the Illawarra reversal that marks the end of the PCRS. Miocene sections were identified on land on the islands
of Crete, Gavdos, and Sicily, and provided a straight-
forward calibration of their cyclic sedimentary pattern
and magnetostratigraphy to the astronomical curves
Cenozoic case study: (Hilgen et al. 1995). The resulting time scale embraces
The Middle Miocene Monte dei Corvi in continuity the interval between 9.7 and 6.8 Ma,
section, Italy whereas a “Messinian Gap” is present from 6.8 to
5.3 Ma. This gap is explained by the less favourable
Sedimentary cycles reflect climatic oscillations that are sediments (e. g., diatomites, evaporites) deposited dur-
ultimately controlled by the Earth’s orbital cycles as ing the so-called Messinian Salinity Crisis and the no-
described by the Milankovitch theory, and are accord- toriously complex depositional history of the Mediter-
ingly known also as astrocycles (Strasser et al. 2006). ranean during this time interval (Krijgsman et al. 1999).
Perturbations in the Earth’s orbit and rotation axis are The classic Messinian sediments, however, also dis-
climatically important because they affect the global, played distinct sedimentary cyclicities, holding great
seasonal, and latitudinal distribution of the incoming promise for astronomical dating. Cyclostratigraphic
solar insolation. They are held responsible for the and detailed palaeoclimatic studies revealed that the
Pleistocene ice ages but also affect low-latitude climat- sedimentary cycles of the Messinian pre-evaporites and
ic systems such as monsoons. Orbitally forced climat- evaporites are dominantly controlled by precession-
ic oscillations are recorded in sedimentary archives induced changes in circum-Mediterranean climate
through changes in sediment properties, fossil commu- (Krijgsman et al. 1999, 2001). Closing the Messinian
nities, and chemical characteristics (Strasser et al. gap resulted in an APTS for the last ~ 10 Myr, which
2006). While Earth scientists can read the geological comprised a precisely dated record of the palaeoceano-
archives to reconstruct palaeoclimate, astronomers graphic and palaeoclimatologic changes occurring in
have formulated astronomical solutions that include the Mediterranean region at that time. Magneto-cy-
both the solar-planetary system and the Earth-Moon clostratigraphic dating consequently allowed marine-
system. With these astronomical solutions, they com- continental (Abdul Aziz et al. 2004) and Mediter-
pute the past variations in precession, obliquity, and ranean-Paratethys (Vasiliev et al. 2004) correlations of
eccentricity (Varadi et al. 2003; Laskar et al. 2004). As unprecedented high resolution, in which the many fos-
a logical next step, sedimentary archives can be dated sil and palaeoclimate data from continental, lacustrine,
by matching patterns of palaeoclimatic variability with and brackish-water settings could be correlated to the
patterns in the computed astronomical curves. This as- global marine proxy records.
tronomical tuning of the sedimentary record results in Another application of the astronomical polarity
timescales that are largely independent of radioisotopic timescale has been the dating of Neogene stage bound-
dating (Lourens et al. 2004; Kuiper et al. 2008). aries via their Global boundary Stratotype Section
Initially, research focused mostly on the Pliocene- and Point (GSSP), many of which have recently been
Pleistocene – using palaeoclimatic records from Ocean defined in the Mediterranean, like the base of the
Drilling Project sites in the eastern equatorial Pacific Zanclean Stage and base of the Pliocene Series (Van
and North Atlantic (Shackleton et al. 1990) and sedi- Couvering et al. 2000). The availability of a good as-
mentary cycle patterns in Pliocene-Miocene marine trochronology has effectively become a prerequisite
successions exposed on land in the Mediterranean area for the definition of a GSSP. Another example is shown
(Hilgen 1991a, b; Hilgen et al. 1995; Krijgsman et al. by the Tortonian GSSP, which has recently been placed
1995, 1999; Hüsing et al. 2007, 2009a). In the Mediter- at the mid-point of the sapropel in basic cycle 76 in the
ranean area, well-known sections such as Capo Ros- Monte dei Corvi Beach section near Ancona, Italy
sello, Eraclea Minoa, Singa, and Vrica were used to (Hilgen et al. 2005). Here, a detailed and integrated
construct detailed magnetostratigraphic records (Lan- stratigraphy of calcareous plankton biostratigraphy,
gereis and Hilgen 1991). These sections consist of magnetostratigraphy, and cyclostratigraphy has been
carbonates and sapropels (brownish-colored layers established (Hilgen et al. 2003).
eschweizerbart_xxxx
Jamaica / Pringle Falls
Emperor / Big Lost /

