Statistics SECONDARY DATA are second-hand information, e.g.

information
- Science that deals with the collection, organization and from newspapers or journals, economic indicators. The data being
presentation, analysis and interpretation of all kinds of data used are collected by another person or organization.
pertinent to the study being considered, so that meaningful
conclusion can be drawn. ACCORDING TO ARRANGEMENT
1. Descriptive Statistics is a group of statistical measurements that UNGROUPED DATA are the data without specific order or
aims to provide the basic characteristics of a data set through arrangement. They are referred to as raw data.
tables and graphs and other descriptive measures such as GROUPED DATA are data arranged or tabulated and presented in an
measures of central tendency, measures of position, and organized manner.
measures of variation.
2. Inferential Statistics aims to infer to make interpretations by FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
making a concluding statement about the population based on - A summary table where data are arranged into groupings.
the result derived from a data set. Measures commonly used Steps in setting up a frequency distribution:
include analysis of variance, t-test, Chi-Square test, correlation 1. Determine the no. of class intervals or class groupings.
and regression analysis. CLASS INTERVAL – set of numbers defined by the lower and
upper limits of as class relative to the class size
THE FOUR ESSENTIAL PROCESSES IN STATISTICS In general, the no. of classes should be between 5 and 15,
1. Collection of data – refers to the gathering of related information depending on the no. of observations. It can be computed by the
such as (a) what is useful and needed, (b) where to get information, Sturge’s formula given below:
and (c) how to get information. No. of class intervals = 1 + (3.322)(log n)
2. Organization and presentation of data - refers to the systematic where n is the total no. of values
way organizing data. It involves (a) collecting, (b) classifying and 2. Determine the width of the class interval, also known as the
arraying, and (c) presenting data gathered in preparation to its class size.
analysis. The range of a set of observations is the difference
3. Analysis of data – refers to extracting relevant information from between the largest and smallest observations.
the data at hand. It involves (a) comparison and contrast, (b) Range = Highest Value – Lowest Value
description, and (c) statistical measurements to come up with
numerical values and qualitative summary as a resulting conclusion. The class size is the quotient of the range and the no. of
4. Interpretation of data – refers to the drawing of logical desired class groupings.
statements from the analyzed information. It involves (a) Range
Class size =
generalizing, (b) forecasting, and (c) recommending solutions and No . of Class Intervals
interventions about the study. 3. Establish the class limits.
The class limits should be defined to include all
Data is a body of information or observations being considered by observations in the data set. Normally, the lowest score may be
the researcher. When the data is processed, information, which is used as the lower limit of the first class interval.
the basis for decision making is produced. 4. Define the class boundaries of each class interval to avoid
overlapping.
DIFFERENT WAYS OF CLASSIFYING DATA The class boundary is composed of the lower class
ACCORDING TO NATURE boundary and upper class boundary.
QUANTITATIVE or NUMERICAL DATA are those obtained from 5. Tally the observations to get the frequency for each class
variables which are in the form of numbers, e.g. age, height, weight, interval.
amount 6. Determine the class mark or the middle value of each class
1. Discrete data are those obtained from counting process interval.
where data are whole numbers, e.g. household size, no. of lower +upper limits
cans of sardines produced. Class mark =
2
2. Continuous data are those obtained through the measuring
process where data are values that may be decimals or
Example:
fractions, e.g. inflation rate, weight in kilograms.
QUALITATIVE or CATEGORICAL DATA are those obtained from
To illustrate, the final scores of a group of 45 Grade 11 students
variables which are in the form of categories, characteristics, names
in a school has 96 as the highest and 52 as the lowest scores. The
or labels, e.g. gender, socio-economic status, civil status.
steps for setting up the frequency distribution table are as
follows.
ACCORDING TO SOURCE
PRIMARY DATA are first-hand information, e.g. data gathered from
1. The number of class interval is
a survey, where the person collected the data is the one using it.
No. of class intervals = 1 + (3.322)(log 45)
= 1 + 6.49193
= 7.49193 ≈ 7
2. Range = 96 – 52 = 44
Class size = 44 / 7 = 6.29 rounded up to next whole number
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