Calabrian Ridge 0
Calabrian Ridge 1
Calabrian Ridge 2
Calbrian Ridge 3
Iceland Basin
West Eifel /
Laschamps
Blake
B/M
10
VADM (10E22 Am2)
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Age (ka)
Fig. 5. Virtual Axial Dipole Moment (VADM) of the field for the past 800 kyr (Guyodo and Valet 1999). Low intensities
are typically correlated with the occurrence of reversal excursions, short periods where the virtual geomagnetic pole devi-
ates more than 90° from the north geographic pole (white intervals are well confirmed reversal excursions, grey intervals re-
quire confirmation; Langereis et al., 1997). Small grey bars outside the column are excursions from ODP cores found by
Lund et al. (1998). B/M is Brunhes-Matuyama boundary, showing very low intensities – down to 10% of the stable polari-
ty field – during the reversal.
This section has now been extended upwards to in- Time Scale, shows that the section ranges at least
clude the Tortonian-Messinian boundary and therefore from Chron C5An.2n up to C3Br.2n. The Monte dei
the entire Tortonian Stage (Hüsing et al. 2009a). Corvi section is the only continuous Tortonian section
Palaeomagnetic results revealed a characteristic low- in the Mediterranean area and is therefore suggested as
temperature component characterized by dual polarity, the Tortonian Reference Section (Fig. 6) (Hüsing et al.
mostly carried by a Fe-sulphide (greigite), but in the 2009a). The correlation of the Tortonian GSSP to the
younger interval by greigite and magnetite (Hüsing et middle part of Chron C5r.2n guarantees global correla-
al. 2009b). The different magnetic minerals carrying tion potentials, and the astronomical tuning performed
the NRM reflect the palaeoenvironment of deposition, on a precessional scale using the La2004(1,1) solution
whereby oxic, suboxic to anoxic, and anoxic conditions (Laskar et al. 2004) yielded astronomical ages of each
determined the occurrence of, respectively, magnetite, basic cycle and, hence, of the calcareous plankton
magnetite and greigite, and greigite as recorders of the events and magnetic reversal boundaries with uncer-
Earth’s magnetic field. The resultant magnetostratigra- tainties on the order of a few thousand years. As a re-
phy, calibrated to the Astronomically Tuned Neogene sult, the age of the Tortonian GSSP is now 11.625 Ma,
eschweizerbart_xxxx
(m)
ATNTS2004
145
(Ma)
rity data
C3Bn 7.2
140
no pola
0º 5º 10º 15º 20º 25º 30º Declination Inclination C3Br.1n
MC - Monte dei Corvi 180 360 -45 45 7.4
Polarity
thrust (m) C3Br.2n
45º
135
C4n.1n 7.6
T-M
115 7.8
130
MC C4n.2n
8.0
Ap
Conero Riviera en
Fano 125
40º ni 110
175 m Ancona ne 8.2
43º35'30" N
s C4r.1n
C4n.2n
La Sardella Tyrrhenian 120 8.4
40 km
land Assisi
Section Betics slide Sea 105
Aegean 8.6
35º 115 C4r.2r-1
Monte 235 m MC Beach 8.8
dei Corvi Section 100 C4An
0 500 m 110
9.0
43º35'00" N
500 km
Il Trave
30º
105
9.2
13º34'00" E 13º34'30" E 95
C4Ar.1n
insolation 9.4
n1.rA4C
100
min max (Ma)
9.6
(m) 90 C4Ar.2n
86 95 9.8
11.4 C5n.1n
85 10.0
90
68
10.2
Tortonian Reference Section*
C5n.2n
85
80 10.4
11.5
C5n.2n
66 10.6
80
101
eschweizerbart_xxxx
75 10.8
10 1 75
11.6 11.0
Tortonian 64 76 70 C5r.1n
GSSP 70 11.2
C5r.2n
C5r.2r-1n
11.4
Tortonian 65
62 Tortonian 65 C5r.2n 11.6
11.7
A GSSP GSSP
60
11.8
60
68 12.0
60 55 C5An.1n
11.8 12.2
55 C5An.2n
50
12.4
58
45
12.6
50
C5Ar.1n
11.9 12.8
C5Ar.2n
40
56 marl 45 13.0
61 sapropel
limestone 35
C5An.2n
12.0
40
30
Magnetostratigraphy
Fig. 6. Magnetostratigraphy for the composite Monte dei Corvi Beach section and calibration to the Neogene astronomical time scale (ATNTS2004, Lourens et al.
2004). Black (white) zones indicate normal (reversed) polarity intervals; grey shading denotes uncertain polarity; filled (open) cicles denote reliable (unreliable) ChRM
217
directions. The Tortonian GSSP, located in the mid-point of the sapropel in cycle 76, is indicated by the red dashed line. The Monte dei Corvi section is suggested as
the Tortonian reference section. Sedimentary cycles are calibrated to the astronomical solution La2004(1,1), based on sapropels corresponding to insolation maxima
(precession minima). A = Ancona ash (after Hüsing et al. 2007, 2009a).
superseding the previously published estimate of was the correlation with data from previously studied
11.608 Ma (Hilgen et al. 2005). This clearly illustrates sections from the Dolomites (Frötschbach, Pedraces,
that continuous refinements of the geological timescale Belvedere), but also from Trentino (Margon-Val
is a forever ongoing research effort. Gola), and from the Brescian Alps (Bagolino), as is
illustrated in figure 8.
The Seceda core spans a complete succession of
Buchenstein Beds limestone members and associated
Mesozoic case study:
Pietra Verde volcaniclastic layers. Two ash layers
The Middle Triassic Seceda section, located in these intervals yielded accurate U-Pb age
an integrated stratigraphic study data (Mundil et al. 1996, Brack et al. 1996), indicating
from the Dolomites, Italy an average sediment accumulation rate of ~ 1 cm/kyr
(Fig. 7). Palaeomagnetic analyses were performed on
Middle Triassic magnetostratigraphy and biostratigra- numerous samples from the oriented core. A character-
phy in both Tethyan marine and continental sequences istic remanent magnetisation component could be es-
received considerable attention during the last decade. tablished and rock magnetic experiments supported its
In the compilation of Muttoni et al. (2000), a total of primary origin (Muttoni et al. 2004a). Moreover, the
~ 42 superposed and biostratigraphically calibrated palaeomagnetic mean directions from the Seceda core
polarity zones were recognised in 15 partially overlap- and from the Frötschbach, Pedraces and Belvedere
ping Tethyan marine sections spanning a late Early sections (Brack and Muttoni 2000) pass the fold test,
Triassic to late Middle Triassic interval of perhaps 10– giving even more confidence in the origin of the
15 Myr. This compilation was a preliminary attempt to palaeomagnetic signal. These observations support the
compile a standard Middle Triassic GPTS. successful magneto- and lithostratigraphic correlations
Research by different groups continued since then between distant sections and suggest that the Buchen-
in both Tethyan and Boreal marine realms (Nawrocki stein Beds carry an original Triassic magnetisation, ac-
and Szulc 2000; Hounslow and McIntosh 2003; Mut- quired well before the Cenozoic Alpine deformation.
toni et al. 2004a; Gradinaru et al. 2007; Hounslow et According to the general palaeogeographic evolu-
al. 2007) as well as in the Germanic (Central Euro- tion of Pangea during the Permian and Triassic, the
pean) Basin (Szurlies et al. 2003; Szurlies 2007). As a Dolomites as part of the African promontory of Adria
result, the sequence of polarity reversals for some Mid- were located in the northern hemisphere during Middle
dle Triassic time intervals is relatively well estab- Triassic times, an assessment that is essential for inter-
lished. For example, excellent matching of magne- preting magnetic polarity. A sequence of 24 polarity
tostratigraphies has been found for the Olenekian- zones was recognized at Seceda (Fig. 7) and was suc-
Anisian boundary interval between Albania (Muttoni cessfully correlated to magnetostratigraphic sequences
et al. 1996) and Romania (Gradinaru et al. 2007). An- developed in other sections from the Dolomites and
other illustrative example of a laterally reproducible Trentino by using also laterally traceable lithostrati-
magnetostratigraphy comes from Anisian-Ladinian graphic marker beds such as tuff levels (Tc, Td, Te)
boundary sections from the Dolomites, Italy (Muttoni and limestone beds (Fig. 8). This integrated stratigra-
et al. 2004a), and is briefly summarised hereafter. phy allowed piecing together sections across virtually
Magnetostratigraphic investigations on biostrati- the entire eastern Southern Alps, and allowed the con-
graphically dated Tethyan limestones and radioiso- struction of a reference magnetostratigraphy. Merging
topically dated tuff intervals of Middle Triassic age the U-Pb dates from Seceda and the faunal associations
from the Dolomites started in the late 1,990 s (Muttoni from all sections notably augmented the numerical and
et al. 1997). A ~ 110 m long core was drilled at Mount biostratigraphic definition of the Anisian-Ladinian
Seceda in the northwestern Dolomites (Brack et al. boundary interval. The resulting composite sequence
2000). With over 90 % recovery, the core offered a was found to cover an Anisian-Ladinian time span of
unique opportunity to reconstruct a consistent portion ~ 4 Myr, where geochronological and magnetostrati-
of the Middle Triassic time scale in stratigraphic con- graphic control indicate a frequency of 4 reversals per
tinuity (Muttoni et al. 2004a). The conodont bios- Myr.
tratigraphy of the laterally equivalent outcrop section The integrated Anisian-Ladinian chronology con-
could be integrated by means of magneto- and lithos- tributed to resolve the “Latemar controversy”: a debate
tratigraphic correlations (Fig. 7). A logical next step on the duration of deposition of the Latemar carbonate
eschweizerbart_xxxx
Fig. 7. A) Alpine region with location of the stratigraphic sections: Seceda, Frötschbach, Pedraces, Belvedere, and Rosen-
garten (Dolomites); Margon-Val Gola (Trentino); Bagolino (Brescian Alps). B) Sections in the Dolomites are placed with
respect to the distribution of Ladinian carbonate platforms and pelagic basins. C) Lithology and magnetostratigraphy of the
Seceda core and outcrop (Muttoni et al. 2004a). VGP latitudes are derived from the characteristic magnetic component; black
(white) is normal (reverse) polarity, grey represents intervals with no data. U-Pb single zircon age data are from Mundil et
al. (1996).
eschweizerbart_xxxx
Fig. 8. Integrated Anisian-Ladinian boundary stratigraphy and biochronology. Biostratigraphic data from the Dolomites are
projected onto the Seceda outcrop reference stratigraphy, while those from the Brescian Alps and Giudicarie are projected
onto the Bagolino reference stratigraphy. Numerical ages are derived from interpolation of dates from Mundil et al. (1996).
For details, see Muttoni et al. (2004a) and references therein.
eschweizerbart_xxxx
platform from the Dolomites (Fig. 7b). The platform Palaeozoic case study:
interior – a 470 m thick lagoonal succession of ~ 600
The Carboniferous-Permian
shallowing-upward cycles – was attributed a 9–12 Myr
record of precessional forcing of sea level change (Hin- Reversed Superchron and Late
nov and Goldhammer 1991; Preto et al. 2001). How- Permian magneto-cyclostratigraphy
ever, the U-Pb dating of volcanoclastic layers suggests of the Central European Basin
instead that the ~ 600 Latemar cycles cover only a few
million years (Brack et al. 1996; Mundil et al. 1996, Late Carboniferous and Permian rocks were already
2003). An independent astrochronological interpreta- investigated in various places around the world in the
tion of sedimentary cycles in the Muschelkalk of Cen- 1950’s and 1960’s because many of them have a stable
tral Europe coupled with biostratigraphic correlations and strong magnetisation. These early results indicat-
with Tethyan successions suggest that the Latemar se- ed that North America, Europe, and several parts of
quence was deposited in maximum 2.6 Myr (Menning Asia were positioned significantly more to the south
et al. 2005). Interestingly, two sophisticated modern than nowadays, and that opposite rotations had oc-
techniques to measure geologic time – astrochronolo- curred in North America and Europe caused by the
gy and U-Pb single-crystal zircon dating – lead to age opening of the North Atlantic. These observations sig-
estimates of the duration of the Latemar carbonate plat- nificantly contributed to the development of the theo-
form that differ by almost one order of magnitude: a ry of plate tectonics. In addition, the dominance of re-
significant discrepancy. verse polarity in Permo-Carboniferous rocks led to
Kent et al. (2004) performed a magnetostratigraph- propose the existence of the Kiaman Magnetic Interval
ic analysis of the entire Latemar lagoonal succession, (Irving and Parry 1963) or Carboniferous-Permian Re-
which indicated that most of the succession is of versed Superchron (CPRS).
normal magnetic polarity. Although the effects of The lower boundary of the CPRS was originally
lightnings and possible thermochemical overprints named Patterson Reversal (Irving and Parry 1963), until
complicate the picture, Kent et al. (2004) regarded the Opdyke et al. (2000) detected normal polarity
Latemar results to represent the original polarity of the in younger rocks of the same area. A global analysis and
geomagnetic field. The predominant normal polarity synthesis of 27 magnetostratigraphic records of Car-
together with biostratigraphic and lithostratigraphic boniferous age has shown that there is at present no con-
correlations with the adjacent Buchenstein Beds basin sensus on where to place the base of the CPRS: it has
led them to consider the Latemar deposition as coeval been observed in early Bashkirian (SE Australia), late
with Chron SC2n at Seceda (Fig. 7). Considering that Bashkirian (eastern Canada), early Moscovian (Central
no significant normal polarity bias or low reversal fre- Europe), and middle Moscovian rocks (Ukraine) (see
quency have been documented for the Middle Triassic Figs. 9, 10). In the GTS2004, the boundary is rather ar-
in global palaeomagnetic compilations, Kent et al. bitrarily placed close to the Moscovian-Kasimovian
(2004) concluded that Chron SC2n at Seceda and the boundary at 306.7 Ma, within a reverse polarity interval
time-equivalent Latemar deposits cannot be anywhere (Davydov et al. 2004). It would instead be more logical
near as long as 9–12 Myr as was implied by the origi- to place the base of the CPRS at the youngest level bear-
nal cyclostratigraphic interpretation. ing normal polarity in the Moscovian (middle Kashiri-
A duration of ~ 1 Myr for Chron SC2n derives from an of eastern Europe; Khramov et al. 1974), which
a straightforward interpretation of the U-Pb age mod- would result in an age of ~ 310 Ma according to GTS
el for Buchenstein deposition. This age model is com- 2004, Alternatively, the base of the CPRS could be
patible with all other age constraints, except those of placed at the top of the youngest normal polarity chron
the Latemar. Based on this and other arguments dis- in the late Baskirian around 312 Ma. The most recent
cussed in Kent et al. (2004), and a follow-up comment update of the geological time scale (Ogg et al. 2008), ac-
by Hinnov (2006), Kent et al. (2006) argued that the cessible through Time Scale Creator 4.0 (www.tscre-
long duration of Latemar deposition suggested by ator.com), assumes that nearly all short normal sub-
conventional cycle counting is in error. The recent chrons reported between 314 and 299 Ma are question-
Concise GTS2008 time scale (Ogg et al. 2008), which able, and a result, it places the base of the CPRS at
supersedes the GTS2004 time scale (Gradstein et al. 313.6 Ma within the late Bashkirian (Fig. 10). Approx-
2004), now uses the U-Pb data from the Dolomites as imately five short normal polarity zones could be pres-
age constraints for the Middle Triassic.
eschweizerbart_xxxx
Fig. 9. Permian Global Stratigraphic Scale as used in the Devonian-Carboniferous-Permian Correlation Chart 2006 (DCP
2006) and Regional Stratigraphic Scales. Full red dots: GSSP; open red dots: GSSP proposed; green dots: Illawarra Rever-
sal; blue dot: Pb-U age of Bowring et al. 1988; arrows: uncertain position of a boundary according to the numerical time
scale or a global stage boundary. In the global column the index fossils for the stage boundaries are presented as adopted re-
spectively proposed. The terms of the Global Stratigraphic Scale (GSS) are in capital letters to distinguish them from re-
gional terms from which they were derived: unfortunately, commonly they cover different time spans.
ent within the CPRS (Menning 1995), but these are now and this led to speculations on a connection with the late
reduced to two reliable zones in Time Scale Creator 4.0, Permian mass extinction (Peterson and Nairn 1971).
although no clear argumentation or references are giv- This inference ignored the well-documented position
en in support of this interpretation. Clearly, the lower of the Illawarra Reversal in the lower Tatarian of east-
boundary of the CPRS requires verification in multiple, ern Europe (Khramov 1963), being significantly older
globally distributed sections. than the Permian-Triassic boundary. Later, varying
The upper boundary of the CPRS was named Illa- positions have been suggested: Kungurian, Ufimian,
warra Reversal (Irving and Parry 1963). Initially, it Kazanian of eastern Europe, early Wordian, late Wor-
seemed to occur near the Permian-Triassic boundary, dian, early Capitanian (see Fig. 10). These positions are
eschweizerbart_xxxx
not based on new field and laboratory work but mainly
Changh-
Changhsingian N
singian
on re-interpretations of existing data combined with
successive geological time scales that have significant-
Lupingian
ly different numerical ages. The Illawarra Reversal is a
Wuchiapingian
first class time marker when detected reliably and it is
Illawara Series
the anchor point for the middle and late Permian part
of the Devonian-Carboniferous-Permian Correlation
Illawara Series
Capitanian N
Chart (DCP 2003; Menning et al. 2006; DCP 2006,
Fig. 9). For most of the Permian, however, the absence
Capitanian
of reversals excludes the use of magnetostratigraphy,
Guadalupian
and other stratigraphic techniques are required. Suc-
cessions of different environments (e. g. marine, limnic,
Wordian N
Wordian
fluvial, sabkha, volcanic) can then for example be cor-
related through climatic change. Recently, a first at-
Roadian
tempt at such a correlation between European Permian
sections was carried out based on climatic and environ-
Kungurian
mental information (Schneider et al. 2006).
The relative age of the Illawarra Reversal was esti-
mated to be 10 앐 4 Myr older than the Permian-Trias-
sic boundary (Menning 1986), which has an U-Pb
Permian
SHRIMP age of 251.2 앐 3.4 Ma (Claoué-Long et al.
1991). Meanwhile, the age of the Permian-Triassic
Artinskian
boundary was lowered to ~ 252.5 Ma based on a U/Pb
Kiaman Reversed Polarity Hyperchron (TS 3.0)
Kiaman Reversed Polarity Hyperchron (TS 3.7)

age of 252.6 앐 0.2 Ma from a tuff layer located slight-
Cisuralian
ly below the boundary (Mundil et al. 2004). A volcanic
tuff from just below the Illawarra Reversal at Nipple
Hill (Texas) provided an U-Pb age of 265.3 앐 0.2 Ma
(Bowring et al. 1998). Using the ages of ~ 310 (or 314)
Ma for the base and ~ 265 Ma for the top, results in a
Sakmarian
duration of 45 (or 50) Myr for the CPRS. The positions

of the boundaries of the PCRS compare well with those
of Irving (1971), but he arrived at a longer duration of
60 Myr (290–230 Ma) based on the time scales of his
time. The CPRS is thus the longest time span of the
Asselian
Phanerozoic Eon in which one polarity dominates. This

Kartamyshian N
duration is some 5–10 Myr longer that of its normal

Kartamyshian N
polarity pendant, the Cretaceous Normal Superchron,

Late Pennsylvanian
ranging 124.5–84 Ma (Ogg et al. 2004)

Ghzelian
Kosmovian
Carboniferous
Donetzian Mixed polarity Hyperchron
Fig. 10. Two versions of the Carboniferous-Permian Re-

Pennsylvanian
versed Superchron, on the left the polarity time scale accord-

Middle
Moscovian
ing to GTS2004 (Gradstein et al. 2004), made with Time Scale

Creator 3.0, i. e. according to the 2004 version. On the right
according to Time Scale Creator 4.0 (www.tscreator.org), pro-
viding an update of GTS2004, i. e. the Concise GTS2008 (Ogg
Pennsylvanian
et al. 2008). It appears that in the latest version the subchrons

Bashkirian
preceeding the lower boundary CPRS of GTS2004 are con-

Early
Carboniferous
sidered uncertain. Also the Illawarra series postdating the

PCRS has significantly changed in both timing and number of
Mixed
reversals, according to a new compilation of Steiner (2006).
eschweizerbart_xxxx
A reliable polarity time scale for post-Illawarra Subgroups in detail to better determine the exact num-
times spanning 265–252.5 Ma is not yet available, but ber of magnetic zones and their duration.
in any case, it may contain as much as 15 polarity zones
(Menning 1995). In the continental record, 10 zones
have been detected in the upper Rotliegend of Central
Europe (Menning et al. 1988) and 4 zones in the upper
Zechstein (Szurlies et al. 2003). The lower Zechstein,
however, has not been investigated in detail. In the
marine record, the most significant results come from
Nammal Gorge in Pakistan where 10 polarity zones
have been detected in the late Permian (Haag and
Heller 1991). A recent compilation by Steiner (2006)
of approximately 27 published middle to late Permian
magnetostratigraphies suggests some 10 polarity zones Part three – Discussion
in the late Permian. Unfortunately, no short-living
fossils are available to integrate magnetostratigraphic
results from marine and continental successions with
Integrated stratigraphy and marine-
any acceptable level of accuracy. Reliable climatic/cy- continental correlations
clostratigraphic records are needed to resolve these Several examples are provided in the literature of good
correlation uncertainties (e. g. Schneider et al. 2006), correlation of land-derived magnetostratigraphies with
together with more magnetostratigraphic studies. the polarity record retrieved from marine magnetic
Carboniferous to Triassic rock sequences in the anomalies, which prove that geomagnetic polarity re-
Central European Basin are up to 6,000 m thick. They versals are synchronous and global. This synchrony
comprise a unique and complete late Permian succes- distinguishes magnetostratigraphy from biostratigra-
sion without gaps longer than 100 kyr. In northeast phy, bearing in mind that polarity reversals are funda-
Germany, borehole Mirow 1/1a/74 cored 1,600 m of mentally of a binary nature while biostratigrapic zones
the 3,300 m Rotliegend succession and bottomed in have a distinctive character. The first magnetic strati-
volcanics of the Rotliegend Group (latest Carbonifer- graphies in sedimentary rocks (Creer et al. 1954; Irv-
ous-Permian, 300–258 Ma). Here, we reinterpret the ing and Runcorn 1957) documented normal and re-
magnetostratigraphic results from the upper 1290 m verse polarities in the Proterozoic Torridonian Sand-
thick part of the Rotliegend sediments. The sedimen- stones in Scotland, as well as in rocks of Devonian and
tary cycles observed in the perennial Rotliegend salt Triassic age. These studies were conducted on poorly
lake in northwest Germany by Gast (1995) can be fossiliferous sediments that possessed however a mag-
correlated to northeast Germany (Gebhardt 1995) and netisation intensity measurable by the magnetometers
thus to the magnetostratigraphy of borehole Mirow available at that time, and as a consequence, correla-
1/1a/74. This allows calibration of the regional GPTS tions of polarity zones therein retrieved could not be
for the Late Permian based on cycle scaling. supported by biostratigraphic data.
The cycles of the Elbe Subgroup (latest Rotliegend) The modern era of magnetostratigraphy integrated
are interpreted as orbitally forced cycles (Gast 1995). with biostratigraphy started with the early studies on
They can only correspond to the long eccentricity cy- Plio-Pleistocene marine sediments and deep-sea cores
cle of ~ 400 kyr, because ~ 100 kyr eccentricity cycles (e. g., Opdyke 1972) and continued over the ensuing
cannot fill in the available time span. In the Elbe years with classic studies on e. g. the Cretaceous-Pale-
Subgroup, 14 such cycles were detected, correspon- ocene successions of the Central Apennines at Gubbio,
ding to a total duration of ~ 5.6 Myr (Fig. 11). Unfor- Italy (e. g. Alvarez et al. 1977). This multidisciplinary
tunately, the duration of the post-Illawarra magnetic approach has since been significantly refined and has
zones can only be estimated roughly, because of inter- extended the GPTS originally derived from palaeo-
vals with uncertain polarity and without core material. magnetic studies on basaltic outcrops and marine mag-
Until now, the longest zone is the upper part of zone netic anomalies. Vice versa, magnetostratigraphy may
rny (cycles ro4.3 to ro4.5), which is estimated to have fundamentally help dating biostratigraphic zonations
a minimum duration of 700 kyr (Fig. 11). Future work that have at best regional significance, like in the Para-
should be directed to study the 14 cycles of the Elbe
eschweizerbart_xxxx
Magnetic
Samples
Polarity
Uncer-
Depth Sub- For- Litho- Time
tainty
Group Cycles Unit
(m) group mation logy (Ma)
Zech-
4700 stein
Werra z 1.1 z1
257.6
ro 4.7
Mellin
rnz 258.0
ro 4.6
4800 rrz
258.4
H a n n o v e r
ro 4.5
rny 258.8
Peckensen
ro 4.4 ro 4
259.2
4900 ro 4.3
259.6
rny
ro 4.2
e
5000 260.0
d
ro 4.1
E l d e n a
260.4
l
rry ro 3.7
n
260.8
5100
ro 3.6
e
D e t h l i n g e n
261.2
ro 3.5
g
261.6
5200 ro 3.4
ro 3
262.0 normal
R a m b o w
e
rry ro 3.3
reversed
262.4
i
ro 3.2 uncertain
5300
262.8
l
not recovered
ro 3.1
rry
t
263.2
5400
o
conglomerate
M i r o w
R
sandstone
5500 silt-, claystone
ro 2
marlstone
rnx
z Zechstein
ro Upper Rotliegend
5600
H a v e l
257.3 ±1.1 (Re - Os)

Brauns et al. (2003)
5700 rnx Fig. 11. Succession of the late Permian in northeast Ger-
many, borehole Mirow 1/1a/74 cored 1,600 m of the 3,300 m
Rotliegend succession and bottoms in volcanics of the
P a r c h i m
Illawarra Reversal Rotliegend Group. The Rotliegend succession was investigat-

5800
ed with the purpose to detect the Illawarra reversal (Menning
rrx ro 1
et al. 1988). Here, we reinterpret the magnetostratigraphic re-
sults from the upper 1,290 m thick part of the Rotliegend sed-
iments; rnx, rrx, etc. refer to informally labeled polarity zones.
The sedimentary cycles observed in the perennial Rotliegend
5900
salt lake in northwest Germany by Gast (1995) can be corre-
lated to northeast Germany (Gebhardt 1995) using gamma-
ray logs and
Figure 11 thus to the magnetostratigraphy of bore hole
Müritz
rrx
Mirow 1/1a/74. This allows calibration of the regional GPTS
6000 Me/He
499.08 for the Late Permian based on cycle scaling.
eschweizerbart_xxxx
tethys where zonations based on ostracods or molluscs Resolution: subchrons,

are primarily of environmental significance rather than
cryptochrons, reversals,
being chronostratigraphic tools (Vasiliev et al. 2004).
In addition to the advent of astrochronology, another excursions, hiatuses
important stratigraphic tool comes from chemostratig-
The International Commission on Stratigraphy has
raphy or isotope stratigraphy, in particular from stable
guided the use of magnetostratigraphic units (polarity
isotopes (see Weissert et al. 2008). The integrated use
zones), their time equivalents (polarity chrons), and
of magnetostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, cyclostratigra-
chronostratigraphic units (polarity chronozones)
phy, isotope stratigraphy, and radioisotopic dating from
(Anonymous 1977; Opdyke and Channell 1996). Dur-
selected sections or cores contributes to refine the GPTS
ing the last two decades, the recognition of numerous
by continuously providing accurate age determinations
short-lived polarity intervals or excursions (Langereis
of the constituent polarity reversals.
et al. 1997; Krijgsman and Kent 2004) as part of the
A major problem in correlating marine sequences
Earth’s magnetic field record requires an extension of
with their time-equivalent continental sequences is
the current terminology. In this respect, Laj and Chan-
their fundamentally different fossil content. Marine
nell (2007) argued to include excursions and brief po-
transgressions within a continental sequence may give
larity microchrons (Table 1) in the terminology.
a first-order constraint, but such sequences are relative-
Although the resolution of a magnetostratigraphic
ly rare. Here, magnetostratigraphy plays a crucial role,
study largely depends on sampling resolution, there
preferably aided by cyclostratigraphic constraints. A
are some clear limitations regarding the (temporal)
first example of a truly bed-to-bed correlation – at the
resolution that can be achieved. For a ‘simple’ first-
precessional level – between the marine and continen-
order magnetostratigraphy, this may not be a serious
tal realm was given by Van Vugt et al. (1998), who cor-
obstacle since even in slowly accumulating sediments
related early Pliocene lacustrine deposits in NW Greece
(⬍ 1 cm/kyr), the required first order time resolution –
with the marine Trubi formation in the central Mediter-
say, a minimum of 15–20 kyr sampling resolution, but
ranean. Also the Miocene continental deposits of north-
preferably better than that – can be usually achieved.
ern Spain have now been successfully correlated to
This minimum sampling resolution derives from the
time-equivalent marine successions in Italy (Abdul
typical cut-off of 30 kyr for tiny wiggles/cryptochrons
Aziz et al. 2004; Hüsing et al. 2007), and the ages of
in marine magnetic anomaly studies.
individual polarity reversals younger than 11 Ma are
Establishing a correct terminology of polarity
virtually indistinguishable within error resolution.
events of very short duration is a challenging problem
It must be noted that such detailed correlations are
since short records are frequently compromised by
not – and can never be – based on magnetostratigraph-
limitations of the recording medium, while also esti-
ic tie-points alone: positions of reversals may differ due
mates of duration strongly depend on the available
to differential/delayed lock-in depth/time because of
chronological tools. For magnetostratigraphy, Krijgs-
different environments and recording quality. Hence,
man and Kent (2004) advocated a duration cutoff for
although magnetostratigaphy may well serve as a first-
separating ‘subchrons’ and ‘excursions’, at 9–15 kyr,
order correlation, the final correlation is based on as-
while Abdul Aziz and Langereis (2004) argued for a
tronomical fine-tuning. This concept has also been ap-
minimum duration of approximately 10 kyr for the en-
plied on the Chinese loess sequences (Heslop et al.
tire interval of excursional (or transitional) directions
2000), showing that recorded polarity reversals showed
and opposite polarity. In practice, however, such a def-
considerable delay because of a large lock-in depth in
inition will meet some serious problems, since in most
such aeolian/palaeosol deposits. This concept is still
cases the chronostratigraphic precision will be insuffi-
not widely accepted, however, and some studies have
cient. The limitations inherent to sedimentary NRM
used magnetostratigraphic tie-points, which in some
acquisition processes require the use of records with
cases may cause the same reversal to occur both in a
high sedimentation rates, since delayed lock-in of the
warm, interglacial stage in one locality, and in a cool
NRM and the resulting filtering process will often pre-
stage in another place. This would make cyclo-
vent these short phenomena to be recorded (Roberts
stratigraphy a useless exercise and argues once again
and Winkelhofer 2004). An additional complication of
for an integrated stratigraphic approach in order to
delayed lock-in of the NRM is that the position of
avoid such pitfalls.
polarity reversals may be displaced to older levels (Van
eschweizerbart_xxxx
Hoof and Langereis 1991). Indeed, detailed studies of eral, however, these discrepancies do not seriously dis-
time equivalent sections in the Mediterranean area turb the chronostratigraphy of a succession.
have often shown small discrepancies in the Another complicating factor may be the occurrence
(astrochronologically tuned) position of polarity rever- of hiatuses or breaks in sedimentation. Recognition
sals, on the order of 1–2 precessional cycle(s). In gen- of hiatuses requires carefully assessing all available
data from integrated stratigraphy and existing proxy
Newark
APTS
H26r [Ma]
Tethyan H25r
H24r
200
Composite
E24 T/J
E23 Silická Brezová
E22 Composite
NM9 E21 205 Pizzo
E20 Mondello
SB11
NM8 E19
E18 PM12 Pizzo
SB10 Mondello
PM11 400
E17 210
NM7
PM10
SB9
E16
NM6 E15
PM9
215 300
les
E14
cyc
NM5 ale
PM8 e-sc
SB8 larg
NM4 E13
SB7
E12 220
Norian
200
NM3 PM7 SB6
E11
SB5
Pizzo
Norian
E10 Mondello
SB4
NM2 E9 PM6
225
PM5
Norian
E8 SB3
Carnian
PM4 80
Carnian
NM1
PM3
les
cyc
E7
PM2
le
lle-sca
Carnian
E6
sma
0m
230 PM1 SB2
E5
10 m
E2
E1 SB1
Fig. 12. Magnetostratigraphic correlation of the marine European sections of the Tethys region (Muttoni et al. 2001, 2004b;
Krystyn et al. 2002; Gallet et al. 2003; Channell et al. 2003) to the astronomically tuned polarity time scale (APTS) of the
Newark basin (Kent and Olsen 1999). Red intervals are the Carnian-Norian boundary intervals. Consensus places the Carn-
ian-Norian boundary broadly within chronozone E7 implying an age between 227 and 229 Ma. The results from the Hart-
ford basin (H-chronozones) from Kent and Olsen (2008) are shown, and the position of the palynological Triassic-Jurassic
boundary (T/J) is indicated.
Photos: the pattern of both small and large scale cycles in the Sicilian Pizzo Mondello section seems promising to use cy-
clostratigraphy and obtain a more detailed correlation to the Newark reference section.
eschweizerbart_xxxx
records. A polarity reversal that coincides with a visi- are reports of reversals as old as ~ 3.2 Ga (Layer et al.
ble change in sedimentary environment (lithology) is 1998), but their reliability still requires substantiation
usually suspect, and the same applies to any sudden by a positive field test. Recently, it has been suggested
and notable change, e. g. derived from proxy data. that there is a very long trend – since the Archean – of
Biostratigraphy may help to recognise hiatuses pro- reduced stability of the field, possibly related to a
vided they are large enough relative to zonation reso- growing inner core, leading to a decrease in reversal
lution. Also cyclostratigraphy may be of help to detect frequency back in time (Biggin et al. 2008). Clearly,
hiatuses: although small-scale cycles (e. g. precession) these rare observations of the ancient field are still far
may seem continuous and undisrupted across a hiatus, from being fit for correlation or dating purposes.
the logic of cylostratigraphy dictates that all or most So, how far can we go back in time? One of the great-
Milankovitch cycles (the eccentricity, obliquity, pre- est achievements of early Mesozoic magnetostratigra-
cession periods) can be recognised in their appropriate phy is represented by the Late Triassic Newark as-
ratios. Recognition of hiatuses will likely remain an trochronological polarity time scale (APTS; Kent et al.
unavoidable obstacle in geology, which may be ad- 1995; Kent and Olsen 1999; Olsen and Kent 1999),
dressed by correlation of multiple sections over large which was constructed by anchoring magnetostratigra-
areas. Because of its binary nature, magnetostratigraphy and Milankovitch chronostratigraphy to the ra-
phy alone can hardly recognise the presence of hiatus- dioisotopically dated Orange Mountain basalt (Fig. 12),
es, but when embedded in an integrated stratigraphic and which was recently extended up to the Early Juras-
approach, it may contribute to resolve them. Also sic by including data from the Hartford Basin (Kent
strongly varying sedimentation rates, usually associat- and Olsen 2008). The correlation of the Newark APTS
ed with lithology variations, may distort the observed to the Triassic sections of the Tethyan marine realm is
polarity pattern; hence, providing a detailed lithos- still far from straightforward, as evidenced by the con-
tratigraphic log of the sampled sequence is an impor- tinuously changing interpretations as new results are ac-
tant requirement in any magnetostratigraphic study. quired, although there is now good consensus on the age
of the Carnian-Norian boundary around 227–228 Ma
(Fig. 12). Many Tethyan Triassic sections still depend
Back to the future? on biostratigraphic dating often assuming equal dura-
tion of biozones through lack of other dating methods.
Future efforts should focus on extending the geomag- New radioisotopic dates of Triassic sections are forth-
netic polarity time scale back in geological time to pe- coming, however, and aid in providing better con-
riods older than the marine magnetic anomaly record, straints on duration of ammonite zones (e. g. Ovtcharo-
i. e. older than ~ 160 Ma. This is critical not only for va et al. 2006). In addition, there are sections, like the
correlation and dating purposes, but also to learn more late Triassic Pizzo Mondello section in Sicily (Muttoni
about the characteristics of the field and the geody- et al. 2004b), that seems to promise obtaining a cy-
namo that generates it. For example, long-term rever- clostratigraphic framework and hence a correlation with
sal frequency variations – long periods of frequent the Newark basin sequence. Much work in this respect
field reversals versus equally long periods of stable po- has still to be done.
larity (superchrons) – tell us about the influence of The often discontinuous nature of Permian deposits
mantle processes on the generation of the field in the and the difficulty to correlate marine and continental
liquid outer core, and possibly about the influence of sections have as yet limited the construction of a
(nucleation and growth of) the solid inner core. complete Permian polarity time scale. As we have seen
It is evident that by going back in time, the record in our case study, the polarity patterns predating and
becomes increasingly sparse while it also deteriorates: postdating the Carboniferous-Permian Superchron
the older the rock, the less the chance to be a pristine still require verification.
carrier of the original magnetisation acquired during Older records documenting a coherent pattern of re-
its formation. Nevertheless, very ancient but reliable versals may occasionally go back as far in time as the
records – although scarce – of Archean and Protero- Cambrian to Ordovician (e. g. Kirschvink 1978; Kirsch-
zoic age have been acquired. The oldest known rever- vink and Rozanov 1984; Gallet and Pavlov 1996), but
sal that is reliably documented – by a positive reversal are of little use for magnetostratigraphic correlation
test, fold test, and an intra-formational conglomerate purposes. New prospects in magnetostratigraphy must
test – has an age of ~ 2.8 Ga (Strik et al. 2003). There rely on ‘automatic’ integration with biostratigraphy and
eschweizerbart_xxxx
cyclostratigraphy for every sedimentary sequence un- Brack, P., Muttoni, G., 2000. High-resolution magneto-
der investigation, augmented by other palaeoclimatic stratigraphic and lithostratigraphic correlations in Middle
and palaeoenvironmental proxy records. Triassic pelagic carbonates from the Dolomites (northern
Italy). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecol-
ogy 161, 361–380.
Acknowledgements. We dearly thank Maria Bianca Brack, P., Schlager, W., Stefani, M., Maurer, F., Kenter, J.,
Cita for ongoing and constant support and motivation. We 2000. The Seceda Drill Hole in the Middle Triassic
are grateful to Silja Hüsing who provided the details of Buchenstein beds (Livinallongo Formation, Dolomites,
figure 6 on the Monte dei Corvi results, while Andreas Northern Italy), a progress report. Rivista Italiana di
Hendrich did an excellent job on figures 10 and 11. Two Palaeontologia e Stratigrafia 106, 283–292.
reviewers (Valerian Bachtadse and an anonymous reviewer) Brauns, C. M., Pätzold, T., Haack, U., 2003. A Re-Os study
provided useful comments. We thank those members of the bearing on the age of the Kupferschiefer black shale at
International Subcommission on Stratigraphic Classifica- Sangerhausen (Germany). Abstracts XVth International
tion (ISSC) of the IUGS International Commission on Congress on Carboniferous and Permian Stratigraphy,
Stratigraphy who provided useful and stimulating comments Utrecht, Netherlands, p. 66.
on an earlier version of the manuscript. Brunhes, B., 1906. Recherches sur la direction d’aimantation
des roches volcaniques. Journal of Physics IV 5, 705–724.
Butler, R. F., 1992. Palaeomagnetism, magnetic domains
to geologic terranes, Blackwell Scientific Publications
References (Boston), 319 pp.
Cande, S. C., Kent, D. V., 1992. A new geomagnetic polari-
Abdul Aziz, H., Van Dam, J., Hilgen, F. J., Krijgsman, W., ty time-scale for the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic. Jour-
2004. Astronomical forcing in Upper Miocene continen- nal of Geophysical Research 97, 13917–13951.
tal sequences: implications for the Geomagnetic Polarity Cande, S. C., Kent, D. V., 1995. Revised calibration of the
Time Scale, Earth and Planetary Science Letters 222, Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale for the Late Cretaceous
243–258 and Cenozoic. Journal of Geophysical Research 100,
Abdul Aziz, H., Langereis, C. G., 2004. Astronomical Tun- 6093–6095.
ing and Duration of Three new Subchrons (C5r.2r-1n, Channell, J. E. T., Mazaud, A., Sullivan, P., Turner, S., Ray-
C5r.2r-2n and C5r.3r-1n) Recorded in a Middle Miocene mo, M. E., 2002. Geomagnetic excursions and palaeo-
Continental Sequence From NE Spain. In: J. T. E. Chan- intensities in the Matuyama Chron at Ocean Drilling Pro-
nell et al. (Eds.), Timescales of the Palaeomagnetic Field, gram Sites 983 and 984 (Iceland Basin), Journal of Geo-
Geophysical Monograph Series, Volume 145 (AGU), physical Research 107, doi: 10.1029/2001JB000491.
328 pp. Channell, J. E. T., Kozur, H. W., Sievers, T., Mock, R., Au-
Alvarez, W., Arthur, M. A., Fischer, A. G., Lowrie, W., Na- brecht, R., Sykora, M., 2003. Carnian-Norian biomagne-
poleone, G., Premoli-Silva, I., Roggenthen, W. M., 1977. tostratigraphy at Silicka Brezova (Slovakia). Correlation
Upper Cretaceous-Paleocene magnetic stratigraphy at to other Tethyan sections and to the Newark Basin, Palaeo-
Gubbio, Italy. V. Type section for the late Cretaceous-Pa- geography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 191, 65–
leocene geomagnetic reversal time scale. Geological So- 109.
ciety of America Bulletin 88, 383–389 Claoué-Long, J. C., Zhang, Z., Ma, G., Du, S., 1991. The age
Anonymous, 1977. Magnetostratigraphic polarity units. A of the Permian-Triassic boundary, Earth and Planetary
supplementary chapter of the international subcommis- Science Letters 105, 182–190.
sion on stratigraphic classification international strati- Cox, A., Doell, R. R., Dalrymple, G. B., 1963. Geomagnetic
graphic guide. Geology 7, 578–583. polarity epochs and Pleistocene geochronometry, Nature
Berggren, W. A., Kent, D. V., Flynn, J. J., Van Couvering, 198, 1049–1051.
J. A., 1985. Cenozoic geochronology, Geological Society Cox, A., Doell, R. R., Dalrymple, G. B., 1964. Reversals of
of America Bulletin 96, 1407–1418. the Earth’s magnetic field, Science 144, 1537–1543.
Biggin, A. J., Strik, G. H. M. A., Langereis, C. G., 2008. Ev- Creer, K. M., Irving, E., Runcorn, S. K., 1954. The direction
idence for a very-long-term trend in geomagnetic secular of the geomagnetic field in remote epochs in Great
variation, Nature Geosciences 1, 395–398. Britain. Journal of Geomagnetism and Geoelectricity 6,
Bowring, S. A., Erwin, D. H., Jin, Y. G., Martin, M. W., 164–168.
Davidek, K., Wang, W., 1998. Geochronology of the end- Davydov, V. I., Wardlaw, B. R., Gradstein, F. M., 2004. The
Permian mass extinction. Science 280, 1039–1045. Carboniferous Period, in: F. M. Gradstein, J. G. Ogg,
Brack, P., Mundil, R., Oberli, F., Meier, M., Rieber, H., A. G. Smith (Eds.), A Geologic Time Scale 2004, Cam-
1996. Biostratigraphic and radioisotopic age data ques- bridge University Press, pp. 222–248.
tion the Milankovitch characteristics of the Latemar cycle DeMets, C., Gordon, R. G., Argus, D. F., Stein, S., 1990.
(Southern Alps, Italy). Geology 24, 371–375. Current plate motions, Geophysical Journal International
101, 425–478.
eschweizerbart_xxxx
DeMets, C., Gordon, R. G., Argus, D. F., Stein, S., 1994. Ef- Gubbins, D., 1999. The distinction between geomagnetic
fect of recent revisions to the geomagnetic reversal time excursions and reversals, Geophysical Journal Interna-
scale on estimates of current plate motions, Geophysical tional 137, F1–F3.
Research Letters 21, 2191–2194. Guyodo, Y., Valet, J. P., 1999. Global changes in geomag-
Embleton, B. J. J., McElhinny, M. W., Ma, X. H., Zhang, netic intensity during the past 800 thousand years. Nature
Z. K., Li, X. L., 1996. Permo-Triassic magnetostratigra- 399, 249–252.
phy in China: the type section near Taiyuan, Shanxi Haag, M., Heller, F., 1991. Late Permian to Early Triassic
Province, North China, Geophysical Journal Internation- magnetostratigraphy. Earth and Planetary Science Letters
al 126, 382–388. 107, 42–54.
Gallet, Y., Pavlov, V., 1996. Magnetostratigraphy of the He, H., Pana, Y., Tauxe, L., Qina, H., Zhu, R., 2008. Toward
Moyero river section (north-western Siberia. Constraints age determination of the M0r (Barremian-Aptian bound-
on geomagnetic reversal frequency during the early ary) of the Early Cretaceous, Physics of the Earth and
Palaeozoic, Geophysical Journal International 125, 95– Planetary Interiors 169, 41–48.
105. Heirtzler, J. R., Dickson, G. O., Herron, E. M., Pitman III,
Gallet, Y., Krystyn, L., Besse, J., Marcoux, J., 2003. Im- W. C., Le Pichon, X., 1968. Marine Magnetic Anomalies,
proving the Upper Triassic numerical time scale from geomagnetic field reversals, and motions of the ocean
cross-correlation between Tethyan marine sections and floor and continents. Journal of Geophysical Research 73,
the continental Newark basin sequence, Earth and Plane- 2119–2136.
tary Science Letters 212, 255–261. Heslop, D., Langereis, C. G., Dekkers, M. J., 2000. A new
Gast, R. E., 1995. Sequenzstratigraphie. In: Deutsche Strati- astronomical time scale for the loess deposits of Northern
graphische Kommission (Ed., coordination and editing China, Earth and Planetary Science Letters 184, 125–
E. Plein), Stratigraphie von Deutschland I – Nord- 139.
deutsches Rotliegendbecken. Courier Forschungsinstitut Hilgen, F. J., 1991a. Astronomical calibration of Gauss to
Senckenberg, Frankfurt a. M., 183, 47–54. Matuyama sapropels in the Mediterranean and implica-
Gebhardt, U., 1995. West-Ost Korrelationsprofil. In: Deut- tion for the Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale. Earth and
sche Stratigraphische Kommission (Ed., coordination and Planetary Science Letters 104, 226–244.
editing E. Plein), Stratigraphie von Deutschland I – Nord- Hilgen, F. J., 1991b. Extension of the astronomically calibrat-
deutsches Rotliegendbecken. Courier Forschungsinstitut ed (polarity) time scale to the Miocene-Pliocene boundary.
Senckenberg, Frankfurt a. M., 183, 148–155. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 107, 349–368.
Glenister, B. F., Wardlaw, B. R., Lambert, L. L., Spinosa, C., Hilgen, F. J., Krijgsman, W., Langereis, C. G., Lourens, L. J.,
Bowring, S. A., Erwin, D. H., Menning, M., Wilde, G. L., Santarelli, A., Zachariasse, W. J., 1995. Extending the as-
1999. Proposal of Guadalupian and component Roadian, tronomical (polarity) time scale into the Miocene, Earth
Wordian, and Capitanian Stages as international stan- and Planetary Science Letters 136, 495–510.
dards for the Middle Permian Series. Permophiles, 34, 3– Hilgen, F. J., Krijgsman, W., Langereis, C. G., Lourens, L. J.,
11; IUGS Subcomm. Permian Stratigraphy (Boise State 1997. Breakthrough Made in Dating of the Geological
Univ., Iowa). Record, EOS, Transactions of the AGU 78, 285 & 288.
Gong, Z., Langereis, C. G., Mullender, T. A. T., 2008. The Hilgen, F. J., Abdul Aziz, H., Krijgsman, W., Raffi, I., Turco,
rotation of Iberia during the Aptian and the opening of the E., 2003. Integrated stratigraphy and astronomical tuning
Bay of Biscay, Earth and Planetary Science Letters 273, of the Serravallian and lower Tortonian at Monte dei Corvi
80–93. (Middle-Upper Miocene, northern Italy), Palaeogeogra-
Gradinaru, E., Orchard, M. J., Nicora, A., Gallet, Y., Besse, phy Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 199, 229–264.
J., Krystyn, L., 2007. The Global Boundary Stratotype Hilgen, F., Abdul Aziz, H., Bice, D., Iaccarino, S., Krijgs-
Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Anisian man, W., Kuiper, K., Montanari, A., Raffi, I., Turco, E.,
Stage: Desli Caira Hill, North Dobrogea, Romania. Al- Zachariasse, W. J., 2005. The global boundary stratotype
bertiana 36, 54–71. section and point (GSSP) of the Tortonian stage (Upper
Gradstein, F. M., Ogg, J. G., Smith, A. G., Agterberg, F. P., Miocene) at Monte Dei Corvi, Episodes, 28, 6–17.
Bleeker, W., Cooper, R. A., Davydov, V., Gibbard, P., Hin- Hinnov, L. A., Goldhammer, R. K., 1991. Spectral analysis
nov, L. A., House, M. R., Lourens, L., Luterbacher, H. P., of the Middle Triassic Latemar Limestone. Journal of
McArthur, J., Melchin, M. J., Robb, L. J., Shergold, J., Sedimentary Petrology 61, 1173–1193.
Villeneuve, M., Wardlaw, B. R., Ali, J., Brinkhuis, H., Hinnov, L., 2006. Discussion of “Magnetostratigraphic con-
Hilgen, F. J., Hooker, J., Howarth, R. J., Knoll, A. H., firmation of a much faster tempo for sea-level change for
Laskar, J., Monechi, S., Plumb, K. A., Powell, J., Raffi, I., the Middle Triassic Latemar platform carbonates” by
Röhl, U., Sadler, P., Sanfilippo, A., Schmitz, B., Shackle- D. V. Kent, G. Muttoni and P. Brack [Earth and Planetary
ton, N. J., Shields, G. A., Strauss, H., Van Dam, J., van Science Letters 228, 2004), 369–377]. Earth and Plane-
Kolfschoten, T., Veizer, J., Wilson, D., 2004. A geologic tary Science Letters 243, 841–846.
time scale 2004. Cambridge University Press, Cam- Hospers, J., 1951. Remanent magnetism of rocks and the
bridge, pp. 589. history of the geomagnetic field, Nature 168, 1111–1112.
eschweizerbart_xxxx
Hounslow, M. W., McIntosh, G., 2003. Magnetostratigraphy palaeolatitudes from drill cores in the Newark rift basin,
of the Sherwood Sandstone Group (Lower and Middle eastern North America. Journal of Geophysical Research
Triassic), south Devon, UK: detailed correlation of the 100, 14965–14998.
marine and non-marine Anisian. Palaeogeography Pa- Khramov, A. N., 1958. Palaeomagnetism and Stratigraphic
laeoclimatology Palaeoecology 193, 325–348. Correlation (in Russian), Gostoptech, Leningrad, Russia,
Hounslow, M. W., Szurlies, M., Muttoni, G., Nawrocki, J., (English translation by A. J. Lojkine, Geophys. Dept.,
2007. The magnetostratigraphy of the Olenekian-Anisian Australian Natl. Univ., Canberra, Australia).
boundary and a proposal to define the base of the Anisian Khramov, A. N., 1963. Palaeomagnetic investigations of Up-
using a magnetozone datum. Albertiana 36, 72–77. per Permian and Lower Triassic sections on the northern
Hüsing, S. K., Hilgen, F. J., Abdul Aziz, H., Krijgsman, W., and eastern Russian Platform. Trudy VNIGRI 204, 145–
2007. Completing the Neogene geological time scale be- 174, Nedra, Leningrad. (in Russian)
tween 8.5 and 12.5 Ma, Earth and Planetary Science Let- Khramov, A. N., Goncharov, G. I., Komissarova, R. A., Os-
ters 253, 340–358. ipova, E. P., Pogarskaya, I. A., Rodionov, V. P., Slautsitais,
Hüsing, S. K., Kuiper, K. F., Link, W., Hilgen, F. J., Krijgs- I. P., Smirnov, L. S., Forsh, N. N., 1974. Palaeozoic
man, W., 2009a. The upper Tortonian-lower Messinian at palaeomagnetism. Trudy VNIGRI 335, 238 p., Nedra
Monte dei Corvi (Northern Apennines, Italy): Complet- (Leningrad). (in Russian)
ing a Mediterranean reference section for the Tortonian Kirschvink, J. L., 1978. The Precambrian-Cambrian bound-
Stage, Earth and Planetary Science Letters 282, 140–157. ary problem: paleomagnetic directions from the Amadeus
Hüsing, S. K., Dekkers, M. J., Franke, C., Krijgsman, W., Basin, Central Australia, Earth and Planetary Science
2009b. The Tortonian reference section at Monte dei Letters 40, 91–100.
Corvi (Italy): evidence for early remanence acquisition in Kirschvink, J. L., 1980. The least-squares line and plane and
greigite-bearing sediments, Geophysical Journal Interna- the analysis of palaeomagnetic data, Geophys. Journal of
tional 179, 125–143. the Royal Astronomical Society 62, 699–718.
Irving, E., 1971. Nomenclature in magnetic stratigraphy. Kirschvink, J. L., Rozanov, A. Y., 1984. Magnetostratigra-
Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society phy of lower Cambrian strata from the Siberian Platform:
24, 529–531. a palaeomagnetic pole and a preliminary polarity time-
Irving, E., 1988. The palaeomagnetic confirmation of conti- scale (USSR), Geological Magazine 121, 189–203.
nental drift, EOS 69, 994–999. Klitgord, K. D., Heustis, S. P., Mudie, J. D., Parker, R. L.,
Irving, E., Parry, L. G., 1963. The magnetism of some Per- 1975. An analysis of near-bottom magnetic anomalies:
mian rocks from New South Wales. Geophysical Journal Sea floor spreading and the magnetized layer, Geophysi-
of the Royal Astronomical Society 7, 395–411. cal Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 43, 387–
Irving, E., Runcorn, S. K., 1957. Analysis of the palaeomag- 424
netism of the Torridonian sandstone series of north-west Krijgsman, W., Hilgren, F. J., Langereis, C. G., Santarelli,
Scotland. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Socie- A., Zachariasse, W. J., 1995. Late Miocene magneto-
ty of London A 250, 83–99. stratigraphy, biostratigraphy and cyclostratigraphy in the
Kent, D. V., Muttoni, G., Brack, P., 2004. Magnetostra- Mediterranean, Earth and Planetary Science Letters 136,
tigraphic confirmation of a much faster tempo for sea-lev- 475–494.
el change for the Middle Triassic Latemar platform car- Krijgsman, W., Hilgen, F. J., Raffi, I., Sierro, F. J., Wilson,
bonates. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 228, 369– D. S., 1999. Chronology, causes and progression of the
377. Messinian salinity crisis, Nature 400, 652–655.
Kent, D. V., Muttoni, G., Brack, P., 2006. Reply to ‘Discus- Krijgsman, W., Fortuin, A. R., Hilgen, F. J., Sierro, F. J.,
sion of “Magnetostratigraphic confirmation of a much 2001. Astrochronology for the Messinian Sorbas basin
faster tempo for sea-level change for the Middle Triassic (SE Spain) and orbital (precessional) forcing for evapor-
Latemar platform carbonates” by D. V. Kent, G. Muttoni ite cyclicity, Sedimentary Geology 140, 43–60.
and P. Brack [Earth and Planetary Science Letters 228 Krijgsman, W., Kent, D. V., 2004. Non-uniform occurrence
(2004), 369–377] by L. Hinnov. Earth and Planetary Sci- of short-term polarity fluctuation in the geomagnetic
ence Letters 243, 847–850. field? New results from middle to late Miocene sediments
Kent, D. V., Olsen, P. E., 1999. Astronomically tuned geo- of the north Atlantic (DSDP Site 608). In: Channell JET,
magnetic polarity time scale for the Late Triassic. Journal et al. (Eds.) AGU Geophysical Monograph Series, 145:
of Geophysical Research 104, 12831–12841. Timescales of the Geomagnetic Field, pp. 161–174.
Kent, D. V., Olsen, P. E., 2008. Early Jurassic magne- Washington, DC: AGU.
tostratigraphy and palaeolatitudes from the Hartford con- Krystyn, L., Gallet, Y., Besse, J., Marcoux, J., 2002. Inte-
tinental rift basin (eastern North America. Testing for po- grated Upper Carnian to Lower Norian biochronology and
larity bias and abrupt polar wander in association with the implications for the Upper Triassic magnetic polarity time
central Atlantic magmatic province. Journal of Geophys- scale, Earth and Planetary Science Letters 203, 343–351.
ical Research 113, B06105. doi: 10.1029/2007JB005407. Kuiper, K. F., Deino, A., Hilgen, F. J., Krijgsman, W., Renne,
Kent, D. V., Olsen, P. E., Witte, W. K., 1995. Late Triassic- P. R., Wijbrans, J. R., 2008. Synchronizing rock clocks of
earliest Jurassic geomagnetic polarity sequence and Earth history, Science 320, 500–504.
eschweizerbart_xxxx
LaBreque, J. L., Kent, D. V., Cande S. C., 1977. Revised 2003 (DCP 2003). Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology
magnetic polarity time scale for Late Cretaceous and Palaeoecology 240, 318–372.
Cenozoic time, Geology 5, 330–335. Menning, M., Gast, R., Hagdorn, H., Käding, K.-C., Simon, T.,
Laj, C., Channell, J. E. T., 2007. Geomagnetic excursions, Szurlies, M., Nitsch, E., 2005. Zeitskala für Perm und Trias
In: Kono, M. (Ed.), Geomagnetism, Treatise on Geo- in der stratigraphischen Tabelle von Deutschland 2002, zyk-
physics 5, 373–416 lostratigraphische Kalibrierung von höherer Dyas und Ger-
Langereis, C. G., Dekkers, M. J., De Lange, G. J., Paterne manischer Trias und das Alter der Stufen Roadium bis
M., Van Santvoort, P., 1997. Magnetostratigraphy and as- Rhaetium, Newsletters on Stratigraphy 41, 173–210.
tronomical calibration of the last 1.1 Myr from an eastern Menning, M., Jin, Y.-G., 1998. Comment on ‘Permo-Triassic
Mediterranean piston core and dating of short events in magnetostratigraphy in China: the type section near
the Brunhes, Geophysical Journal International 129, 75– Taiyuan, Shanxi Province, North China’ by B. J. J. Emble-
94. ton, M. W. McElhinny, X. H. Ma, Z. K. Zhang, Z. X. Li,
Langereis, C. G., Hilgen, F. J., 1991. The Rossello compos- Geophysical Journal International 133, 213–216.
ite: a Mediterranean and global standard reference section Menning, M., Katzung, G., Lützner, H., 1988. Magneto-
for the Early to early Late Pliocene, Earth and Planetary stratigraphic investigations in the Rotliegendes (300–
Science Letters 104, 211–225. 252 Ma) of Central Europe. Zeitschrift für geologische
Langereis, C. G., Linssen, J. H., Mullender, T. A. T., Zij- Wissenschaften 16, 1045–1063.
derveld, J. D. A., 1989. Demagnetisation. In: David Merrill, R. T., McFadden, P. L., 1994. Geomagnetic field sta-
E. James (editor), The Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geo- bility: reversal events and excursions, Earth and Planetary
physics. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, Science Letters 121, 57–69.
201–211. Merrill, R. T., McElhinny, M. W., McFadden, P. L., 1996.
Laskar, J., Robutel, P., Joutel, F., Gastineau, M., Correia, The magnetic field of the Earth: palaeomagnetism, the
A. C. M., Levrard, B., 2004. A long term numerical solu- core, and the deep mantle. International Geophysics Se-
tion for insolation quantities of the Earth, Astronomy and ries, vol. 63, 531 pp. Academic Press, San Diego.
Astrophysics 428, 261–285. Mundil, R., Brack, P., Meier, M., Rieber, H., Oberli, F.,
Layer, P. W., Lopez-Martinez, M., Kröner, A., York, D., 1996. High-resolution U-Pb dating of Middle Triassic
McWilliams, M., 1998. Thermochronometry and palaeo- volcaniclastics: time-scale calibration and verification of
magnetism of the Archaean Nelshoogte Pluton, South tuning parameters for carbonate sedimentation. Earth and
Africa, Geophysical Journal International 135, 129–145. Planetary Science Letters 141, 137–151.
Lourens, L. J., Hilgen, F. J., Laskar, J., Shackleton, N. J., Mundil, R. et al., 2003. Cyclicities in Triassic platform car-
Wilson, D., 2004. The Neogene Period, In: F. M. Grad- bonates: synchronizing radio-isotopic and orbital clocks.
stein, J. G. Ogg, A. G. Smith(Eds.), A Geologic Time Terra Nova 15, 81–87.
Scale 2004, Cambridge University Press, pp. 500. Mundil, R., Ludwig, K. R., Metcalfe, I., Renne, P. R., 2004.
Matuyama, M., 1929. On the direction of magnetisation of Age and timing of the end Permian mass extinctions:
basalt in Japan, Tyosen and Manchuria, Japonese Aca- U/Pb geochronology on closed-system zircons, Science
demic Proceedings 5, 203–205. 305, 1760–1763.
Menning, M., 1986. Zur Dauer des Zechsteins aus magne- Muttoni, G., Kent, D. V., Meço, S., Nicora, A., Gaetani, M.,
tostratigraphischer Sicht, Zeitschrift für geologische Wis- Balini, M., Germani, D., Rettori, R., 1996. Magneto-bios-
senschaften 14, 395–404. tratigraphy of the Spathian to Anisian (Lower to Middle
Menning, M., 1995. A Numerical Time Scale for the Permi- Triassic) Kçira Section, Albania. Geophysical Journal In-
an and Triassic Periods. An Integrated Time Analysis. In: ternational 127, 503–514.
Scholle, P., Peryt, T. M., Ulmer-Scholle, D. S. (Eds.), Per- Muttoni, G., Kent D. V., Brack, P., Nicora, A., Balini, M.,
mian of the Northern Continents. Springer-Verlag, Berlin 1997. Middle Triassic Magneto-Biostratigraphy from the
1, 77–97.??? Dolomites and Greece, Earth and Planetary Science Let-
Menning, M., 2001. A Permian Time Scale 2000 and corre- ters 146, 107–120.
lation of marine and continental sequences using the Muttoni, G., Gaetani, M., Budurov, K., Zagorchev, I., Trifo-
Illawarra Reversal (265 Ma), Natura Bresciana, Ann. nova, E., Ivanova, D., Petrounova, L., Lowrie, W., 2000.
Mus. Civ. Sc. Nat., Monografia, 25, 355–362. Middle Triassic palaeomagnetic data from northern Bul-
Menning, M., Alekseev, A. S., Chuvashov, B. I., Davydov, garia: constraints on Tethyan magnetostratigraphy and
V. I., Devuyst, F.-X., Forke, H. C., Grunt, T. A., Hance, L., palaeogeography. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
Heckel, P. H., Izokh, N. G., Jin Y.-G., Jones, P., Kotlyar, Palaeoecology 160, 223–237.
G. V., Kozur, H. W., Nemyrovska, T. I., Schneider, J. W., Muttoni, G., Kent, D. V., Di Stefano, P., Gullo, M., Nicora,
Wang, X.-D., Weddige, K., Weyer, D., Work, D. M., 2006. A., Tait, J., Lowrie, W., 2001. Magnetostratigraphy and
Global time scale and regional stratigraphic reference biostratigraphy of the Carnian/Norian boundary interval
scales of Central and West Europe, East Europe, Tethys, from the Pizzo Mondello section (Sicani Mountains, Sici-
South China, and North America as used in ly), Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology
the Devonian-Carboniferous-Permian Correlation Chart 166, 383–399.
eschweizerbart_xxxx
Muttoni, G., Nicora, A., Brack, P., Kent, D. V., 2004a. Inte- pared in a European and global context, Palaeogeography
grated Anisian-Ladinian boundary chronology. Palaeo- Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 240, 161–183.
geography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 208, 85– Shackleton, N. J., Berger, A., Peltier, W. R., 1990. An alter-
102. native astronomical calibration of the lower Pleistocene
Muttoni, G. Kent, D. V., Olsen, P. E., Di Stefano, P., Lowrie, time scale based on ODP Site 677, Transactions of the
W., Bernasconi, S., Martín Hernández, F., 2004b. Tethyan Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences 81, 251–261.
magnetostratigraphy from Pizzo Mondello (Sicily) and Singer, B. S., Relle, M. K., Hoffman, K. A., Battle, A., Laj, C.,
correlation to the Late Triassic Newark astrochronologi- Guillou, H., Carracedo, J. C., 2002. Ar/Ar ages from transi-
cal polarity time scale. Geological Society of America tionally magnetized lavas on La Palma, Canary Islands, and
Bullettin 116, 1043–1058. the geomagnetic instability timescale, Journal of Geophys-
Nawrocki, J., Szulc, J., 2000. The Middle Triassic magne- ical Research 107, 2307, doi: 10.1029/2001JB001613.
tostratigraphy from the Peri-Tethys basin in Poland. Earth Steiner, M. B., 2006. The magnetic polarity time scale across
and Planetary Science Letters 182, 77–92. the Permian-Triassic boundary, In: Lucas, S. G., Cassinis,
Ogg, J. G., Agterberg, F. P., Gradstein, F. M., 2004. The G., Sschneider, J. W. (Eds.), Non-Marine Permian Bios-
Cretaceous Period. In: GTS 2004 (Gradstein, F. M., Ogg, tratigraphy and Biochronology. Geological Society, Lon-
J. G., Smith, A. G., Eds.), A geologic time scale 2004, don, Special Publications 265, 15–38.
Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, p. 344–383. Stern, D. P., 2002. A millennium of geomagnetism, Reviews
Ogg, J. G., Ogg, G., Gradstein, F. M., 2008. The Concise Ge- of. Geophysics 40, 1007, doi: 10.1029/2000RG000097.
ologic Time Scale, Cambridge University Press, pp. 184. Strasser, A., Hilgen, F. J., Heckel, P. H., 2006. Cyclostratig-
Olsen, P. E., Kent, D. V., 1999. Long-period Milankovitch raphy – concepts, definitions, and applications, Newslet-
cycles from the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic of east- ters on Stratigraphy 42, 75–114.
ern North America and their implications for the calibra- Strik, G., Blake, T. S., Zegers, T. E., White, S. H., Langereis,
tion of the Early Mesozoic time-scale and the long-term C. G., 2003. Palaeomagnetism of flood basalts in the Pil-
behaviour of the planets. Philosophical Transactions of bara Craton, Western Australia: Late Archaean continen-
the Royal Society of London A 357, 1761–1786. tal drift and the oldest known reversal of the geomagnet-
Opdyke, N. D., 1972. Palaeomagnetism of deep-sea cores, ic field, Journal of Geophysical Research 108, 2551, doi:
Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics 10, 213–249. 10.1029/2003JB002475.
Opdyke, N. D., Channell, J. E. T., 1996. Magnetic stratigra- Szurlies, M., Bachmann, G. H., Menning, M., Nowaczyk,
phy. San Diego, USA: Academic Press, 346pp. N. R., Käding, K.-C., 2003. Magnetostratigraphy and
Opdyke, N. D., Roberts, J., Claoué-Long, J., Irving, E., high-resolution lithostratigraphy of the Permian-Triassic
Jones, P. J., 2000. Base of the Kiaman: Its definition and boundary interval in Central Germany. Earth and Plane-
global stratigraphic significance. Geologocal Society of tary Science Letters 212, 263–278.
America Bulletin 112, 1315–1341. Szurlies, M., 2007. Latest Permian to Middle Triassic cyclo-
Ovtcharova, M., Bucher, H., Schaltegger, U., Galfetti, T., magnetostratigraphy from the Central European Basin,
Brayard, A., Guex, J., 2006. New Early to Middle Trias- Germany: Implications for the geomagnetic polarity time-
sic U-Pb ages from South China: Calibration with am- scale. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 261, 602–619.
monoid biochronozones and implications for the timing Tauxe, L., 1998. Palaeomagnetic Principles and Practice,
of the Triassic biotic recovery, Earth and Planetary Sci- 299 pp., Kluwer Academic Publishers.
ence Letters 243, 463–475. Van Hoof, A. A. M., Langereis, C. G., 1991. Reversal records
Peterson, D. N., Nairn, A. E. M., 1971. Palaeomagnetism of in marine marls and delayed acquisition of remanent mag-
Permian red beds from the South-western United States. netisation. Nature 351, 223–224.
Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society Van Couvering, J. A., Castradori, D., Cita, M. B., Hilgen,
23, 191–207. F. J., 2000. The base of the Zanclean Stage and of the
Preto, N., Hinnov, L. A., Hardie, L. A., De Zanche, V., 2001. Pliocene Series, Episodes 23, 172–178.
Middle Triassic orbital signature recorded in the shallow- Van Vugt, N., Steenbrink, J., Langereis, C. G., Hilgen, F. J.,
marine Latemar carbonate buildup (Dolomites, Italy). Meulenkamp, J. E., 1998. Magnetostratigraphy-based as-
Geology 29, 1123–1126. tronomical tuning of the early Pliocene lacustrine sedi-
Rea, D. K., Blakely, R. J., 1975. Short-wavelength magnetic ments of Ptolemais (NW Greece) and bed-to-bed correla-
anomalies in a region of rapid seafloor spreading, Nature tion with the marine record, Earth and Planetary Science
255, 126–128. Letters 164, 535–551.
Roberts, A. P., Winkelhofer, M., 2004. Why are geomagnet- Varadi, F., Runnegar, B., Mitchum, R. M., 2003. Successive
ic excursions not always recorded in sediments? Con- refinements in long-term integrations of planetary orbits,
straints from post-depositional remanent magnetisation Astrophysical Journal 592, 620–630.
lock-in modelling, Earth and Planetary Science Letters Vasiliev, I., Krijgsman, W., Langereis, C. G., Panaiotu, C. E.,
227, 345–359 Matenco, L., Bertotti, G., 2004. Towards an astrochrono-
Schneider, J. W., Korner, F., Roscher, M., Kroner, U., 2006. logical framework for the eastern Paratethys Mio-Plio-
Permian climate development in the northern peri-Tethys cene sedimentary sequences of the Focsani basin (Roma-
area – The Lodeve basin, French Massif Central, com- nia), Earth and Planetary Science Letters 227, 231–247.
eschweizerbart_xxxx
View publication stats

Magnetostratigraphy - Concepts, Definitions, and Applications

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Magnetostratigraphy - Concepts, Definitions, and Applications

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Magnetostratigraphy - Concepts, Definitions, and Applications

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Magnetostratigraphy - concepts, deﬁnitions, and applications

Article in Newsletters on Stratigraphy · April 2010

Cor Langereis Wout Krijgsman

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Giovanni Muttoni M. Menning

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Marie Curie Initial Training Network "Throughflow" View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Cor G. Langereis, Wout Krijgsman, Giovanni Muttoni, and Manfred Menning

DOI: 10.1127/0078-0421/2010/0043-0207 0078-0421/10/0043-0207 $ 6.75

NORMAL GPTS (age in Ma) REVERSED

the whole Earth. The first geomagnetic polarity time

Uprising magma, Crust

+ Klitgord et al. (1975) (II)

C5r.3r C5r.3r-1n C5r.2n C5r.2r-2n C5r.2r C5r.2r-1n C5r.1n C5r.1r

11.75 11.60 11.45 11.30 11.15 11.00 Ma

Jamaica / Pringle Falls

Emperor / Big Lost /

not based on new field and laboratory work but mainly

Kiaman Reversed Polarity Hyperchron (TS 3.0)

Kiaman Reversed Polarity Hyperchron (TS 3.7)

duration of 45 (or 50) Myr for the CPRS. The positions

Phanerozoic Eon in which one polarity dominates. This

duration is some 5–10 Myr longer that of its normal

polarity pendant, the Cretaceous Normal Superchron,

ranging 124.5–84 Ma (Ogg et al. 2004)

Donetzian Mixed polarity Hyperchron

Fig. 10. Two versions of the Carboniferous-Permian Re-

versed Superchron, on the left the polarity time scale accord-

ing to GTS2004 (Gradstein et al. 2004), made with Time Scale

et al. 2008). It appears that in the latest version the subchrons

preceeding the lower boundary CPRS of GTS2004 are con-

sidered uncertain. Also the Illawarra series postdating the

reversals, according to a new compilation of Steiner (2006).

257.3 ±1.1 (Re - Os)

Illawarra Reversal Rotliegend Group. The Rotliegend succession was investigat-

tethys where zonations based on ostracods or molluscs Resolution: subchrons,

View publication stats

You might also like